Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Manual
A Water
Technical
Resources
Publication
U.S. DEPARTMENT
BUREAU
SI METRIC
OF THE INTERIOR
OF RECLAMATION
Mission:
As the Nations
principal
conservation
agency,
the
Department
of the Interior
has responsibility
for most of our
nationally-owned
public lands and natural
and cultural
resources.
This includes
fostering
wise use of our land and water resources,
protecting
our fish and wildlife,
preserving
the environmental
and
cultural
values of our national
parks and historical
places, and
providing
for the enjoyment
of life through
outdoor
recreation.
The Department
assesses our energy and mineral
resources
and
works to assure that their development
is in the best interests
of
all our people.
The Department
also promotes
the goals of the
Take Pride in America
campaign
by encouraging
stewardship
and
citizen responsibility
for the public
lands and promoting
citizen
participation
in their
care. The Department
also has a major
responsibility
for American
Indian
reservation
communities
and
for people who live in Island Territories
under U.S. Administration.
PREFACE
iv
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CONTENTS
Preface...................................
CHAPTER
I.
iii
INTRODUCTION
Page
Section
l-l.
l-2.
l-3.
l-4.
1-5.
l-6.
l-7.
CHAPTER
2-l.
2-2.
2-3.
24.
2-5.
General ............................
scope .............................
History ............................
Importance ..........................
Benefitsof drainage .....................
Drainageand environment ..................
Drainagenomenclature ...................
(a) Surfacedrainage. ....................
(b) Subsurfacedrainage...................
(c) Openand pipe drains ..................
(d) Deferreddrainage ....................
(e) Functionof drains ....................
(f) Inverted, relief, or pumpedwells ............
II.
BASIC
1
2
4
4
4
7
8
8
8
8
8
9
11
DATA
Introduction .........................
Topography .........................
Geology ...........................
(a) General .........................
(b) Barrier ..........................
(c) Aquifers .........................
Soil characteristics ......................
(a) Hydraulic conductivity .................
@) Texture .........................
(c) Color. ..........................
(d) Structme .........................
(e) Specific yield ......................
(f) Capillary fringe .....................
Salinity and alkalinity ....................
(a) General .........................
(b) Leachingrequirementand salt balance .........
(c) Construction in sodic soils ...............
(d) Classification of salineand sodic soils .........
V
13
13
1.5
15
17
17
18
18
20
22
22
25
26
28
28
29
36
37
vi
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Page
Section
2-6. Surfacerunoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(a) Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
(b) Stormflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . .
(c) Estimating total runoff from soil andcover conditions .
(d) Estimating irrigation and deeppercolationschedules .
(e) Farmwaste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2-7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER
A.
3-3.
34.
3-5.
B.
III.
Objective ...........................
Auger-holetest for hydraulicconductivity .........
(a) Introduction .......................
(b) Equipment ........................
(c) Procedure ........................
(d) Calculations .......................
(e) Limitations .......................
(f) Step testsin layeredsoils ................
Piezometertest for hydraulic conductivity .........
(a) Introduction .......................
(b) Equipment ........................
(c) Procedure ........................
(d) Calculations .......................
(e) Limitations .......................
Pomonawell point method .................
Singlewell drawdown test for hydraulic conductivity ...
3-8.
37
37
38
42
46
53
58
TESTS
Objective ...........................
Shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity ...
(a) Introduction ........................
(b) Equipment, .......................
(c) Procedure ........................
(d) Calculations .......................
.......................
(e) Liitations
Ringpermeametertest ....................
(a) Introduction .......................
(b) Equipment. .......................
(c) Procedure, , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , ,
61
61
61
61
61
67
70
72
73
75
75
75
75
76
78
78
81
83
83
83
83
83
85
90
95
95
95
vii
CONTENTS
Page
Section
100
100
103
103
103
103
104
C.
D.
107
107
108
OBSERVATION
3-13.
3-14.
3-15.
3-16.
3-17.
3-l 8.
3-19.
3-20.
3-21.
3-22.
3-23.
CHAPTER
4-l.
4-2.
4-3.
4-4.
4-5.
4-6.
4-7.
4-8.
. ...
Introduction .........................
Location of observationholes ................
Installation of observationholes ...............
Casingfor observationholes .................
Piezometers .........................
Installation of piezometers..................
Recordsof observationholes ................
Numbering systemfor observationholes ..........
Measuringdevicesfor depth to water ............
Pluggedobservationholes ..................
Bibliography .........................
IV.
DRAINAGE
108
108
108
109
110
111
111
112
112
114
117
118
INVESTIGATIONS
121
121
122
122
123
123
123
126
126
127
127
127
127
127
128
...
DRAINAGE MANUAL
VII
Page
Section
4-9.
4-10.
4-l 1.
4-12.
4-13.
4-14.
4-15.
4-16.
4-17.
4-l 8.
4-19.
CHAPTER
A.
V.
DESIGN
SPACING OF DRAINS
141
144
144
AND CONSTRUCTION
. ...... .. ...... .. ...
Introduction .........................
Transientflow method of drain spacing ...........
Backgroundof the method ..................
Data required .........................
(a) y,.andH. ........................
(l$yandZ ..........................
(c) Hydraulic conductivity, K ................
(d) Specific yield, S .....................
(e) Time,t ..........................
(f) Plow depth,D ......................
(g) Drain spacing,L .....................
5-5. Convergence .........................
5-6. Deeppercolationand buildup ................
5-7. Using the data ........................
5-8. Drain abovethe barrier layer ................
5-9. Drain on the barrier layer ..................
5-10. Other usesfor transientflow curves .............
5-l 1. Drain spacingusing steady-stateformulas .........
5-1.
5-2.
5-3.
54.
128
128
128
130
130
130
130
130
132
132
132
135
135
136
136
137
140
147
147
147
148
148
153
153
153
153
154
154
154
154
158
161
161
166
167
169
CONTENTS
Page
Section
B.
INTERCEPTOR
DRAINS.
..................
C.
OPENDRAINS
.........................
Introduction .........................
Open channelflow ......................
Drain velocities .......................
Depth of drain ........................
Drain section .........................
Drain banks. .........................
Tributary drain intersections .................
Surfaceinlets .........................
Transition sections ......................
Design capacities.......................
Structures. ..........................
(a) Inlets. ..........................
(b) Drops and chutes ....................
(c) crossings ........................
5-28. Natural channels .......................
5-29. Stageconstruction ......................
5-17.
5-18.
5-19.
5-20.
5-21.
5-22.
5-23.
5-24.
5-25.
5-26.
5-27.
D.
PIPE DRAINS
..........................
Introduction .........................
Pipefordrains ........................
Pipe specifications ......................
Collectors. ..........................
Depth of pipe drains .....................
Grade and alignment .....................
Envelopematerial ......................
Determining hydraulic conductivity of envelopematerial .
(a) Equipment ........................
(b) Procedure ........................
(c) Calculations .......................
5-38. Gap width, length of pipe sections,and hydraulic
conductivity of envelope...................
5-39. Stability of apipe drain bed .................
5-40. Laying pipe drains ......................
5-30.
5-31.
5-32.
5-33.
5-34.
5-35.
5-36.
5-37.
ix
171
173
175
175
175
180
188
188
188
190
193
193
194
194
194
194
194
199
199
200
200
200
203
203
203
203
204
205
205
212
212
214
214
217
218
218
223
224
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Section
Page
225
225
226
227
227
229
229
229
234
237
238
238
5-4 1.
542.
543.
544.
545.
5-46.
E.
F.
Introduction .........................
Relief wells ..........................
Pumpedwells ........................
Inverted or rechargewells and infiltration galleries .....
INVESTIGATION
5-54.
5-55.
5-56.
5-57.
5-58.
5-59.
5-60.
5-61.
5-62.
5-63.
CHAPTER
6-l.
6-2.
6-3.
6-4.
245
..................
....
Introduction .........................
Investigation procedure ...................
Moisture holding capacityin the root zone .........
Annual irrigation schedule..................
Irrigation deliveriesand deeppercolationfrom irrigation. .
Other water sourcescausinghigh water table conditions . .
(a) Deep percolationfrom adjacentareas .........
(b) Deep percolationfrom farm ditches ..........
Determinationof barrier zone ................
Depth of drains ........................
Drain spacingdeterminationsand drain locations ......
Bibliography .........................
VI.
245
246
246
246
247
247
247
251
251
253
254
255
257
258
258
258
262
OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE
OF DRAINAGE
SYSTEMS
Introduction .........................
Buried pipe drainagesystems ................
(a) Pipedrain outlets ....................
(b) Manholesor sandtraps .................
(c) Generalmaintenanceof pipe drains ..........
Open drainagesystem ....................
Wastewaterdisposalponds .................
265
265
265
266
266
267
268
xi
CONTENTS
Page
Section
6-5.
6-4.
6-7.
Drainageobservationwells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Policy and basicrequirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .
CHAPTER
7-l.
7-2.
7-3.
7-4.
7-5.
VII.
SPECIAL
DRAINAGE
PROBLEMS
APPENDIX.
269
269
269
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
271
294
294
294
300
303
FIGURES
Pllge
Figure
l-l
l-2
l-3
2-l
2-2
2-3
2-4
2-5
2-6
2-7
2-g
2-9
2-10
2-l 1
2-12
2-13
2-14
3-l
3-2
3-3
3-4
3-5
3-6
3-7
3-S
xii
3
6
10
16
21
22
27
31
32
40
41
43
44
45
47
56
57
63
65
66
69
71
72
74
77
CONTENTS
Page
Figure
3-9
3-10
3-l 1
3-12
3-13
3-14
3-15a
3-15b
3-16
3-17a
3-17b
3-l 8a
3-18b
3-19
3-20a
3-20b
3-21
3-22
3-23
3-24
3-25
.. .
XIII
79
80
82
84
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
97
101
102
105
107
113
115
116
DRAINAGE MANUAL
XIV
Page
Figure
4-l
4-2
4-3
4-4
4-5
4-6
4-7
4-8
4-9
5-l
5-2
5-3
54
5-5a
5-5b
5da
5-6b
5-7
5-8
5-9
5-10
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
124
125
129
131
133
134
139
142
143
149
150
151
152
156
156
157
157
160
166
176
180
5-13
5-14
5-15
5-16
5-17
I 1.25 . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . .
181
182
185
#89
195
197
201
CONTENTS
Figure
xv
Page
202
207
209
209
210
211
215
216
217
220
228
230
231
235
236
239
240
241
242
245
248
249
250
250
xvi
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Figure
Page
.
.
252
256
.
.
259
261
273
280
281
.
.
.
282
283
295
296
297
298
TABLES
Page
Table
2-l
2-2
2-3
2Aa
2-4b
2-5a
2-5b
5-l
5-2a
5-2b
5-3a
5-3b
5-4a
5Ab
5-5
5-6a
5-6b
5-7
5-8
.
.
.
19
20
39
51
52
54
55
159
163
163
165
165
166
.
.
167
174
191
192
208
214
DRAINAGE MANUAL
XVIII
Page
Table
232
.
.
233
238
260
276
278
285
289
.
.
293
293
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
315
INDEX
((Chapter
INTRODUCTION
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
l
l
l
CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION
promoting the health and welfare of crops and of the people growing those
crops will be consideredbeneficial Some of the benefits obviously could be
construed as detrimental to other aspectsof our ecology-a thought which
drainagespecialistsshouldconstantlykeep in mind.
