Solar thermal collector

same as the absorber area (i.e., the area absorbing the

radiation). In these types the whole solar panel absorbs
light. Concentrating collectors have a bigger interceptor
than absorber.[1]
Flat-plate and evacuated-tube solar collectors are used to
collect heat for space heating, domestic hot water or cooling with an absorption chiller.

1.1 Flat plate collectors

Solar thermal collector dish

A solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing

sunlight. A collector is a device for capturing solar
radiation. Solar radiation is energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiation from the infrared (long) to the
ultraviolet (short) wavelengths. The quantity of solar energy striking the Earths surface (solar constant) averages
about 1,000 watts per square meter under clear skies, de- Flat plate thermal system for water heating deployed on a at
pending upon weather conditions, location and orienta- roof.
tion.
Flat-plate collectors, developed by Hottel and Whillier in
the 1950s, are the most common type. They consist of (1)
a dark at-plate absorber, (2) a transparent cover that reduces heat losses, (3) a heat-transport uid (air, antifreeze
or water) to remove heat from the absorber, and (4) a
heat insulating backing. The absorber consists of a thin
absorber sheet (of thermally stable polymers, aluminum,
steel or copper, to which a matte black or selective coating
is applied) often backed by a grid or coil of uid tubing
placed in an insulated casing with a glass or polycarbonate cover. In water heat panels, uid is usually circulated
through tubing to transfer heat from the absorber to an
insulated water tank. This may be achieved directly or
through a heat exchanger.

The term solar collector commonly refers to solar hot

water panels, but may refer to installations such as solar
parabolic troughs and solar towers; or basic installations such as solar air heaters. Concentrated solar power
plants usually use the more complex collectors to generate electricity by heating a uid to drive a turbine connected to an electrical generator.[1] Simple collectors are
typically used in residential and commercial buildings for
space heating. The rst solar thermal collector designed
for building roofs was patented by William H. Goettl and
called the "Solar heat collector and radiator for building
roof".[2]

Solar-thermal collectors heating

liquid

Most air heat fabricators and some water heat manufacturers have a completely ooded absorber consisting
of two sheets of metal which the uid passes between.
Because the heat exchange area is greater they may be
Solar collectors are either non-concentrating or concen- marginally more ecient than traditional absorbers.[3]
trating. In the non-concentrating type, the collector area Sunlight passes through the glazing and strikes the ab(i.e., the area that intercepts the solar radiation) is the sorber plate, which heats up, changing solar energy into
1

1 SOLAR-THERMAL COLLECTORS HEATING LIQUID

heat energy. The heat is transferred to liquid passing

through pipes attached to the absorber plate. Absorber
plates are commonly painted with selective coatings,
which absorb and retain heat better than ordinary black
paint. Absorber plates are usually made of metal
typically copper or aluminumbecause the metal is a
good heat conductor. Copper is more expensive, but is
a better conductor and less prone to corrosion than aluminum. (See: Copper in solar water heaters). In locations
with average available solar energy, at plate collectors
are sized approximately one-half to one square foot per
gallon of one days hot water use. Absorber piping congurations include:
harp traditional design with bottom pipe risers
and top collection pipe, used in low pressure thermosyphon and pumped systems;
serpentine one continuous S that maximizes temperature but not total energy yield in variable ow
systems, used in compact solar domestic hot water
only systems (no space heating role);
ooded absorber consisting of two sheets of metal
stamped to produce a circulation zone;
boundary layer absorber collectors consisting of several layers of transparent and opaque sheets that enable absorption in a boundary layer. Because the energy is absorbed in the boundary layer, heat conversion may be more ecient than for collectors where
absorbed heat is conducted through a material before the heat is accumulated in a circulating liquid.
Polymer at plate collectors are an alternative to metal
collectors and are now being produced in Europe. These
may be wholly polymer, or they may include metal
plates in front of freeze-tolerant water channels made
of silicone rubber. Polymers are exible and therefore
freeze-tolerant and can employ plain water instead of antifreeze, so that they may be plumbed directly into existing water tanks instead of needing heat exchangers that
lower eciency. By dispensing with a heat exchanger,
temperatures need not be quite so high for the circulation system to be switched on, so such direct circulation
panels, whether polymer or otherwise, can be more ecient, particularly at low light levels. Some early selectively coated polymer collectors suered from overheating when insulated, as stagnation temperatures can exceed the polymers melting point.[4][5] For example, the
melting point of polypropylene is 160 C (320 F), while
the stagnation temperature of insulated thermal collectors can exceed 180 C (356 F) if control strategies are
not used. For this reason polypropylene is not often used
in glazed selectively coated solar collectors. Increasingly
polymers such as high temperate silicones (which melt
at over 250 C (482 F)) are being used. Some non
polypropylene polymer based glazed solar collectors are