Soil is a porous medium consisting of liquid, gaseous,and solid materials
which provide the cropswith essentialwater, oxygen,andnutrients. Unlessboth
the supply of water and oxygen can be maintained,the nutrient intake by crops
is reduced.Drainageis essentialto maintain the supplyof oxygen. Other factors
associatedwith drainageand plant growth are soil temperature,trafficability,
resistanceto diseaseand root growth, and chemical and biological conditions
favorableto crop growth.
Drainageplays an important part in all of the above factors. Saturatedsoils
directly impede the intake of water and nutrients and curtail root growth Poor
drainagediscouragesthe growth of aerobicbacteriawhich are neededto provide
nitrogen for crops.In saturatedsoil, lack of oxygenpreventsformation of usable
forms of nitrogen and sulfur. In addition,toxic organicand inorganiccompounds
developin saturatedsoils.
Subsurfacedrainagepromotesconditionsthat maintain soil structure,trafficability, and workability. Theseconditions exist particularly in fine-textured soils
containing swelling clays. Efficient farm operationsrequire well-drained soils
throughout the season.Poorly drainedsoils adverselyaffect preparing,planting,
cultivating, irrigating, and harvestingoperations.
Saturatedsoils require as much as three times more heat to raise the soil
tempemture 1 C, and they areusually 4 to 8 C (7 to 14 F) cooler than similar
well-drainedsoils.Drainagepromotesearly warming of soilsin the springwhich,
in turn, promotesbiological and chemicalactivity in the soilsthat is important to
seedgerminationand plant growth. Well-drained soils canbe plantedfrom 2 to
3 weeksearlierthan similar saturatedsoils, which is important in areaswith short
growing seasonsand where early harvestsbring higher prices.
Most plant root systemswill not penetratedeeplyinto a water table. In anarea
with a high water table, the mot system will be shallow andmore susceptibleto
disease.Cold, wet soils seemto encouragethe activities of many diseaseorganisms that attack weak seedlings.In a drainedsoil, the plant roots can penetrate
more deeply,thus enlargingthe supply of plant food which producesa healthier,
more vigorous growth. Figure l-2 shows the effects of shallow water tableson
plant roots.
Proper control of salinity and alkalinity can be accomplishedonly in welldrainedsoils.Leachingwater must beableto passthroughthe soil profile to move
excesssaltsout of the root zone.This movementcannotoccurunlessfree drainage
exists. Conversely, a high water table creates a condition wherein capillarity
moves saltsinto the mot zoneand depositsthem there.
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
,.f
.
}
'4
..
"
,
~.
Figure 1-2.-Effects of shallow water table depths on plant roots. These 1-year-old alfalfa plants
were grown in different areas over depths to water table of: (left to right) 0.6 meter (2 feet).
0.3 meter (1 foot). and 0.1 meter (4 inches). The most vigorous growth generally occun whm
the water table i" at least 1 meter below the ground surface. P801-D- 77011.
Some of the less tangible benefits resulting from good drainage are:
.The
grounds;
.Control of botulism;
.Improvement of farmlands by elimination of boggy and weed-breeding
areas;
.Impro,rement of public and private roads by elimination of soft spots
which results in lower road maintenance costs; and
.A finn, dry land surface to support harvesting machinery .
CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION
DRAINAGE MANUAL
regulationsrequirethat the drain systemdesignerknow the quality and constituent compositionof the drainagesystemeffluent. The applicablequality standards
must be met and the required dischargepermits obtained before disposal of
drainwaterto surfacewaters can takeplace.In someareas,treatmentof drainage
waters before final disposalmay be required.
A wide variety of considerationscould be enumerated,but little in the way of
practical guidelinescould be offered. The drainageengineersimply must maintain constantawarenessof water and land resourceusesother than agricultuml.
Plans must integrate as many positive effects as are practical with the basic
objective, and yet the planner must anticipate and remain aware of negative
effects upon the environmentwhich must be consideredin the overall objective.
l-7. Drainage Nomenclature.-Drainage nomenclatureis complexand has
beendevelopedfrom conditions suchas the sourceof water to be moved, when
and where the drains are to be built, and their function. Dmins may be either
surface or subsurface, open or pipe, constructed concurrently with project
developmentor deferred. They sometimesconsist of wells (recharge,relief, or
pumped)and may fall within variousfunctional classifications:
(a) Surface Drainage.-Surface drainageis the removal of water from the
surfaceof the land. Situationswhich may producethe needfor surfacedrainage
includeexcessprecipitation, water appliedin irrigation, lossesfrom conveyance
channelsand storagefacilities, or water which hasseepedfrom ground water at
a higher elevation.Control of surfacewater is normally accomplishedby providing channelsto facilitate removal.
(b) Subsurface Drainage.-Subsurface drainageis the removal or control of
groundwater and the removal or control of salts,using water as the vehicle.
Situations which may produce the need for subsurface drainage include
percolation from precipitation or irrigation: leakage from canals, drains, or
surface water bodies at higher elevations; or leakage from artesian aquifers.
Generally, any drain or well which is designedto control or lower the ground
water is consideredsubsurfacedrainage.
(c) Open and Pipe Drains.-Open drainsare channelswith an exposedwater
surface. Pipe drains are buried pipe regardless of material, size, or shape.
Generally, all of the nomenclaturefor other types of drains may be applied to
either openor pipe drains.Drain sizeandpurpose,physicalcondition of the soils,
topography,requireddrain spacing,and annualoperationandmaintenancecosts
largely dictate whether drainsare to be open or pipe.
(d) Deferred Drainage.-Deferred drainageis that which is provided after
project works have beenconstructedand the irrigation hasbegun. The deferral
of construction of such drains usually is necessarybecauseof the difficulty of
locating and designingthem accurately before the lands are irrigated and the
drainageproblem becomesevident. The term deferred drainageis more often
applied to subsurfacedrainagebecausethe need for surface dmins which are
constructedasa part of the initial project works is generallymore evident.Bureau
of Reclamationpolicy requiresthe inclusion of deferreddrainagein the project
CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION
plan and cost estimate.Only an estimatecan be madeas to when theseexpenditureswill be requited.Experiencewith pastprojectsshowsthat about 50 percent
of thesedramsam installedduring the fust 15yearsof project operation.Dminage
installationsareessentiallycompleteafter 30 yearsunlessmajor changesin water
useoccur.
(e) Function ofDrains.-The nomenclatureused for technical aspectsof
drainageand as usedhereinis basedon the function of the drain. The five types
of drainsare designated: relief, interceptor, collector, suboutlet,and outlet, see
figure 1-3.Relief andinterceptordrainshavethe principal function of controlling
ground-waterlevels.They form theupstreamportion of the landdrainagesystem,
andthe distinction betweenthem is basedon the slopeof the ground-waterbody
they control. Both relief andinterceptordramsmay be constructedas eitheropen
or pipe drains.They are designedasopendminswhen they arerequiredto receive
irrigation surfacewaste andexcessprecipitation from adjacentfields.
(1) Relief drains are used to effect a lowering of ground water over
relatively large flat areaswhere percolation from precipitation or irrigation
servesas the water source,and where gradientsof both the water table and
subsurfacestrata do not permit sufficient lateral movement of the ground
water.
(2) Interceptor drains areusedto cut off or intercept groundwater which
is moving downslopefrom somesource.
(3) Collector drains receive water from subsurfacerelief or interceptor
drainsandfrom farm surfacedrainscarryingirrigation surfacewasteandstorm
runoff. Becausecollector drains control ground water as well as receiveflow
from tributary subsurfacedrams,they must be designedwith a normal water
surfaceat or below the depthwhich will provide effective subsurfacedrainage
in adjacentor tributary areas.They may be either openor pipe dramsdepending on the volume of water to be handled,the availablegradient,and whether
their tributariesare open or pipe drains.
(4) Suboutletdrainshave the principal function of conveyingwater from
cdlector drains to the outlet drain. In general,they are locatedin topographic
lows suchasdraws andcreeksbut canalsobe constructeddrains.Thesedrains
receive inflows from a number of collector drains and canal and lateral
wasteways.Suboutletdramsresemblecollector drainsin function, exceptthey
usually arenot requited to serveas subsurfacedmins in the control of ground
water to prescribedelevations.They may be locatedentirely within the project
areaor they can be the outlet for landsnot includedin the project. On figure
1-3, the suboutletdrainsare shownas the principal creeksof the project ama.
(5) Outlet drams convey collected water away from the drained area or
project. The outlet drain is usually a natural channelin the topographiclow
for the areato be drained,but where a natural channeldoesnot exist, one can
be constructed.Figure 1-3 shows the outlet drain as a river traversing the
centralportion of the project atea.
10
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
EXPLANATION
m
OUTLET
SUBOUTLET
--oc
(RIVER)
(CREEK)
OPEN
SUBSURFACE
B--H
OPEN
SURFACE
ecu--c
PIPE
c-I-k
PIPE
COLLECTOR
RELIEF
DRAIN
ORAIN
ORAIN
OR
INTERCEPTOR
Figure I-3.-Types
DRAIN
of drains. 103-D-1617.
CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION
11
((Chapter
II
BASIC DATA
14
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER II-BASIC
DATA
15
16
DRAINAGE
SYMBOLS
CANAL
FOR
MANUAL
DRAINAGE
MAPS
OR LATERAL
PROPOSED
LIMIT
WATER
CANAL
OF GROUNDINVESTIGATION
MANHOLE
-4cIc3wc
-*I-.Hc-4cuc4-e -,--cc-
PIPE
RELIEF
PIPE
COLLECTOR
PROPOSED
OR INTERCEPTOR
PIPE RELIEF
PROPOSED
-e
--o-,--c-r
OPEN
w--c,
OPEN
-+,-+*
...+.-...-
PROPOSED
PIPE
OPEN
FmWYD
DRAIN
SUBSURFACE
OPEN
DRAIN
+---.
SURFACE
<
DRAIN
OTHER
CONTOURS
(Solid
contouir
con
be used when surface
contour
does not ow?or
on some drownq.)
(CREEK1
PoIoITD
CASED
63
UNCASEO
TEST
HOLE
HOLE
COY,LElLO
0
IRRIGATION
DRAINAGE
wells,
WELL
WELL
q ID El1
PIT
ON
em
All
I RIVER)
CDYILEILO
/-
.4225
DRAIN
SUBOUTLET
OUTLET
DRAIN
DRAIN
SURFACE
DRAIN
NATURAL
OR INTERCEPTOR
COLLECTOR
SUBSURFACE
PROPOSED
DRAIN
DRAIN
holes,
and
test
pits
should
hove
ldentiflcotlon
SYMBOLS
AND
CORRESPONDING
COLORS
GROUND
WATER
OR GARRIER
DEPTH
El
RED
LINE
PUMPING
PLANT
number
FOR
FIRST
INTERVAL
GELOW
GROUND
SURFACE
SECOND
INTERVAL
BELOW
GROUND
SURFACE
/
I
c_----
--__-
GREEN
FOURTH
INTERVAL
BELOW
GROUND
SURFACE
ND
COLOR
DEPTHS
LAST
---_
I
THIRD
INTERVAL
BELOW
GROUND
SURFACE
GREATER
INTERVAL
\--e-----------J
Figure Z-L-Conventional
THAN
USED
CHAPTER II-BASIC
DATA
17
18
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
gradient.