matte black coated rather than selectively coated to reduce the stagnation temperature to 150 C (302 F) or
less.
In areas where freezing is a possibility, freeze-tolerance
(the capability to freeze repeatedly without cracking) can
be achieved by the use of exible polymers. Silicone rubber pipes have been used for this purpose in UK since
1999. Conventional metal collectors are vulnerable to
damage from freezing, so if they are water lled they must
be carefully plumbed so they completely drain using gravity before freezing is expected, so that they do not crack.
Many metal collectors are installed as part of a sealed heat
exchanger system. Rather than having potable water ow
directly through the collectors, a mixture of water and antifreeze such as propylene glycol is used. A heat exchange
uid protects against freeze damage down to a locally determined risk temperature that depends on the proportion
of propylene glycol in the mixture. The use of glycol lowers the waters heat carrying capacity marginally, while
the addition of an extra heat exchanger may lower system
performance at low light levels.
A pool or unglazed collector is a simple form of atplate collector without a transparent cover. Typically
polypropylene or EPDM rubber or silicone rubber is used
as an absorber. Used for pool heating it can work quite
well when the desired output temperature is near the ambient temperature (that is, when it is warm outside). As
the ambient temperature gets cooler, these collectors become less eective. Most at plate collectors have a life
expectancy of over 25 years.
1.1.1 Applications
The main use of this technology is in residential buildings
where the demand for hot water has a large impact on energy bills. This generally means a situation with a large
family, or a situation in which the hot water demand is excessive due to frequent laundry washing. Commercial applications include laundromats, car washes, military laundry facilities and eating establishments. The technology
can also be used for space heating if the building is located o-grid or if utility power is subject to frequent
outages. Solar water heating systems are most likely to
be cost eective for facilities with water heating systems
that are expensive to operate, or with operations such as
laundries or kitchens that require large quantities of hot
water. Unglazed liquid collectors are commonly used to
heat water for swimming pools but can also be applied
to large scale water pre-heating. When loads are large
relative to available collector area the bulk of the water heating can be done at low temperature, lower than
at swimming pool temperatures where unglazed collectors are well established in the marketplace as the right
choice. Because these collectors need not withstand high
temperatures, they can use less expensive materials such
as plastic or rubber. Many unglazed collectors are made
of polypropylene and must be drained fully to avoid freeze

1.2

Evacuated tube collectors

damage when air temperatures drop below 44F on clear

nights.[6] A smaller but growing percentage of unglazed
collectors are exible meaning they can withstand water
freezing solid inside their absorber. The freeze concern
only need be the water lled piping and collector manifolds in a hard freeze condition. Unglazed solar hot water systems should be installed to drainback to a storage tank whenever solar radiation is insucient. There
are no thermal shock concerns with unglazed systems.
Commonly used in swimming pool heating since solar
energys early beginnings, unglazed solar collectors heat
swimming pool water directly without the need for antifreeze or heat exchangers. Hot water solar systems require heat exchangers due to contamination possibilities
and in the case of unglazed collectors, the pressure dierence between the solar working uid (water) and the load
(pressurized cold city water). Large scale unglazed solar
hot water heaters like the one at the Minoru Aquatic Center in Richmond BC[7] operate at lower temperatures than
evacuated tube or boxed and glazed collector systems so
they require larger more expensive heat exchangers but
all other components including vented storage tanks and
uninsulated plastic PVC piping reduce costs of this alternative dramatically compared to the higher temperature
collector types. When heating hot water we are actually An array of evacuated tubes collectors on a roof.
heating cold to warm and warm to hot. We can heat cold
to warm as eciently with unglazed collectors as we can
heat warm to hot with high temperature collectors
coating for the design is encapsulated in the vacuum inside of the tube, which will not degrade until the vacuum
is lost.[9] The vacuum that surrounds the outside of the
1.2 Evacuated tube collectors
tube greatly reduces convection and conduction heat loss,
therefore achieving greater eciency than at-plate collectors, especially in colder conditions. This advantage
is largely lost in warmer climates, except in those cases
where very hot water is desirable, e.g., for commercial
processes. The high temperatures that can occur may require special design to prevent overheating.