(1) Dimensions.-Physical dimensionsfor hydraulic conductivity depend
on those used to express the velocity. For laboratory-type testing cubic
centimetersper squarecentimeterper secondis commonlyused:however, this
results in extremely small numbers.For field applicationscubic meters per
squaremeter per day resultsin more reasonablesizenumbers.Theseunits are
commonly shortenedto centimetersper secondand meters per day and are
referred to as rates. In the U.S. customary system,cubic feet per squarefoot
per day (feet per day) and cubic inchesper squareinch per hour (inchesper
hour) are commonly used. Cubic feet per squarefoot per year is also used.
Table2-l presentsconversionfactors for varioushydraulic conductivity units.
CHAPTER II-BASIC
DATA
19
factors.
EXAMPLES:
(1) The $d2 raulic conductivity of a soil has been determined to be 15.2 gal/ft/d. To convert to
m /m /d-Find value of 1 in Col. @and move horizontally to value form3/m2/d in Cal. 8.
Multiply 15.2 by value in Cot. 8 (0.0407) = 0.619 m3/mz/d.
(2) The hydraulic conductivity of a soil has been determined to be0.00393 cm3/cm2/s. To convert
toft3/ft2/d-Findvalue of 1 in Col. @andmovehorizontally tovalueforft3/ft2/d in Col. 0.
Multiply 0.00393 by value in Col. @ (2,834.6) = 11.14 ft3/ft2/d.
. . . . . . . +D,K,,
TotalD
where:
. . . . .+Kn
DRAINAGE MANUAL
20
size classification.
Diameter
Greater than 250 millimeters (mm)
250 to 80 mm
80 to 12.5 mm
12.5 mm
2.0 to 1.0 mm
1.0 to 0.5 mm
0.5 to 0.25 mm
0.25 to 0.10 mm
0.10 to 0.05 mm
0.05 to 0.002 mm
Less than 0.002 mm
CHAPTER II-BASIC
PERCENT
TURAL
TEXTURE
SAND
LOAMY SAND
SANDY LOAM
LOAM
SILT LOAM
SANDY CLAY LOAM
CLAY LOAM
SILTY CLAY LOAM
SANDY CLAY
SILT
SILTY CLAY
CLAY
(5)
(LS)
?LY
'(SIL)
'KY
(SiCLI
BASIC TEXTURAL
yi.t.r.
/
imrtrr
0.05
0.10
0.25
0.50
I.00
to
to
to
to
to
fh36Q
Fina
0. IO
0.25
0.50
I, 00
2.00
sand:
sand
Veryfincsmd:
U.S. Stondord
SiQvQ numbars
300
I40
60
35
16
ZS%'Or
: 25s or
: So!4 or
50%
So% or
Figure 22.Soil
to 140
to 60
to 35
to
16
to
IO
morQ
mora
more
Of VFS.
more
21
SAND
CLASSES
SAND X
85
70 to 90
43 to 65
23 to 52
0 to 50
4s to 90
20 to 4s
0 to 20
45 to 65
0 to 20
0 to20
0 to*
SILT
O
0 to
0 to
26 to
so to
0 to
IS ta
40 to
0 to
6oto
40 to
0 to
CLASS
MODIFYING
m!!L
fine Sand
r inQ sand
MQdiUm sand
COO~SQ sand
VQry COOrSQ sand
VQr
DATA
(VFSI
(FS)
(Sl
icss1
(VCsS)
CLAY
m
0 to
0 to
7 to
0 to
20 to
27to
27 to
3s to
0 to
40 to
40to
20
50
50
100
26
53
73
20
loo
60
40
X
15
20
27
27
35
40
40
5s
12
60
MO
TERMS
20 to SO
50 to 90
VQr$::~lly
(!6r&
22
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
PRISMATIC
CRUMB
AE%Y
COLUMNAR
GRANULAR
TYPES
PLATY
OF SOIL
Figure 2-3.-Types
SU;W&WllAR
STRUCTURE
CHAPTER II-BASIC
23
DATA
andsize of the pore spacesgive the soil its structure.The shapeand arrangement
of the aggregatesaredesignatedasthe typeof soil structure; sizeof the aggregates
is termed class of soil structure; and the degreeof distinctness(weak, moderate,
or strong) is termed grade of soil structure. The principal types of soil structure
with which the drainageengineerwill be working and the classesand gradesof
eachtype are describedbelow.
(1) Ha@.--In this type of structure, the aggregatesam arrangedin horizontalsheets.The hydraulic conductivity rate varieswith the classof structure
andis usuallyat its highestfor mediumplaty material. The classesof this type
of structure are:
Structure class
Lessthan 1.0
1.0 to 2.0
2.0 to 5.0
5.0 to 10.0
Greaterthan 10
50.0 to 100.0
Greater than 100.0
24
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
1 Aped can be defined as an individual natural soil aggregate, and should not be confused with a fragment,
which is caused by ntpture acms nabml surfaces of weakness.
CHAPTER II-BASIC
Structure class
Very fme granular
Fine granular
Medium granular
Coarsegranular
Very coarsegranular
DATA
25
The gradecan vary from weak to strong, but is usually more on the strong
sidewith eachped appearingas a single-grainedstructure.
(6) Crumb.-This type of structure is the sameas granularexcept aggregates appearvery porous. It has good hydraulic conductivity rates in both
vertical andhorizontal directions,with the ratesdependenton classandgrade.
Classesare the sameas for granularexceptthere areno coarseor very coarse
crumb structures.A crumb-type structurecan be of weak, medium, or strong
grade.
(7) Massive.-Structure type is massivewhenthe soil is coherentandthere
is no observableaggregationor definite orderly arrangementof natural lines
of weakness.A soil with massive structure has neither class nor grade and
negligiblehydraulic conductivity.
(8) Single gruin.-Single-grain structure is a noncoherentsoil with no
observableaggregation,suchas sand.Usually, soil with single-gminstructure
has good vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity. A single-gmin soil
hasneither structural classnor grade.
(9) Structureless.-This is not a recognizedsoil structure but in drainage
engineeringservesto identify in-placesandymaterials.A very fine sandyloam
identified as being structurelessmeansthere is no observablestructure but it
hasnoneof theunsatisfactorydrainagecharacteristicsassociatedwithmassive
structu~. A structu&ess sandysoil can,andusuallydoes,havegoodhydraulic
conductivity rates.
(e) Specific Yie2d;Specific yield may be defined as the volume of water
releasedfrom a known volume of saturatedsoil under the force of gravity andthe
inherent soil tensions.It is expressedas a percentageof the total volume of
saturatedsoil:
Specific yield, S =
The optimum percentof specific yield in the l- to 3-meter (4- to lo-foot) zone
shouldbe about 6 to 10percent.A soil in this percentrangewouldhave sufficient
aeration,hydraulic conductivity, and water-holdingprdpertiesfor optimum crop
growth. When the specific yield is lessthan 3 percent,drainagebecomesdifficult
and expensive.For specific yields greater than 16 to 18 percent, aeration and
hydraulic conductivity are good, but the soil moisture-holdingcapacity is low.
26
DRAINAGE MANUAL
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
678
lo
20
30
40
60
so
loo
10
a
7
6
I I I1111
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.8
I I III
1
I lllll
4
678
I I III
10
20
30
I IJ
I lllll
40
60
aofoo
showing general relationship between specific yield and hydraulic conductivity. 103-D-693.
200
300
28
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
and varies in moisture content from nearly saturated to field capacity. The
thicknessof this zoneis usually small and shouldnot be confusedwith the total
height to which capillary water will rise in a dry soil. From a practical standpoint,
the capillary fringe canbe ignored when determining the unsaturatedroot zone
depth.With a well-designedsubsurfacedrainagesystem,the capillary fringe will
extendinto and remain in the root zoneonly a short time toward the end of the
irrigation season,and production shouldnot be measurablyaffected.
The questionmay ariseasto what effect the capillary fringe hason the buildup
anddrawdown of the water tableascalculatedin the drain-spacingcomputations.
Field studies show that water tables fluctuate between drains as predicted by
transient flow drain-spacingcomputations.The capillary fringe fluctuates with
and parallel to the water table, except with a lag in time, and hasno measurable
effect on the dischargefrom the dram Experimentsusinga small tank filled with
sandhaveshownthat the capillary fringe affects or influencesthe dischargewhen
the depth of saturatedflow is of the sameorder of magnitudeas the thicknessof
the capillary fringe. However, field studiesfor shallowdrains,spacedfrom 10to
40 meters (30 to 120 feet) and placedon a barrier, indicate the capillary fringe
contributesno measurablewater to the discharge.Thesestudiesfurther indicate
that when the water table midway between drains drops to approximately
0.15meter (0.5 foot) abovethe pipe drain invert, the dischargedropsto zeroeven
though the capillary fringe canbe at least0.15 meter (0.5 foot) abovethe water
table.Basedon the abovefindings, the capillary fringe is not usedin determining
the drainagerequirementsor in the designof the system. Also, there is no easy,
reliable method for measuringthis parameterin the field.
2-5. Salinity and Alkalinity.--(a) Gene&-Many factors contributeto the
development of saline soil conditions. However, most soils become saline
through consumptiveuseof capillary ground water andirrigation water containing salts. Salt concentrationsin soil vary widely both vertically and horizontally
dependingon suchconditionsasvariationsin texture,plant growth, andhydraulic
conductivity. This variation showsup strikingly as patchy growths of vegetation
in salinesoils. The extent of salinizationis governedby the rate of evapotranspiration of salinewater and the counteractionof leachingwater from precipitation
and irrigation. Although salts affect plant growth in many ways, the three most
important effects are:
(1) Salts causea reduction in the rate and amount of water that can be
witMmwn from the soil by plant roots becauseof increasedosmotic pressure.
Plant growth is retarded almost linearly with increasesin osmotic pressure
(Hayward andWadleigh, 1949).
(2) Common salts such as sodium,bicarbonate,and chloride are toxic to
some plants when present in higher than normal concentrations.The toxic
effect is usually critical during the germinationperiod in the 50- or 80-millimeter surfacesoil zone.
CHAPTER II-BASIC
DATA
29
(3) Certain salts, sodium being the best known, when present in high
concentrations,canaffect the physicalcondition of the soil. Soils with excess
sodiumtend to puddle,have poor structure,and developpoor infiltration and
hydraulic conductivity rates. Before thesesoils can be farmed successfully;
the salt must be changedchemically by replacingthe excessivesodium with
calcium andinstalling a drainagesystemto facilitate leachingout the replaced
sodiumsalts.
Soil struchne dependson the attraction between clay particles in the soil.
Calcium, magnesium,and aluminum cationsate strongly attracted to clay particles. Soils containing thesecations generallyform stable soil structures.These
cations must be present in waters used to reclaim soils containing sodium and
potassiumcations (alkalinesoils).
Low saltconcentrationsdominatedby sodiumcationscausedispersionof clay
particlesin soils. If sodium is leachedwithout replacingit with calcium, magnesium, or aluminum, the soil remainsdispersedafter leaching.This destroyssoil
structmeand affects the hydraulic conductivity. In somecases,the clay particles
will move downward and form imperviouslayers in the soil profile.
(b) LeachingRequirementand Salt Balance.-For soils in arid regions and
when there is a presenceof salt in the irrigation water, leachingis required to
maintain a favorable salt balancein the root zone. This requiresthat an equal or
greateramount of salt must be leachedfrom the soil by the drainagewater than
is introducedi to the soil by irrigation water. It further requiresthat the drainage
systemdesignxl nsider the removal of the leachingwater from the substrata.In
most cases,the deeppercolation inherent with standardirrigation practiceswill
maintaina favorablesaltbalanceandanacceptableconcentrationin the soil-water
solutionin the root zone.Water resourceagencystudiesof recentlocal irrigation
practicesshouldbe consideredin determiningexpecteddeeppercolation.Should
investigationsshow that the leachingrequirement is in excessof the leaching
obtainedwith deep percolation associatedwith normal irrigation practices, the
drainagesystemrequirementsandcosts shouldbe increasedaccordingly.
The continuing leachingrequirementis not the sameas the initial leaching
requirement.The permanentdeepdrainagesystemfor irrigated landscannotbe
economicallydesigned,from a drain-spacingstandpoint,to take careof the initial
leachingrequirement.Usually, multilevel drainscouldbe usedwith the shallower
drains installed between the permanent deeperdrains. The shallow drains are
installed using minimum size pipe and at minimum cost becausethey will no
longer function after the initial leaching has been accomplished.In practical
application, the drains am usually designedto satisfy the long-term leaching
requirement and the soils will reach acceptablesalinity levels after only a few
irrigation seasons.
The leaching requirement may be defined as the percentageof infiltrated
irrigation water and precipitation that must passthrough the root zoneto control
30
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
(1)
or
-bx
=Di,
100
(2)
where:
LR = leachingrequirementin percent,
ECi, = electrical conductivity of irrigation water including effective
precipitation in millimhos per centimeter (mmho/cm),
E&w = electrical conductivity of drainagewater in mmho/cm,
DdW = depthof drainagewater in meters,and
Di,
= depthof irrigation water inmeters includingeffective precipitation.
The value for EC& is determinedfrom the relative salt toleranceof the least
salt-tolerantcrop to be grown in the area.Figum 2-5 showsthe salt tolerancefor
field, vegetable,and forage crops.Except for somespecialtycrops, a 25-percent
yield reduction for the leastsalt-tolerantprincipal crop can be used.
To illustrate the processfor estimatingthe leachingrequirement,assumethat
the principal crops for an areaarealfalfa (EC x 107= 5 , sugarbeets(EC x 103=
13), and potatoes (EC x 103= 4). The valuesin parenthesesindicate electrical
conductivities in mmho/cm at 25 C associatedwith 25-percentreductions in
yields.The readershouldnote that soil water is diluted to near saturationextract
concentrationjust before entering the dram. The salt content of the irrigation
water may be expressedin milligrams per liter (mg/L), which can be converted
with reasonableaccuracyto mmho/cm by dividing the parts per million by 640.
Examplecalculation:
Given: Total salts in irrigation water = 1000mg/L. Least salt-tolerant crop is
potatoes,with an electrical conductivity of the saturatedextract not to
exceed4 mmholcm at 25 C.
Then:
EC. x l& = (1*ooo@O) x 100= 39 percent
1w
m=EC,,
4
Figure 2-6 can be used to quickly estimate the leaching requirement and
minimum infiltration rate neededto obtain proper leachingunder normal irrigation practices.
CHAPTER II-BASIC
DATA
31
SOIL-WATER (p/m)
SATURATED EXTRACT (p/m)
EC% IO
0
2
4
FIELD CROPS
BARLEY
SUGAR BEETS
COTTON
SAFFLOWER
WHEAT
SORGUM
SOYBEAN
SESBANIUM
PADDY RICE
CORN
BROADBEAN
FLAX
BEANS
VEGETABLE
CROPS
BEETS
SPINACH
TOMATO
BROCCOLI
POTATO
CORN
SWEET POTATO
LETTUCE
BELL PEPPER
ONION
CARROT
BEANS
CABBAGE
0
?
4
FORAGE CROPS
BERMUDA GRASS
TALL WHEATGRASS
CRESTED WHEATGRASS
TALL FESCUE
BARLEY HAY
PERENNIAL RYE
HARDING GRASS
BIRDSFOOT TREFOIL
BEARDLESS WILD RYE
ALFALFA
ORCHARD GRASS
MEADOW FOXTAIL
CLOVER-ALSIKE
& RED
a.
EC*= : Electrical conductivity in millimhos
Figure 2-5.Salt
IO
m
g2
-Jm
12
14
16
Indicates
I6
no
20
yield
reduction
Indicates IO percent
yield reduction
Indicates 25 percent
Indicates 50 percent
yield reduction
per centimeter
I?
lfi
at 25OC
22
(I/b-)
hJ32tM
(moq
ua
lad
a3llddt
SI
0'1
-0
01 ;F1
::
P
02
3
2
OEP
i:
oc J
-.
S'O
saq3ut)
JO
NOllWkllN33N03
CHAPTER II-BASIC
DATA
33
The total infiltration (INF) from an irrigation applicationis the sum of the total
readily availablemoisture (TRAIvI) and the deeppercolation (DP). TRAM is
explainedin greaterdetail in settion 2-6(d).
INV=TRAM+DP
Sincethe deeppercolationis theproduct of the leachingrequirement(LR) and
the infiltration, then:
INF=TRAIvI+LRxINF
and
IN-F=m,
In the previous example, if the TRAM in the root zone is 80 millimeters, the
infiltration would be:
80
wF=1-o.39
= 131 millimeters
131-80=51 millimeters
A numberof refinementscanbe consideredwhencalculatingleachingrequirements, but the majority of thesecan generally be left out without significantly
affecting theresults.The most significantexclusionsfrom the precedingexample
are leaching efficiency of soil types and removal of salt in harvestedplants.
Sample calculations considering leaching efficiencies are not included here
becauseof the lack of information available on this refinement. For more
information on this subject,seeBouwer, 1969.
Significant saltreductionin the soil by removal of all mature cropsandresidue
from the la& is feasibleonly for crops with a largeamount of foliage. Sugarcane
is usedin the following exampleto determinethe volume of saltremovedby this
method.
Examplecalculation:
Sugarcanecan toleratethe salinity associatedwith electricalconductivities
of about 1 mmho/cm. Assuming an averageconductivity of 0.24 mmho/cm
for the irrigation and rainwater enteringthe soil, the leachingrequirementis:
L&&2!1 o
.
34
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
10.5millimeters (rounded).
CHAPTER
II-BASIC
35
DATA
GW
EC&
drain water.
0.39 mmholcm = 250 mgL.
G+
= Amount of salt in
= Amount of salt in
EC,
CW
= Amount of salt in
0.0000147 meEs ton 0.02 fg
(
1
rainwater.
=
DC,
8839 &
of irrigation water.
=
QW
6096&
precipitation.
=
Tc
1.0984115heTL%z,(
o49 s)
+ C,,,.D,
Sh.32
Then,
36
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Using equation(2):
IX=
DdW
Dti+D,
3083 (100)
LR=(8839+3083)+165
x 100
=17*1percent'
CHAPTER II-BASIC
37
DATA
soil
Saline
Saline-sodic
Nonsaline-sodic
EC x 103
>4
>4
<4
Exchangeable
sodium
percentage(ESP)
Cl5
>15
>15
p&I
<8.5
k8.5
8.5 to 10
38
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
(3)
where:
Q=
C=
i =
s =
A =
Valuesof C will range from 0.20 for low runoff conditions to 0.75 for high
runoff conditions, dependingprincipally on vegetation, soils, and topography.
The C value increasesas the vegetativecover becomesless dense,as the soil
becomesheavier, and as the slopeof the ground increases.Of thesethree basic
factors, vegetationand soil have the greatereffect on C. A singlecharacteristic,
such as a rock surface,may determinethe value of C. Usually, no one characteristic will predominate,andall threefactors must be consideredbeforeselecting
a value for C. Arbitrarily weighing their relative importance,with vegetationat
40 percent, soils 40 percent, and topographyat 20 percent, will allow selection
of appropriatefactors for each,which canthen beaddedtogetherto obtaina value
for C. Table2-3 showsdrainagebasinfactors for determining C.
CHAPTER II-BASIC
Table 2-3,Weighted
Runoff
conditions
LOW
Moderate
Average
High
Extreme
0.08
.12
.16
.22
.30
DATA
39
Vegetation
(well grassed)
(good coverage)
(good to fair)
(fairto sparse)
(sparse to bare)
0.08
.12
.16
.22
.30
Soils
(sandy)
(light)
(medium)
(heavy)
(heavy to rock)
0.04
.06
.08
.ll
.15
Topography
(flat)
(gently sloping)
(sloping to hilly)
(hilly to steep)
(steep)
Figure 2-I.-Rainfall
ELEVATION
OF FARTHEST
POlNTOF
WATERSHED
ABOVEPOINTOF CONCENTRATION
METERS
LENGTHOF CHANNELFROMFARTHEST
POINT
TO POINTOF CONCENTRATION
METERS
8
II
is
I1lll,
1111
22
Iu
q
1 I IllI
II111
IllI,
UI
I Id
ul
MILES
lllll
G
I
g
III11
8
II
MINUTES
TIMEOF FLOODCONCENTRATION
Figure 2-K-Nomograph
0
I
s?a
1111
11
HOURS
Iu
lllll
ul
I Ill1
FEET
ru
I1111
UIs
KILOMETERS
P
I
Ill/
g
0
g
9
42
DRAINAGE
Y =
b
MANUAL
Frequency,years
10
15
25
Factor by which
to multiply y
1.2
1.3
1.4
,,,,,
II
II
il\l
BL LI
I I
CHAPTER II-BASIC
-%N-
6dLI
DATA
+\I
I\I
Y)
43
INFlLTRATlON
MILLIMETERS
SILTY
CLAY
LlGHT CLAY
HYDROLOGIC
SOIL
GROUP
slL;~A$mme?A
SILT LcaM
SANDYCLAY LMM
HYDROLOGIC
RATE
PER HOUR
SANtn
L!xH
SILT
SOIL
GROUP
LOAMY SANJ
HYDROU)GIC
SAND
LOAM
SOIL
GROUP
__
HYDROLOGIC
SOIL
GROUP
t
60
L
.
.
\
\
c
c
L
2.5
1
8
10
15
20
25
30
Figure 24O.-Curve
35
40
45
50
CURVE
NUMBER
CN
55
60
65
70
75
60
65
90
95
100
e
x
\I\
y
CHAPTER II-BASIC
\9\
n
s11313wllllyY NI(b)UONntl133tlla
y \
DATA
\I\
\
,p,\
45
46
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Procedure:
Enter figure 2-10 at the given infiltration rate of 50 millimeters (2 inches)
per hour (point 1) and read down the chart to the curve for land useof pasture
(point 2). Readacrossthe chart to the curve for soil at field capacity(point 3).
Then read down to the bottom edgeof the chart to obtain the curve number
(CN) which is 70 (point 4).
Using a CiV of 70 and the measuredprecipitation of 75 millimeters (3
inches),the direct runoff from the storm canbe read from figure 2-l 1. In this
example,the runoff is 18millimeters (0.71 inch) per hectare.For the 400-hectam (1,000~acre)watershed,total runoff would be 72 000 cubic meters (about
54 acre-feet).
This method can be applied to large basins with varying soils, crops, and
antecedentmoisture conditions. The distribution of the various conditionsmust
be known to estimatethe weightedaverageand total runoff from a basin
Moisture in the top foot of a soil profile can be estimated adequatelyby
irrigation schedulingtechniquesexplainedin subsection2-6(d).