Evacuated tube collector

Most vacuum tube collectors in use in middle Europe

use heat pipes for their core instead of passing liquid
directly through them. Direct ow is more popular in
China. Evacuated heat pipe tubes (EHPTs) are composed of multiple evacuated glass tubes each containing an absorber plate fused to a heat pipe.[8] The heat
is transferred to the transfer uid (water or an antifreeze
mixtypically propylene glycol) of a domestic hot water or hydronic space heating system in a heat exchanger
called a manifold. The manifold is wrapped in insulation and covered by a protective sheet metal or plastic
case. The vacuum inside of the evacuated tube collectors
have been proven to last more than 25 years, the reective Glass-glass evacuated tube

1 SOLAR-THERMAL COLLECTORS HEATING LIQUID

Some evacuated tubes (glass-metal) are made with one

layer of glass that fuses to the heat pipe at the upper
end and encloses the heat pipe and absorber in the vacuum. Others (glass-glass) are made with a double layer
of glass fused together at one or both ends with a vacuum between the layers (like a vacuum bottle or ask),
with the absorber and heat pipe contained at normal atmospheric pressure. Glass-glass tubes have a highly reliable vacuum seal, but the two layers of glass reduce the
light that reaches the absorber. Moisture may enter the
non-evacuated area of the tube and cause absorber corrosion. Glass-metal tubes allow more light to reach the
absorber, and protect the absorber and heat pipe from
corrosion even if they are made from dissimilar materials
(see galvanic corrosion).

temperature is low (e.g. during winter) or when the sky

is overcast. However even in areas without much sunshine and solar heat, some low cost at plate collectors
can be more cost ecient than evacuated tube collectors. Although several European companies manufacture
evacuated tube collectors, the evacuated tube market is
dominated by manufacturers in the East. Several Chinese companies have track records of 1530 years. There
is no unambiguous evidence that the two designs dier
in long term reliability. However, evacuated tube technology is younger and (especially for newer variants with
sealed heat pipes) still need to demonstrate competitive
lifetimes. The modularity of evacuated tubes can be advantageous in terms of extensibility and maintenance, for
example if the vacuum in one tube diminishes.

The gaps between the tubes may allow for snow to fall
through the collector, minimizing the loss of production
in some snowy conditions, though the lack of radiated
heat from the tubes can also prevent eective shedding
of accumulated snow.[10][11]

1.3

Comparisons of at plate and evacuated tube collectors

A longstanding argument exists between proponents of

these two technologies. Some of this can be related to
the physical structure of evacuated tube collectors which
have a discontinuous absorbance area. An array of evacuated tubes on a roof has open space between the collector
tubes, and vacuum between the two concentric glass tubes
of each collector. Collector tubes cover only a fraction
of a unit area of a roof. If evacuated tubes are compared
with at-plate collectors on the basis of area of roof occupied, a dierent conclusion might be reached than if the
areas of absorber were compared. In addition, the ISO
9806 standard[12] is ambiguous in describing the way in
which the eciency of solar thermal collectors should be
measured, since these could be measured either in terms
of gross area or in terms of absorber area. Unfortunately,
power output is not given for thermal collectors as it is
for PV panels. This makes it dicult for purchasers and
engineers to make informed decisions.
Flat-plate collectors usually lose more heat to the environment than evacuated tubes, as an increasing function
of temperature. They are inappropriate for high temperature applications such as process steam production. Evacuated tube collectors have a lower absorber plate area to
gross area ratio (typically 6080% of gross area) compared to at plates. Based on absorber plate area, most
evacuated tube systems are more ecient per square meter than equivalent at plate systems. This makes them
suitable where roof space is limiting, for example where
the number of occupants of a building is higher than the
number of square metres of suitable and available roof
space. In general, per installed square metre, evacuated
tubes deliver marginally more energy when the ambient

Chart showing at-plate collectors outperforming evacuated

tubes up until 120F above ambient and, shaded in gray, the normal operating range for solar domestic hot water systems.[14]

For a given absorber area, evacuated tubes can therefore

maintain their eciency over a wide range of ambient
temperatures and heating requirements. In most climates,
at-plate collectors will generally be more cost-eective
than evacuated tubes. When employed in arrays and considered instead on a per square metre basis, the ecient
but costly evacuated tube collectors can have a net benet in winter and summer. They are well-suited to cold
ambient temperatures and work well in situations of consistently low sunshine, providing heat more consistently
than at plate collectors per square metre. Heating of
water by a medium to low amount (i.e. Tm-Ta) is much
more eciently performed by at plate collectors. Domestic hot water frequently falls into this medium category. Glazed or unglazed at collectors are the preferred
devices for heating swimming pool water.[15] Unglazed
collectors may be suitable in tropical or subtropical environments if domestic hot water needs to be heated by
less than 20 C. A contour map can show which type is
more eective (both thermal eciency and energy/cost)
for any geographic region.
EHPTs work as a thermal one-way valve due to their heat
pipes. This gives them an inherent maximum operating
temperature that acts as a safety feature. They have less
aerodynamic drag, which may allow them to be placed
onto the roof without being tied down. They can collect thermal radiation from the bottom in addition to the

5
top. Tubes can be replaced individually without stopping the entire system. There is no condensation or corrosion within the tubes. One hurdle to wider adoption
of evacuated tube collectors in some markets is their inability to pass internal thermal shock tests where ISO
9806-2 section 9 class b is a requirement for durability
certication.[16] This means that if unprotected evacuated
tube collectors are exposed to full sun for too long prior
to being lled with cold water the tubes may shatter due
to the rapid temperature shift. There is also the question of vacuum leakage. Flat panels have been around
much longer and are less expensive. They may be easier
to clean. Other properties, such as appearance and ease
of installation are more subjective.

with tracking parabolic mirrors is oset by lower system

costs.[17]
The sunlight concentrated at the focal line of a spherical
reector is collected using a tracking receiver. This receiver is pivoted around the focal line and is usually counterbalanced. The receiver may consist of pipes carrying
uid for thermal transfer or photovoltaic cells for direct
conversion of light to electricity.

The solar bowl design resulted from a project of the Electrical Engineering Department of the Texas Technical
University, headed by Edwin O'Hair, to develop a 5 MWe
power plant. A solar bowl was built for the town of
Crosbyton, Texas as a pilot facility.[17] The bowl had a
diameter of 65 ft (20 m), tilted at a 15 angle to optimize the cost/yield relation (33 would have maximized
1.4 Bowl
yield). The rim of the hemisphere was trimmed to 60,
creating a maximum aperture of 3,318 square feet (308.3
A solar bowl is a type of solar thermal collector that op- m2 ). This pilot bowl produced electricity at a rate of 10
erates similarly to a parabolic dish, but instead of using kW peak.
a tracking parabolic mirror with a xed receiver, it has a
A 15-meter diameter Auroville solar bowl was developed
xed spherical mirror with a tracking receiver. This refrom an earlier test of a 3.5-meter bowl in 19791982
duces eciency, but makes it cheaper to build and operby the Tata Energy Research Institute. That test showed
ate. Designers call it a xed mirror distributed focus solar
the use of the solar bowl in the production of steam for
power system. The main reason for its development was
cooking. The full-scale project to build a solar bowl and
to eliminate the cost of moving a large mirror to track the
kitchen ran from 1996, and was fully operational by 2001.
sun as with parabolic dish systems.[17]
A xed parabolic mirror creates a variously shaped image of the sun as it moves across the sky. Only when the
mirror is pointed directly at the sun does the light focus
on one point. That is why parabolic dish systems track
the sun. A xed spherical mirror focuses the light in the
same place independent of the suns position. The light,
however, is not directed to one point but is distributed on
a line from the surface of the mirror to one half radius
(along a line that runs through the sphere center and the
sun).