Figure 2-12 canbe usedto determinethe amount of rainfall that infihrates the
ground surface from a storm. The curve number neededfor using this figure is
determinedas in the previous examplefor direct runoff.
(d) Estimating Irrigation and Deep Percolation Schedules.-To adequately
analyzea drainageproblem in an irrigatedarea,the engineermust havea working
knowledgeof plant, soil, and moisture relationships.The ability to estimatethe
timing of irrigations andestimateroot zonemoisture levelsover a period of time
is essential The methodsdiscussedin this sectionhave been successfulIyused
in Bureauof Reclamationwork sincethe 1950s.
Moisture-holding capacity is the physicalproperty of the soil that determines
the maximum amount of water held in the root zoneunder free-drainageconditions. However, only a portion of this capacity can be usedby plants, and this
portion is called the availablemoisture (AM). This available moisture is the
amount of water held in the soil betweenfield capacityandthe wilting point and
is usually expressedin millimeters per meter (inchesper foot) of soil.
The total availablemoisture (TAM) in a root zone is not readily availableto
plantsbecauseof root distribution andthe patternof water usefrom the root zone.
Ihe water that is readily available in a given root zone is called total readily
availablemoisture (TRAM). This is the amountof water availablefor rapid plant
growth. It is a physical characteristicof a given soil profile limited in depth to a
specific crop root zone and moisture extraction pattern. With good irrigation
CHAPER
II-BASIC
DATA
4 !\.! ! ! !
! I0
47
48
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CL
CL,
SiL
S
63.50 (2.5)
50.80 (2.0)
55.88 (2.2)
25.40 (1 .O)
millimeters (inches)
(63.50 x
(50.80 x
(55.88 x
(25.40 x
0.75)/0.40 = 119.06(4.69)
0.75)/0.30 = 127.00(5.00)
0.75)/0.20 = 209.55 (8.15)
0.75)/0.10 = 190.50(7.50)
The ftrst quarter has the lowest TRAM so it is the critical quarter. When
the daily consumptiveuse is a maximum of 6.35 millimeters (0.25 inch) per
day, an irrigation would be requiredabout every 18 daysfor continuedrapid
plant growth. Using 18 days, the moistureusedwould be 18 x 6.35 = 114.30
millimeters insteadof 119.06millimeters, and the irrigation scheduleshould
be developedusing the 114.30millimeters.
CHAPER
II-BASIC
DATA
49
Example 2:
Soil profile
AM TRAM,
Quarter Texture millimeters (inches)
First
Second
Third
Fourth
CL
CL
S
SiL
63.50 (2.5)
50.80 (2.0)
25.40 (1.0)
55.88 (2.2)
millimeters (inches)
(63.50 x 0.75)/0.40= 119.06(4.69)
(50.80 x 0.75)/0.30= 127.00(5.00)
(25.40 x 0.75)/0.20 = 95.25 (3.75)
(55.88 x 0.75)/0.10= 419.10 (16.50)
In this example,the third quarter is the critical one becauseit hasa TRAM
of only 95.25millimeters (3.75 inches).When the daily consumptiveuseis a
maximum of 6.35millimeters (0.25 inch) per day, anirrigation will berequired
every 15 daysfor rapid plant growth.
Local farm organizationssometimesrecommendthat the total availablemoisture (TAM) be depletedby only a certain percent betweenirrigations. If so, the
75-percentfactor in the previous examplesshouldbe adjusted.The TAM is the
sum of the AM valuesfor eachquarter of the root zoneexpressedin millimeters
or inches.
For example,anassociationof local potatogrowersmight recommendthat the
root zone should not be depletedof more than 35 to 40 percent of the TAM
betweenirrigationsIn example1, there would be 195.58millimeters (7.7 inches)
of TAM in the root zone. If 40 percent of this amount were used between
irrigations, the TRAM would be 195.58x 0.40 = 78.23 millimeters (3.08 inches),
andan irrigation would berequiredevery 12days.Assumingthe normalmoisture
extractionpattern, the first quarterwould supply78.74 x 0.40 = 3 1.50millimeters
(1.2 inches),the secondquarter 78.74 x 0.30 = 23.62 millimeters (0.9 inch), the
third quarter78.74 x 0.20 = 15.75millimeters (0.6 inch), and the fourth quarter
78.74 x 0.10 = 7.87 (0.3 inch).
If the recommendationhad been that the available moisture in the critical
quartershouldnot be depletedmore than about50 percent,the result would have
been about the same as in the above recommendation.In example 1, the first
quarterwas the critical quarter, so:
(63.50 x 0.50)/0.40 = 79.38 millimeters (3.12 inches)TRAM
This is approximately the sameas the 78.23 millimeters (3.08 inches) computed using TAM, so the depletion limits could havebeenrecommendedeither
way.
Available moisture estimatesmay be availablefrom previoussoil classification studiesmadein the area.Also, agricultural bulletinspublishedby Federalor
State agenciesor local colleges and universities often have this information.
DRAINAGE MANUAL
50
May
Monthly
Daily
61.21
(2.4 1)
3.81
(0.15)
June
138.93
(5.47)
4.57
(0.18)
July
157.48
(6.20)
5.08
(0.20)
August
139.95
(5.51)
4.57
(0.18)
September
72.64
(2.86)
3.56
(0.14)
Total
570.21
(22.45)
From the previous example 1 for estimating the TRAM, the moisture used
betweenirrigations was 119.13millimeters (4.69 inches). The total amount of
water that infiltrates the soil surface upon each irrigation will be equal to the
TRAM plus any water that deeppercolatesbecauseof inefficienciesand leaching
requirements(see sets. 2-5,4-16,4-17, and fig. 2-6 in sec. 2-5). The drains
must be designedfor the greaterof the two estimatesfor deeppercolatingwater:
(1) leachingrequirement, or (2) normal deeppercolationfrom irrigation
Table 2-4a.-Irrigation
Date
Time
period,
days
5-14
5-3 1
6-11
6-30
7-6
l-29
7-3 1
8-23
8-3 1
9-21
Daily
consumptive
use, millimeters
Consumptive use
for period,
millimeters
Remaining
-l-RAM,
millimeten
3.81
17
311
19
6
23
2
23
8
21
3.81
4.57
4.51
5.08
5.08
5.08
4.51
4.51
3.56
0
64.71
50.29
86.87
30.48
116.84
10.16
105.16
36.58
74.68
54.36
4.06
32.26
1.78
2.29
108.97
3.81
82.55
1.87
Infiltraction,
millimeters
Snowmelt
(157.23)
0
157.48
0
157.48
157.48
0
157.48
0
0
787.15
Total
moisture,
millimeten
Ending
-l-RAM,
millimeters
Deep
percolation,
millimeters
157.23
119.13
38.10
54.36
161.54
32.26
159.26
159.76
108.97
161.29
82.55
7.81
54.36
119.13
32.26
119.13
119.13
108.97
119.13
82.55
7.87
42.42
40.13
40.64
z
%I
42.16
-
I
0
203.45
Table 24b.-Zrrigation
Date
Time
pel+4
days
Daily
consumptive
use, inches
Consumptive use
for period,
inches
5-14
0.15
Remaining
J-RAM,
inches
0
inches
Total
moisture,
inches
Ending
TRAM,
inches
hP
percolation,
inches
Snowmelt
6.19
4.69
1.50
hlfihtiOll,
5-3 1
17
.15
2.55
2.14
(6.19)
0
2.14
2.14
6-11
.18
.18
.20
1.98
3.42
1.20
0.16
1.27
0.07
6.20
0
6.20
6.36
4.69
1.67
6-30
7-6
311
19
6
1.27
6.27
I.27
4.69
1.58
7-29
23
.20
4.60
0.09
6.20
6.29
4.69
1.60
7-3 1
.20
0.40
4.29
4.29
4.29
8-23
8-31
9-21
23
8
21
.18
.18
.14
4.14
1.44
2.94
0.15
3.25
0.31
6.20
0
0
6.35
3.25
0.31
4.69
3.25
0.31
1.66
2
1
30.99
t Assumed 7.73 in&es of snowmelt of which 20 percent mns off.
2 Assumed.
3 Rounded down to a whole day.
Ei
8.0
CHAPTER
II-BASIC
DATA
53
= 119.13/0.60
Date
5-20
5-30
6-12
6-22
Measured
Infiltrated
millimeters (inches)
millimeters (inches)
13.46(0.53)
11.68(0.46)
6.35 (0.25)
29.46 (1.16)
12.70(0.50)
10.92(0.43)
5.08 (0.20)
25.40 (1.00)
Table 2-5 shows how this rainfall pattern would affect the results shown in
table 2-4.
Section5-5 of this manualshowsan exampleof how ground-waterbuildup is
determined from deep percolation and how an irrigation scheduleis used in
transientstatedrainageanalysis.
(e) Farm Waste.Farm-surface waste from irrigation varies with many factors, including soil texture, type of irrigation system, land slope, length of
irrigation run, andirrigation efficiency. With goodmanagement,it is possibleto
irrigate without any wastewaterleavingthe irrigated area,but irrigation without
surface waste is the exceptionrather than the rule. A deepsandy soil with flat
slopesand short runs is the most easilymanagedcondition for having negligible
wastewater, whereasa fine-textured soil on steepslopeswith long runs is very
difficult to managewithout having waste.In practice,a drainagesystemmust be
designedwith an allowancefor farm waste unlessprior irrigation operationsin
the areahaveclearly shown this allowanceto be unnecessary.
Table 2-Sa-Irrigation
Date
Time
period,
diiys
Daily
consumptive
use, millimeters
5-14
3.81
5-20
5-30
5-3 1
6-12
6-18
6-22
6-30
7-16
7-3 1
8-9
8-3 1
9-5
9-21
6
10
1
12
6
4
8
16
15
9
22
5
3.81
3.81
3.81
4.57
4.57
4.57
4.57
5.08
5.08
4.57
4.57
3.56
3.56
16
and deep percolation schedule for alfalfa including rainfall (metric units).
Consumptive use
for period,
millimeters
Remaining
TRM
millimeters
0
22.86
38.10
3.81
54.86
27.43
18.29
36.58
81.28
76.20
41.15
100.58
17.78
56.90
96.27
70.87
77.98
23.11
0.76
108.84
82.55
1.27
42.93
1.78
18.54
0.76
62.23
Wilttraction,
millimeters
Snowmelt
(157.23)
12.70
10.92
0
5.08
157.48
25.40
0
157.48
0
157.48
0
157.48
Total
moisture,
millimeters
Ending
TRAM,
millimeters
157.23
119.13
108.97
81.79
77.98
2x19
158.24
126.23
82.55
158.75
42.93
159.26
18.54
158.24
62.23
108.97
81.79
77.98
28.16
119.13
119.13
82.55
119.13
42.93
119.13
18.54
119.13
62.23
Deep
percolation,
millimeters
38.10
39.12
7.11
39.62
40.13
39.12
Table 2-5b.-Irrigation
Date
Time
period,
days
5-14
5-20
5-30
5-3 1
6-12
6-18
6-22
6-30
I-16
7-3 1
8-9
8-31
9-5
9-21
Daily
consumptive
use, inches
and deep percolation schedule for aIfalfa including rainfall (U.S. customary units).