Typical energy density along the 1/2 radius length focal line of
a spherical reector

As the sun moves across the sky, the aperture of any xed
collector changes. This causes changes in the amount of
captured sunlight, producing what is called the sinus effect of power output. Proponents of the solar bowl design
claim the reduction in overall power output compared

2 Solar-thermal collectors heating

air
A simple solar air collector consists of an absorber material, sometimes having a selective surface, to capture
radiation from the sun and transfers this thermal energy
to air via conduction heat transfer. This heated air is then
ducted to the building space or to the process area where
the heated air is used for space heating or process heating
needs. Functioning in a similar manner as a conventional
forced air furnace, solar-thermal-air systems provide heat
by circulating air over an energy collecting surface, absorbing the suns thermal energy, and ducting air coming
in contact with it. Simple and eective collectors can be
made for a variety of air conditioning and process applications.
A variety of applications can utilize solar air heat technologies to reduce the carbon footprint from use of conventional heat sources, such as fossil fuels, to create a
sustainable means to produce thermal energy. Applications such as space heating, greenhouse season extension,
pre-heating ventilation makeup air, or process heat can
be addressed by solar air heat devices. In the eld of solar co-generation solar thermal technologies are paired
with photovoltaics (PV) to increase the eciency of the
system by taking heat away from the PV collectors, cooling the PV panels to improve their electrical performance
while simultaneously warming air for space heating.

Space heating and ventilating

Space heating for residential and commercial applications

can be done through the use of solar air heating panels.
This conguration operates by drawing air from the building envelope or from the outdoor environment and passing it through the collector where the air warms via conduction from the absorber and is then supplied to the living or working space by either passive means or with the
assistance of a fan. A pioneering gure of this type of
system was George Lf, who built solar heated air system for a house in Boulder, Colorado, in 1945. He later
included a gravel bed for heat storage.
Ventilation, fresh air or makeup air is required in most
commercial, industrial and institutional buildings to meet
code requirements. By drawing air through a properly designed unglazed transpired air collector or an air heater
the solar heated fresh air can reduce the heating load during daytime operation. Many applications are now being installed where the transpired collector preheats the
fresh air entering a heat recovery ventilator to reduce the
defrost time of HRVs. The higher your ventilation and
temperature the better your payback time will be.

SOLAR AIR HEATING COLLECTOR TYPES

5.1 Through-pass air collector

Oering the highest eciency of any solar technology the
through-pass conguration, air ducted onto one side of
the absorber passes through a perforated material and is
heated from the conductive properties of the material and
the convective properties of the moving air. Throughpass absorbers have the most surface area which enables
relatively high conductive heat transfer rates, but signicant pressure drop can require greater fan power, and deterioration of certain absorber material after many years
of solar radiation exposure can additionally create problems with air quality and performance.

5.1.1 Back, front, and combination passage air collector

In back-pass, front-pass, and combination type congurations the air is directed on either the back, the front, or
on both sides of the absorber to be heated from the return to the supply ducting headers. Although passing the
air on both sides of the absorber will provide a greater
surface area for conductive heat transfer, issues with dust
(fouling) can arise from passing air on the front side of
the absorber which reduces absorber eciency by limiting the amount of sunlight received. In cold climates, air
4 Process heating
passing next to the glazing will additionally cause greater
heat loss, resulting in lower overall performance of the
Solar air heat is also used in process applications such as collector.
drying laundry, crops (i.e. tea, corn, coee) and other
drying applications. Air heated through a solar collector
and then passed over a medium to be dried can provide an 5.1.2 Glazed systems
ecient means by which to reduce the moisture content
of the material.
Glazed systems usually have a transparent top sheet and
insulated side and back panels to minimize heat loss to
ambient air. The absorber plates in modern panels can
5 Solar air heating collector types have absorptivity of more than 93%. Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space
heating). Air typically passes along the front or back of
Collectors are commonly classied by their air-ducting the absorber plate while scrubbing heat directly from it.
methods as one of three types:
Heated air can then be distributed directly for applications such as space heating and drying or may be stored
for later use. Payback for glazed solar air heating panels
through-pass collectors
can be less than 915 years depending on the fuel being
replaced.
front-pass
back pass
combination front and back pass collectors
Collectors can also be classied by their outer surface:
glazed
unglazed

5.1.3 Unglazed systems

Unglazed systems, or transpired air systems have been
used to heat make-up or ventilation air in commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications. They consist of an absorber plate which air passes across or through
as it scrubs heat from the absorber. Non-tranparent glazing materials are less expensive, and decrease expected
payback periods. Transpired collectors are considered
unglazed because their collector surfaces are exposed

5.2

Unglazed transpired solar collectors

to the elements, are often not transparent and not her- in heating climates, which is space heating and industrial
metically sealed.
process heating. They are either glazed or unglazed.