Consumptive use
for period,
inches
0.15
6
10
1
12
6
4
8
16
15
9
22
5
16
.15
.15
.15
.18
.18
.18
.I8
.20
.20
.I8
.18
.14
.I4
Remaining
-l-RAM,
inches
0
0.90
1.50
0.15
2.16
1.08
0.72
1.44
3.20
3.00
1.62
3.96
0.70
2.24
3.79
2.19
3.07
0.91
0.03
3.91
3.25
0.05
1.69
0.07
0.73
0.03
2.45
Infiltraction,
inches
Snowmelt
(6.19)
0.50
0.43
0
0.20
6.20
1.00
0
6.20
0
6.20
0
6.20
0
31.12
Total
moisture,
inches
Ending
TlQW
inches
Deep
percolation,
inches
6.19
4.69
1.50
4.29
3.22
3.07
1.11
6.23
4.97
3.25
6.25
1.69
6.27
0.73
6.23
2.45
4.29
3.22
3.07
1.11
4.69
4.69
3.25
4.69
1.69
4.69
0.73
4.69
2.45
1.54
0.28
1.56
1.58
1.54
8.0
0
0.1
0.2
DRAINAGE MANUAL
10
15
0.4
0.5
0.3
CubicMetersper Second(m3/s)
20
0.6
25.-
wo
600
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0.7O
CHAPTER
II-BASIC
DATA
8000
greaterthan 4OOhe~ta1ts
DRAINAGE
58
MANUAL
CHAPTER
II-BASIC
DATA
59
Shockley,D. R., February 1955, Capacity of Soil to Hold Moisture, Agricultural Engineering, vol. 36, pp. 109-l 12.
Soil ScienceSociety of America, February 1973, Glossary of Soil Science
Terms.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, August 1951, Soil Color, Soil Survey Manual,
HandbookNo. 18, p. 189.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, February 1954, Diagnosis and Improvement of
Salineand AIkaIi Soils, Agriculture HandbookNo. 60.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil ConversationService,April 1967, Irrigation
Water Requirements,TechnicalReleaseNo. 21.
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil ConservationService,August 1972,Section
4, Hydrology, National Engineering Handbook.
U.S. Dept. of Commerce,National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration,
National Weather Service, 1973, Precipitation-FrequencyAtlas of the
WesternUnited States,NOAA Atlas 2,11 volumes.
U.S. Dept. of Commerce,Weather Bureau,May 1961, Rainfall Frequency
Atlas of the United States,TechnicalPaperNo. 40.
Urquhart, L. C., C.E., (Ed.-in-Chief), 1959, Civil Engineering Handbook,
McGraw-Hill, fourth edition, chapter9, p. 11.
((Chapter
III
PROCEDURES
62
DRAINAQE
MANUAL
64
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
65
Stopwatch
and recess-,
Pointer
Nylon roller
and recess
(Nylon rol ler
Counterweight (weight
slightly less than float)
-loat
string
Static water
table
Float
-b
- Burlap
f----
I
1
Figure 3-2.-Equipment
66
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Figure 3-3.-E:quipment for auger-hole test Item (I) perforated casing, (2) wire-wound well
screen, (3) stirrup pwnp, and (4) hole scratcher. P80I.D- 77012.
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
67
68
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER III-FIELD
HOLE NO.
E-4
OBSERVER
D.MM.S-
HOLE:
CASED
HOLE DIAMETER
AND LABORATORY
L OCATION
DATE
SAMPLBFARW
UNCASED 0
1pz MILIJMETERS
LOG
Kiches)
DESCRIPTION
GROUND SURFACE
GROUND SURFACE
b\V
-lb-
BARRIER
3.35-366 m: Blue gray clay (C), Sticky,
(11-u-t)
stmcttuekas. Appears to
be impumcabk.
r=PJKLm
(9.OA)
h=mrn
(4.8fi)
H=mm
0.960+0.759=08~2
&fe&)
,,
r
c=39o(fromchart)
At=lOseconds
K=C
Figure 3-4.-Data
103-D-650.
-25.10
(4.2Q
(3.15ft)
(2.52 fi)
0.860
= 0.051 = 1686
H
- =*
r
.
(0.167ft)
DH = am
yo=mm
y,=
69
PROCEDURES
70
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
71
i
.
Id
9
6
7
6
3
2.5 I
-3s
I!!
Id
IO
1.5
22.53
7 6910
I.5
! !-L.-E
2253
7 6 9102
4,
Figure 3-5.-Values
of C when baker is Mow
(Maasland and Haskew, 1958). 103-D-653.
bottom of the hole, figure 3-5 shouldbe usedto determineC. If the hole hasbeen
terminatedon a slowly permeablezone, figure 3-6 should be used. If the hole
penetratesinto a slowly permeablezone below a permeablezone, figure 3-6
shouldbe usedwith Has the distancefrom the level of the static water table to
the slowly permeablelayer insteadof to the bottom of the hole, as is the usual
case.The hydraulic conductivity can then be determinedby multiplying the C
factor by AY/At.The resulting hydraulic conductivity hasunits of metersper day
(feet per day) or centimetersper second(inchesper hour).
72
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
ON THE
BARRIER
3
2.5
2
Id
9
6
7
6
2.5
2
I.5 -
O I
1.5
2.5
676910
I.5
2.5
7 6 9102
I.5
HII-
Figure 3-6.-Values of C when harrier is at bottom of hole during auger-hole test (Maasland
and Haskew, 1958). 103-D-652.
(e) Limitations.-The auger-holetest furnishesreliablehydraulic conductivity data for most conditions; however, the results are entirely unreliable when
the hole penetratesinto a zone under piezometric pressure.Small sand lenses
cccurring betweenlesspermeablelayersmake the test more difficult to perform
andmay yield unreliabledata.Water flowing into the hole throughthe lensesfalls
on the float apparatusandcauseserratic readings.Theauger-holetest alsocannot
be used when the water table is at or abovethe ground surfacebecausesurface
water or water running through permeablesurface layers will causeerroneous
CHAPTER
III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
73
readings.A depth of more than 5 meters (20 feet) to water table, althoughnot a
limitation as far as obtaining valid data is concerned,makes obtaining reliable
dataextremely difficult.
Comparativelyhigh hydraulic conductivity rates,in the magnitudeof 6 meters
per day (10 inchesper hour) or more, make theauger-holetest difficult to perform
becausethe bailercannotremovethe water asfast asit enters.A pump will remove
the water from the hole rapidly, but in very permeablesoils only one or two
readingscan be obtainedbefore recovery exceeds0.2 of the initial drawdown. A
hydraulic conductivity can be calculatedfrom only one or two readings,but the
resultscouldbe erroneous.Theuseof a dataloggerto collect water tablerecovery
datawill solvethis problem, which occurswhen usingfloat-activatedequipment.
Testshavebeensuccessfullyrun in alluvial materialshaving hydraulic conductivity rates of over 30 metersper day (50 inchesper hour) using a data logger.
At the other extreme,auger-holetestsin soils with hydraulic conductivity rates
in the rangeof 0.0006to 0.006meter per day (0.001 to 0.01 inchper hour) usually
give sucherratic readingsthat accuratevaluescannotbe obtained.However, the
resultscan be important in determinationof drainagerequirementseven though
exact valuesare not obtained.The knowledgethat hydraulic conductivities are
very high or very low can be quite useful from a practical standpoint.
The difficulty usually encounteredin augeringor digging a hole of uniform
size through rocky or coarse-gravelmaterial can prevent the performanceof an
auger-holetest. Casingcan sometimesbe used to stabilizethe walls of the hole
if a test is neededin thesematerials.Generally,however, most agricultural soils
being investigatedfor subsurfacedrainagesystemscan be testedby the augerhole method if a water table exists closeenoughto the ground surface.
v) Step Tests in Layered S&.-Step testsareusedto determinethe hydraulic
conductivity of layeredsoils. Step testsare simply a seriesof auger-holetests in
or nearthe samehole locationbut at different depths.The hole is initially augered
to within 75 to 100millimeters (3 or 4 inches)of the bottom of the first texture
changebelow the water table, and then the first auger-holetest is run and the
hydraulic conductivity computed. The hole is then augered to within 75 to
100 millimeters of the bottom of the next texture change,the secondtest is run,
<andthe averagehydraulic conductivity for both layers can then be determined.
The procedurecontinuesuntil the last layer to be testedhas beenreached.The
hydraulic conductivity value calculatedfor eachstep will be the averagevalue
from the water table to the depth of the hole. The hydraulic conductivity for the
individual texture is found from the formula:
where:
= hydraulic conductivity to be determined
= hydraulic conductivity obtainedin the nth step of test,
G
Kll-1 = hydraulic conductivity obtainedin the (n-l) step,
K n,x
74
DRAINAGE MANUAL
=
=
D,
Qa.1 =
n
=
x
=
4
LOG
KnDn-kn.l
-*
K
%X =
Da-,
da
da =D,-
CALCULATIONS
FOR HYDRAULIC
K1.1~ KSL 3 9
K1l=
K1 3 _ -
* -
= -iKlDl
= K3D3 -KS&
KI,~=KcL=
Figure 3-7.-Data
FELD
d:,
D,.,
EST DATA
ICl = 5.8
dt=t.76-1.31&.a
D1=1.76-1.31n0.45
Kz = 3.8
d2=2.19-1.7M.43
D2=21~1.31=0.88
K3 = 3.0
d3&59-2l9&10
D3=259-1.3k1.28
K4 = 2.0
d4=3.38-2.SO.79
D4=3.38-1.31~207
CONDUCTIVITY
LAYERS
;I:58x*4q
= (3*ox1.28) - (3-8)(o.88)
0.40
drl
OF SPECIFIC
0.79
= 1.71 ce~c~crlmr
and computation sheet on step test for hydraulic conductivity. 103-D- 1627.
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
75
3-3. Piezometer Test for Hydraulic Conductivity.-(a) Introduction.The piezometertestmeasuresthe horizontalhydraulic conductivity of individual
soil layersbelow a water table.This test is preferredover the auger-holetest when
the soil layersto be testedare lessthan 18inchesthick andwhen individual layers
below the water table are to be tested.In subsurfacedrainageinvestigations,an
important applicationof this test is to provide datafor determining which layer
below a proposeddrain depth functions as the effective barrier layer. This test
also provides reliable hydraulic conductivity dam for any soil layer below the
water table.
(b) Equipment.-Suggested equipmentrequired for the piezometertest is:
(1) Casingof minimum 25-milliieter (l-inch) i.d. (insidediameter)40- to
5Omillimeter i.d. recommended)consistingof a thin-walled electricalconduit
for depthsto 4 metersandblack iron pipe with smoothinsidewalls for depths
greaterthan 4 meters.
(2) Ship augerwhich fits inside the casing.
(3) Pipe-driving hammer, consistingof a piece of 5Omillimeter (2-inch)
iron pipe which fits over the casingwith a Gilogram (lo-pound) weight fixed
to the pipe. A small sledgehammer can be used in place of the Wilogram
(lo-pound) weight.
(4) Hand-operatedpitcherpump with hoseandfoot valve, or a bailerwhich
will fit inside the casing.
(5) Recorder board, recording tapes, and float apparatusor an electrical
sounder.The float resemblesthe float made for the auger-holetest, but is of
smaller size to fit into the smaller diameter casing.The counterweightmust
be adjustedaccordingly.
(6) Computation sheets, clipboard, stopwatch, measuring tape or rod,
windshield,and casingpuller.
(7) Bottle or vegetablebrushfor cleaningsoil film from insideof test pipe.
The brush shouldbe fitted with a coupler that attachesto the auger handle.
(c) Procedure.-A
two-man team is desirablein performing the piezometer
field test for hydraulic conductivity. The test layer should be at least 300 millimeters(12 inches)thick so that a NO-millimeter (4-inch) lengthof uncasedhole,
or cavity, canbe placedin themiddle of it. This placementis especiallyimportant
if amarkeddifferencein the texture, struchue,or densityof the layersexistsabove
and below the test layer. After the test layer has been selected,the topsoil is
removed from the ground surface, and a hole is augeredto within 0.5 meter
(2 feet) of the test layer. Someoperatorsprefer to auger 150to 300 millimeters
(6 to 12 inches),then drive the casingandrepeatthis processfor the entire depth
of the hole. However, this method is slow, and experienceshows its use is
generallynot warranted.Other operatorsjet the casingto within 0.5 to 0.75 meter
(2 to 3 feet) of the test layer and then augerand drive the casingthe remaining
distance.This procedurerequires additional equipment that usually cannot be
moved in to a waterloggedfield. The augeringand driving procedureis always
usedfor the last 0.5 meter (2 feet) to assurea good sealand alsoto minimize soil
disturbance. The casing is stopped at the depth selectedfor the top of the
lOOmillimeter (4&h) long cavity, and the cavity is then augeredbelqw the
76
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Ah-tl)
where:
K
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
77
78
DRAINAGE MANUAL
The constantA may be taken from the curves shown on figures 3-8 or 3-9.
The curve on figure 3-8 is valid when d and b areboth largecomparedto w (d =
distancefrom the static water level to bottom of piezometer;b = distancebelow
bottom of cavity to top of the next zone; and W = length of cavity.) According
to Luthin and Kirkham (1949), when b = 0 and d is much greaterthan w , the
curve will give an A factor for W = 4 andD = 1, which will be approximately
25 percenttoo large.
The chart on figure 3-9 is usedfor determiningA whenpiezometricpressures
exist in the test zone. When pressuresare present,additional piezometemmust
be installed. The tip of the secondpiezometershould be placedjust below the
contactbetween layers in a layered soil, sekfigure 3-10. In deepuniform soils,
the secondpiezometertip shouldbe placed an arbitrary distancebelow the test
cavity.
After installing the piezometers,the following measurementsshouldbe made:
(1) DistanceH, in meters (feet), betweenpiezometertips,
(2) Difference A in meters (feet), betweenwater levels in the piezometer
at static conditions,and
(3) Distanced, in meters (feet), betweencenter of the lower piezometer
cavity and the contact betweensoil layersin layeredsoils.
TheA valuefrom figure 3-9 is usedin equation(2) to determinethehydraulic
conductivity.
(e) Limitations.-Installation andsealingdifficulties encounteredin gravelor
coarsesandmaterial compriseone of the principal limitations of the piezometer
test for hydraulic conductivity. Even when the hole can be augeredin these
materials,rocks on the sidesof the hole often dent or rip the casing.Also, when
the casingbottoms in coarsegravel, a satisfactorycavity cannotbe obtained.
Six meters (20 feet) is about the practical limit of hole depth, both for
installationandwater removal witha stirrup pump. Duplicatetestsin soilsof very
low hydraulic conductivity (0.0025 to 0.025 centimeterper hour) am always in
thelow range,but canvary asmuch as 100percent.However, this much variation
has little consequencein this low range. Test layers less than about 25 to
30 centimeters (10 to 12 inches) thick and lying between more permeable
materials will not give reliable results becauseof the influence of the more
permeablematerials. The size of the casing is a matter of preference,as long as
it is 25 millimeters (1 inch) or more in diameter.Field experiencehasshown that
38millimeter (1-l/2-inch) i.d. piezometersprovide adequateopen areafor, float
operation.Pipe dieters greater than 50 millimeters (2 inches) are diffic/ult to
install properly.
3-4. Pomona Well Point Method.-This method resemblesthe piezometer
test discussedin the preceding paragraphs,except that this method measures
dischargefor a fixed draw-down rather than the water tablerecovery rate. These
differencesallow data collection in unstablematerials where an open cavity is
CHAPTER
III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
79
VALUEOFA/H, CONSTANT
38
51 mm (2 in.)
diameter piezometer
38
34
32
3
30
28
3
83
25.4 mm (1 in.)
diameter piezcmeter
26 +
24
22
20
18
16
14
12
IO
Figure 3-9.-ChaIt
for determining A-function on piezometer teat for hydraulic conductivity when there is upward pressure in the test zone. 103-D-1628.
80
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Pkansmtar No.
2
1
A,
=2.2m
\
3
--.
SILT
LOAM
K=
3,6aOx(Dm2be&YtW
A(t2-t3
Nom:
d=Distmcefmttcpoftest
layertoceattexoftest
cavity.
H = Distame frcm wrtsr table
to c&u of test cavity.
FINE
SANDY
LOAM
FOR PlEZOMETER
aII SAMPLE
TEST WITH UPWARD PRESSUREIN TEST
ZONE
re Tutinthelillyc~y--PhdA-Pundionuring
CALCULATION
SILTY
CLAY
LOAM
piemmetmlutd2
DlsmQad&zamaub3.Ecanhstaa
SILTY
CLAY
SAND
&
GRAVEL
Figure 3-lO.Sample
103-D-1629.
H I Hl-H2-6.1-S.l=lmetu
A~A1.A2~22-1.4=0.8maa@.6fmt)
(3.3fea)
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
81
difficult to maintain. This test method can also be used in materials where the
water recovery rate is very rapid.
The setupmay be identical to the piezometertest or it may employ a driven
well point.
After installation is complete and the well has been developed,the test is
conductedby pumping at a rate to maintain a fixed drawdown. The dischargeis
measuredfor 1 out of every 5 minutes until a steadymte is obtained.When the
systemreachesequilibrium, the dischargerate is measured.The hydraulic conductivity rate is determinedby:
k = Q/Ah
where:
K =
Q =
A =
h =
Hydraulic conductivity
Dischargerate
A constantfor a given flow geometry (seefigs. 34 3-9)
Headdifference
82
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Qlw, 0
= x(H2-h2)
AssumeR=5OOx r
for most cases. v
CHAPTER III-FIELD
B.
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
83
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Gageconsisting of plastic
tube and board cali
Valve4
Plexiglass cover
Clamp .-/
*.
/
Adjustoble rod threoded
Fto fit top of carburetor
t
I
I
h-Depth of water to be
maintained from bottom
of hole.
Burlap-.
I
Figure 3-12.-Equipment
103-D-655.
CHAPTER
III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
85
86
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Figure 3-l3.-.Typical
constant-level float valve used in hydmulic conductivity tests. Fully
assembled float valve is shown on the right. P801-D-770l3.
CHAPTER /J/-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
tank gauge readings, and volume of water added. Reading times are deternrined
by the type of material being tested and will range from 15 minutes to 2 hours.
Although not a necessity, the use of automatic recorders is desirable so that a
complete record may be kept of water movement into the hole. When water
temperature fluctuations exceed 2 C, viscosity corrections should be applied.
If the test water contains suspendedmaterial, a filter tank should be installed
between the head tank and the caIburetor. Polyurethane foam is a satisfactory
fIlter material. In-Iine milk fIlter socks have also been used successfully.
Figure 3-14 shows a typical filter tank and material.
The nomographs shown on figures 3-15a and 3-15b are used to estimate the
minimum and maximum volume of water to be discharged during a pump-in
hydraulic conductivity test. These nomographs provide an excellent guide to
deternrine the amount of water that should be discharged into the hole before the
readings become unreliable. The nomographs are especially useful in sands
becausethe minimum amount of water will be discharged into the hole in a very
short time. Readings should be taken as soon as the minimum is reached. To use
the nomogrnphs, the specific yield must be estimated from the hydraulic conductivity, texture, and structure of the soil. Knowing the depth of water maintained
from the bottom of the hole, h, and the radius of the hole, r, the minimum and
maximum amounts of water needed to meet the conditions set up in the mathematical model can be determined. When the minimum amount has been
discharged into the soil, the hydraulic conductivity should be computed following
Figure 3-14.-Typical
77014.
DRAINAGE MANUAL
86
tklqhl d mt9r
Rodiu;,;f
Might
of water
well
hum
Yinmmum volume
klallnn
*0*mc
In
- 3.0
- 2.8
-2.6
-2.4
- 2.2
-2.0
Estlsoted
specific
yield
S
15.00
1.8
1.6
1.4
4.00
0.1=----
- Coarse sand
030 - CrOVd
I.2
.OO
2.00
0.24 -
au)--
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.*-
0.20 --
1.00
am--0.6
-
a40
OM---
0.5
R20
0.02--
0.4
O.Ol---
-0.3
Sinqk qroin
----
.-----
---.
Medium sand
----
Sinpk gram
.----Medium crumb
sljlkW-
5.0-12.0
krnS
_--_--
0.16 - :irdr
Sandy barn
0.u -----I
LI@~ cby
O.I2 bO~
silt
- Silt loam
0.10 - Veryflnr
- sandyloom
LOOIll
0.10
_-
QOE
cm6
osa
0.04
a03
0.06 -
~~~~
0.05 -
cloy loom
Silt loam
Silt
oM--
Structure
-----
T9aturr
10.00
0.00
6.00
---.
3.0-6.0
z3.c
_--.
=Y---
- wty cloy
udortsmatic
6SUbOnpubr bbhy
0.5- 1.5
-----.
Fmc 6 m&m
Drwnatic, oq
ubr blocky. 6
Fmr
_--0.12~05
.----very fmr or
fme prism&
npular block
a ploty
._-006-CL12
004
Figure 3-15a-Nomograph
for estimating the minimum and maximum volume of water to
be discharged during a pump-in hydraulic conductivity test (metric units). 103-D-1193.
CHAPTER
tklqhtdwdw
Radius of well
h/r
III-FIELD
itdght d water
h. ft
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
89
tlmo ted
ic yririd
s
Mlnimum voiuma
Maim
volume
V,ft)
Mill
Max
IOO--so0
tydMlJli
-250
30--_200
-160
- I20
= 100
0.35
0.30
torrc rend
rove1
IO--
0.24
50-
64--
;,
I-
00
60
--
40
20
25Gi
0.16
0.1, 0.12
I.0 7I-
8
B
0.10 -
0.6 - _--
4
0.08
0.4--
0.2 -
OSI
0.05 -
Nomogroph
s
10.0-20
--5.0 -101
---
eddlumsand
.---.---___
0.20 -
IO
h/r
Sinpk pmin
-----------
2--
mm
mor
> 20.0
30
--
Key to toivbq
Single groin
0.04 -
--0.0-2.5
OOD
.
it
IIt loom
try fin
mdy im
BOllI
-----_-OY
ity Cloy
nndy cloy
Ity cloy
oom
hsubonpUIOI. bkciw
____
Fmc 6 medkm
prismatic. aqulor blocky. 6
Diotr
---a2-06
layiom
It iwm
it
mdy Cloy
oom
.--.
MO-0.2
001s -
--OY
-----_
YOSSIW
very fine or
fine cdunn2r
BY MY
WI
0.01- ----t------
--<o.io
--.