5.2
5.2.1

Unglazed transpired solar collectors

Background

The term unglazed air collector refers to a solar air heating system that consists of a metal absorber without any
glass or glazing over top. The most common type of
unglazed collector on the market is the transpired solar
collector. The technology has been extensively monitored
by these government agencies, and Natural Resources
Canada developed the feasibility tool RETScreen to
model the energy savings from transpired solar collectors. Since that time, several thousand transpired solar
collector systems have been installed in a variety of commercial, industrial, institutional, agricultural, and process
applications in countries around the world. The technology was originally used primarily in industrial applications such as manufacturing and assembly plants where
there were high ventilation requirements, stratied ceiling
heat, and often negative pressure in the building. With the
increasing drive to install renewable energy systems on
buildings, transpired solar collectors are now used across
the entire building stock because of high energy production (up to 750 peak thermal Watts/square metre), high
solar conversion (up to 90%) and lower capital costs when
compared against solar photovoltaic and solar water heating.

5.2.2 Method of operation

Unglazed air collectors heat ambient (outside) air instead
of recirculated building air. Transpired solar collectors
are usually wall-mounted to capture the lower sun angle in
the winter heating months as well as sun reection o the
snow and achieve their optimum performance and return
on investment when operating at ow rates of between
4 and 8 CFM per square foot (72 to 144 m3/h.m2) of
collector area.
The exterior surface of a transpired solar collector consists of thousands of tiny micro-perforations that allow
the boundary layer of heat to be captured and uniformly
drawn into an air cavity behind the exterior panels. This
heated ventilation air is drawn under negative pressure
into the buildings ventilation system where it is then distributed via conventional means or using a solar ducting
system.
Hot air that may enter an HVAC system connected to a
transpired collector that has air outlets positioned along
the top of the collector, particularly if the collector is
west facing. To counter this problem, Matrix Energy
has patented a transpired collector with a lower air outlet
position and perforated cavity framing to perpetrate increased air turbulence behind the perforated absorber for
increased performance.
This cutaway view shows the MatrixAir transpired solar
collector components and air ow. The lower air inlet
mitigates the intake of heated air to the HVAC system
during summer operation.
The extensive monitoring by Natural Resources Canada
and NREL has shown that transpired solar collector systems reduce between 10-50% of the conventional heating load and that RETScreen is an accurate predictor of
system performance. Transpired solar collectors act as a
rainscreen and they also capture heat loss escaping from
the building envelope which is collected in the collector air cavity and drawn back into the ventilation system.
There is no maintenance required with solar air heating
systems and the expected lifespan is over 30 years.
5.2.3 Variations of transpired solar collectors

Unglazed transpired collectors can also be roof-mounted

for applications in which there is not a suitable south facing wall or for other architectural considerations. Matrix
Energy Inc. has patented a roof mounted product called
Solar air heating is a renewable energy heating technol- the Delta a modular, roof-mounted solar air heating
ogy used to heat or condition air for buildings or process system where southerly, east or west facing facades are
heat applications. It is typically the most cost-eective of simply not available.
all the solar technologies, especially in large scale applica- Each ten foot (3.05 m) module will deliver 250 CFM
tions, and it addresses the largest usage of building energy (425 m3/h)of preheated fresh air typically providing anSolar air heating is a solar thermal technology in which the energy from the sun, solar insolation, is captured by an absorbing
medium and used to heat air.

6 SOLAR-THERMAL COLLECTORS GENERATING ELECTRICITY

nual energy savings of 1100 kWh (4 GJ) annually. This

unique two stage, modular roof mounted transpired collector operating a nearly 90% eciency each module delivering over 118 l/s of preheated air per two square meter
collector. Up to seven collectors may be connected in series in one row, with no limit to the number of rows connected in parallel along one central duct typically yielding
4 CFM of preheated air per square foot of available roof
area. +

Absorber
Tube

Reector

Transpired collectors can be congured to heat the air

twice to increase the delivered air temperature making
it suitable for space heating applications as well as ventilation air heating. In a 2-stage system, the rst stage is
the typical unglazed transpired collector and the second
stage has glazing covering the transpired collector. The
glazing allows all of that heated air from the rst stage to
be directed through a second set of transpired collectors
for a second stage of solar heating.

Solar-thermal collectors generating electricity

Parabolic troughs, dishes and towers described in this

section are used almost exclusively in solar power generating stations or for research purposes. Although simple, these solar concentrators are quite far from the theoretical maximum concentration.[18][19] For example, the
parabolic trough concentration is about 1/3 of the theoretical maximum for the same acceptance angle, that is, for
the same overall tolerances for the system. Approaching
the theoretical maximum may be achieved by using more
elaborate concentrators based on nonimaging optics.[18]
Solar thermal collectors may also be used in conjunction
with photovoltaic collectors to obtain combined heat and
Parabolic trough
power.[20][21]

6.1

Solar Field
Piping

Focal
Point

Parabolic trough

Main article: Parabolic trough

This type of collector is generally used in solar power
plants. A trough-shaped parabolic reector is used to
concentrate sunlight on an insulated tube (Dewar tube)
or heat pipe, placed at the focal point, containing coolant
which transfers heat from the collectors to the boilers in
the power station.

6.2

Parabolic dish

With a parabolic dish collector, one or more parabolic Solar Parabolic dish
dishes concentrate solar energy at a single focal point,
similar to the way a reecting telescope focuses starlight,
or a dish antenna focuses radio waves. This geometry which are parallel to the dishs axis will be reected tomay be used in solar furnaces and solar power plants.
ward the focus, no matter where on the dish they arrive.
The shape of a parabola means that incoming light rays Light from the sun arrives at the Earths surface almost

9
completely parallel. So the dish is aligned with its axis
pointing at the sun, allowing almost all incoming radiation to be reected towards the focal point of the dish.
Most losses in such collectors are due to imperfections in
the parabolic shape and imperfect reection.

EN 12976: Thermal solar systems and components.

Factory made systems.

Losses due to atmospheric scattering are generally minimal. However, on a hazy or foggy day, light is diused in
all directions through the atmosphere, which reduces the
eciency of a parabolic dish signicantly.

Solar Keymark:[25] Thermal solar systems and components. Higher level EN 1297X series certication
which includes factory visits.

In dish stirling power plant designs, a stirling engine coupled to a dynamo, is placed at the focus of the dish. This
absorbs the energy focused onto it and converts it into
electricity.

EN 12977: Thermal solar systems and components.

Custom made systems.

9 See also
Concentrated solar power
Cross-linked polyethylene PEX-AL-PEX

6.3

Power tower

Main article: Solar power tower

Insulated glazing
List of solar thermal power stations
List of thermal conductivities

A power tower is a large tower surrounded by tracking

mirrors called heliostats. These mirrors align themselves
and focus sunlight on the receiver at the top of tower, collected heat is transferred to a power station below. This
design reaches very high temperatures. High temperatures are suitable for electricity generation using conventional methods like steam turbine or a direct high temperature chemical reaction such as liquid salt.[22] By concentrating sunlight current systems can get better eciency
than simple solar cells. A larger area can be covered by
using relatively inexpensive mirrors rather than using expensive solar cells. Concentrated light can be redirected
to a suitable location via optical ber cable for such uses
as illuminating buildings. Heat storage for power production during cloudy and overnight conditions can be accomplished, often by underground tank storage of heated
uids. Molten salts have been used to good eect. Other
working uids, such as liquid metals, have also been proposed due to their superior thermal properties.[23]
However, concentrating systems require sun tracking to
maintain sunlight focus at the collector. They are unable
to provide signicant power in diused light conditions.
Solar cells are able to provide some output even if the
sky becomes cloudy, but power output from concentrating systems drops drastically in cloudy conditions as diffused light cannot be concentrated.

7
8

Appendix
Standards
ISO test methods for solar collectors.[24]
EN 12975: Thermal solar systems and components.
Solar collectors.

Nanouids in solar collectors

Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES)
Selective surface
Solar cooker
Solar Flower Tower
Solar thermal energy
Solar-assisted heat pump
Trombe wall
Zeolite

10 References
[1] Norton, Brian (2013). Harnessing Solar Heat. Springer.
ISBN 978-94-007-7275-5.
[2] https://www.google.com/patents/US4098260
[3] rise.org.au. Domestic Hot Water Systems. Archived
from the original on 9 March 2011. Retrieved 2008-1029.
[4] Polymeric absorbers for at-plate collectors : Can venting provide adequate overheat protection?". Cat.inist.fr.
Retrieved 2013-08-20.
[5] Solar Thermal Collectors in Polymeric Materials: A
Novel Approach Towards Higher Operating Temperatures - Springer. Springerlink.com. Retrieved 2013-0820.
[6] Tom Lane, Solar Hot Water Systems, Lessons Learned
1977 to Today p7
[7] http://www.h2otsun.com/hotwater/minflyer.pdf

10

[8] Vacuum Tube Liquid-Vapor (Heat-Pipe) Collectors

(PDF). Retrieved 2013-08-20.
[9] Solar Evacuated Tube Collectors (PDF). Retrieved
2013-10-06.

11

EXTERNAL LINKS

11 External links
Canadian government ratings of solar collectors
Crosbyton Inventory of Records

[10] Solar Flat Plate vs. Evacuated Tube Collectors (PDF).

Retrieved 2013-08-20.

Feasibility of photovoltaic Cells on a Fixed Mirror

Distributed Focus Solar Bowl

[11] Trinkl, Christoph; Wilfried Zrner; Claus Alt; Christian

Stadler (2005-06-21). Performance of Vacuum Tube
and Flat Plate Collectors Concerning Domestic Hot Water
Preparation and Room Heating (PDF). 2nd European Solar Thermal Energy Conference 2005 (estec2005). CENTRE OF EXCELLENCE FOR SOLAR ENGINEERING at Ingolstadt University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved 2010-08-25.

Detailed Solar Collector Power Output Estimator

for Flat Plate and Evacuated Tube Solar Thermal
Collectors at Various Tilt Angles, Operating Temperatures, Shading, and Location in the U.S.A.

[12] ISO 9806-2:1995. Test methods for solar collectors -Part 2: Qualication test procedures. International Organization for Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland
[13]
[14] Tom Lane. Solar Hot Water Systems: Lessons Learned,
1977 to Today. p. 5.
[15] Flatplate vs. EHTP Archived December 3, 2010, at the
Wayback Machine.
[16] FSEC test standard 102-10 section 5.6.
[17] Calhoun, Fryor "Duel for the Sun" Texas Monthly
November 1983
[18] Chaves, Julio (2015). Introduction to Nonimaging Optics,
Second Edition. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1482206739.
[19] Roland Winston et al., Nonimaging Optics, Academic
Press, 2004 [ISBN 978-0127597515]
[20] Mojiri (2013). Spectral beam splitting for ecient
conversion of solar energy A review. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 28: 654663.
doi:10.1016/j.rser.2013.08.026.
[21] Taylor, R.A. (2012). Nanouid-based optical lter optimization for PV/T systems. Light: Science & Applications. 1: e34. doi:10.1038/lsa.2012.34.
[22] Woody, Todd. Secret Ingredient To Making Solar Energy Work: Salt. Forbes magazine. Retrieved 13 March
2013.
[23] Boerema (2012). Liquid sodium versus Hitec as
a heat transfer uid in solar thermal central receiver
Solar Energy.
86 (9): 22932305.
systems.
doi:10.1016/j.solener.2012.05.001.
[24] ISO 9806-1:1994 - Test methods for solar collectors -Part 1: Thermal performance of glazed liquid heating collectors including pressure drop. iso.org. 2012. Retrieved
September 17, 2012.
[25] The Solar Keymark, The main quality label for solar thermal. estif.org. 2012. Retrieved September 17, 2012.

11

12
12.1

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Qrhoo, Cyberbot II, ToBeFree, NSS-IITM-tamil, Kevin12xd, Joeinwiki, Rfassbind, Serranillas, BobPage47, Cypherquest, Sam Sailor,
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