Figure 3-lSb.-Nomogmph
for estimating the minimum and maximum volume of water to
be discharged during a pump-in hydraulic conductivity test (U.S. customary units).
103-D-1631.
DRAINAGE
90
MANUAL
Hole C . 3 . . snmple
AE&
DwOctober
Farm
n 0.0LO0.6 (0 12 r, Light
Sandy Loam, friable. non-sdcky
0.6 to 2.tm (2 Lo7 r,. Light
grayish brown Sandy my Loam,
Oiabk. slight stickiness. damp 1
sbm *.tm (7 0) Fab hydrudic
Depth of
bottom of hole
Adjuti toaverage tank water Lcmpcmlure. .. se4 Figure 3.20 lot medwd.
Rends:
No woublc with appanxus. assumed test sadsfawxy and resulu reliable.
Calction:
hh E 1.074.051 = 20.96 h/&I 1.07/1.37 = 0.78
Q (werage akz mbitimintion) = O.ooO536 cubic meer ( 0.019 cubic feel) per minute
3h 6x3~ l.O7m)>&(L37m)>
h(l.07m). soukCondikm
II.
From nomogmph Qt. 3 . l&&b) : K E 0.52 metez per day ( 0.85 in per hour)
Figure 3-16.-Data and computation sheet on shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity. 103-D-467.
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
h/r
PROCEDURES
91
Q-
;/min. mI/Clay
h- metres
1
0.15
10.0
0.20
6.0
0.25
4.0
0.30
2.0
0.35
1.0
0.6
0.40
0.4
I50
120
0.50
0.2
100
0.60
0.70
70
0.60
50
40
0.90
1.00
1.20
30
1.40
25
1.60
I .60
20
2.00
2.40
2, 0
EXAMPLE:
h
= 0.76m
: 0.051 m
= I5
i/r
: 0.000034
m/doy
Q
= O.O32m/day
K
CONDITION
T,k3h
a
from shallow well
92
DRAINAGE
Q
ft3/min
h
T;
MANUAL
K
in /h
h
feet
-0.5
: 300
-200
-100
- 60
- 40
-
20
IO
5
3
2
- 1.0
- 0.6
- 0.4
- 0.2
-0.1
- 0.06
-0.04
-0.02
:O.Ol,,
;E.E
- 0.002
*~O.OOl
- 0.000
- 0.000
- 1.0
- 1.5
r2.0
/ i2.5
00.0
40.0
IO.0
20.0
4.0
2.0
I.0
0.49/
0;20
0.10
0.04
0.02
0.01
0.004
0.002
0.001
@,/
,N
i3.0
F3.5
i4.0
E4.5
Lb.0
I6.0
17.0
-6.0
Lg.0
-10.0
-0.000
-0.OW
5
Example:
h= 2.5ft
t-=0.167 ft
h/r= 15
CONDITIONI
T, L 3h
Q=O.O012 ft3/min
K=o.o~ in/h
Figure 3-17b.-Nomograph
for determining hydraulic conductivity from shallow well
pomp-in test data for condition I (U.S. customary units). 103-D-657.
CHAPTER III-FIELD
h/Tu
AND LABORATORY
Q
m3/min.
h-m
93
PROCEDURES
K
m/day
h/r
-0.33
-0.40
-.OOl
-0.50
.002
-0.so
.004
IO
IS
20
30
-0.70
. 0.01
0.02
0.04
PO.10
0.2
,.ool
-4.0
5.0
I.8
-2.0
0*
\
\
.002
,004
6.0
7.0
.Ol
- 2.4
.02
-8.0
-9.0
10.0
.04
-3.0
.I0
12.0
14.0
.20
.40
16.0
18.0
-20.0
2.0
2.0
4.0
. 10.0
- 40
20.0
40.0
50
60
- 80
- 100
* 100.0
-150
I.0
4.0
10.0
CONDITION
3h LT,
II
EXAMPLE:
= 1.07m
?
= I.37m
hu/T, = 0.78
0
= 0.00054 m/min.
20:96 m
hp,r = 0.051
K
= 0.52 m/day
Lh
K= 1440
Figure 3-18a.-Nomograph
for determining hydraulic conductivity from shallow well
pump-in test data for condition II (metric units). 103-D-l 192.
94
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Q
ft3/mir
K
in/h
h
T;
a33
901
0.4
.002
0.5
0.6
0.00006
0.0001
-5
a04
I.01
.6
0$X04
CO,
\
,3L)
?
41Q
4.5 1
i
5
6
7
6
- IO
=O
6.0
.02
.04
0.001
0.002
0.004
Or)1
Op2
0
2
@
\
,A04
\
70
6.0
9.0
101)
/
\
,A
al
0.2
0.4
1.0
.I0
1.20
.40
?O-,.-!
1.0
- IO
0
----_.
1.0
&
0.0
0.0
0.0
:40
-50
-60
30.0
;I00
- I2
Example:
h- 3.5 ft
T, - 4.5 ft
h/T,-0.78
Q = 0.019 ft /min
r-0.167 ft
h/r = 20.96
K=08:, in/h
i20
L IS0
CONDITIONIt
3h LT,L
Figure 3-lib.-Nomograph
for determining hydraulic conductivity from shallow well
pump-in test data for condition II (U.S. customary units). 103-D-657.
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
95
96
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
97
ISOMETRIC VIEW
102
CROSS SECTION
Figure 3-lg.--Equipment
103-D-658.
98
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
(c) Procedure.-A
two-man team can efficiently install the equipmentand
conduct the ring permeametertest:After the site hasbeenselectedand the zone
of critical hydraulic conductivity determined,a l-meter-diameter hole is excavated to within 75 millimeters (3 inches)of the test zone.The last 75 millimeters
areexcavatedwhenthe equipmentis readyfor installation,taking carenot to walk
on the areato be tested.Thetestingarea,which will be insidethe 1%inchcylinder,
is checkedwith a carpenterslevel to assurethat it is level before the cylinder is
placed. The cylinder is marked with chalk 150 millimeters (6 inches)from the
bottom edge and driven 150 millimeters into the soil with the driving disk and
hammer. The cylinder shouldbe kept level during driving, andthe blows should
be as powerful and steadyas practicable.After the cylinder has been driven to
the desired depth, the soil immediately against its inside and outside wall is
tamped lightly to prevent channelingalong the sides. About 25 millimeters of
clean uniform, permeablesand is spreadover the area inside the cylinder to
minimize puddling of the soil surfaceduring the test. The outsideperiphery of
the cylinder is alsotampedto keepwater from channelingdown along the sides
and causingerroneoustensiometerreadings.
Next, the two 450-millimeter (Winch) piezometersate marked 230 millimeters (9 inches)from the sharpenedbottom and installedon oppositesidesof the
cylinder and about 75 to 100 millimeters (3 to 4 inches) distant from it. The
piezometersate installed by driving them 50 to 75 millimeters into the soil,
augering out the core, and continuing this process until the 230-millimeter
(g-inch) mark is at groundlevel. Careshouldbe takenthat the piezometersdo not
turn or comeup with the augerduring installation.A lOO-millimeter(4-inch) long
cavity is then augetedbelow eachpiezometerandfilled with clean,fine sand.As
an additionalmeansof preventingchannelingalongthe sides,a 1:1bentonite-soil
mixture is tampedaround the piezometers.Caution shouldalways be exercised
to ensurethat no bentonitefalls into the piezometersor into the testingring. The
piezometersam filled with water andcheckedto assurethat they are functioning
properly. If the water falls in the piezometem,the installation is satisfactory. A
small canshouldbeplacedover eachpiezometerto keepout dirt andwater during
the remainderof the installation.If the water doesnot fall, the piezometersshould
be flushedwith a stinup pump and reaugeredif flushing doesnot clear them.
The two calibratedandtestedtensiometersam theninstalledon oppositesides
of the cylinder and 75 to 100millimeters (3 to 4 inches)from it on a line at right
anglesto that of the piezometers.The calibration and testing shouldbe done in
the laboratory. Instructions for calibrating and testing can be ob&inedfrom the
manufacturer.During the calibration, 100on the scaleshouldbesetat zerotension
so that pressurescausedby a rising water table canbe observedif the water table
risesabovethe tensiometercup.Theholesfor the tensiometersareexcavatedwith
a 25-millimeter (l-inch) soil augerto a depth of 230 millimeters (9 inches). A
smallamountof dry soil is thendroppedinto thehole, followed by a smallamount
of water. The tensiometeris then placedin the hole, with the glasstubes facing
away from the sun, andworked up anddown in the mud to obtain good contact
CHAPTER
III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
99
between the porous cup, the mud, and the undisturbed soil. The annular space
around the tensiometer is filled and tamped with dry soil to within about
25 millimeters (1 inch) of the soil surface..A 1:l bentonite-soil mixture is then
added to prevent channeling.Mercury is placed in the reservoir cup and the
tensiometertubesfuled with water. A small air syringeis usedto removeair from
the tensiometertubeby forcing water through the system.
The carburetor float apparatusis installed and adjustedto hold a constant
150millimeter (6-inch) headin the cylinder, and the carburetor is connectedto
the headtank with rubber tubing. If the test water containssuspendedmaterial, a
fnter tank should be installed with the tubing as describedin section 3-7. The
tank should always be anchored,and the gaugeshould always face away from
the sun.The cylinder is then filled with water to the 15Omillimeter (dinch) mark
andthe tank valve opened.The hole outsidethe cylinder shouldalsobefilled with
water to a depth of 150 millimeters (6 inches) and should be kept to this
150~millimeter(6-inch) depth during the entire test period. The extra tank and
carburetoram used for this purpose.When all adjustmentshavebeen madeand
the tensiometersam full, the time and water content of the tank are recorded.
The headtank shouldbe checkedat leasttwo or three times a day, depending
upon the percolation and hydraulic conductivity rates, and filled as necessary.
Eachtime the site is visited, a record shouldbemade of the time, volume of water
in the tank, gaugereadingsof the tensiometersandpiezometers,temperature,and
the hydraulic conductivity. When the tensiometer gaugesread approximately
100 (zero tension), no water shows in the piezometer, and water is moving
through the 150~millimeter(6-inch) test layer at a constantrate, the requirements
of Darcys law may be assumedto have been met and valid test results can be
obtainedto calculatehydraulic conductivity. Tensiometerreadings sometimes
fluctuate when the soil is at or near saturation,and it is not always possibleto get
the 100reading.Gaugesfluctuating between100and 105areprobably indicating
saturatedconditions for that particular soil. Also, it is not necessaryfor both
tensiometersto have the same reading providing they both read in the 100 to
105range.
If the saturatedfront should reach a zone less permeablethan the test layer
before the requirementsof Darcys law are met, a mound of water will build up
into the test zone. When this buildup occurs, the hydraulic gradientwill be less
than unity, and the pressureat the baseof the soil column being tested will be
greater than atmospheric.Both the piezometersand tensiometerswill indicate
this condition. When the piezometersshow that a mound hasreachedthe bottom
of the cylinder, the test will no longer give a true hydraulic conductivity value.
When this condition occurs, the test will either have to be stoppedor the mound
loweredbelow the bottom of the cylinder. When thematerial betweenthe bottom
of the cylinder and the less permeablezone has a fair rate of hydraulic conductivity, it is sometimespossibleto lower the water table mound by augering a
number of holes around the outside periphery of the cylinder approximately
250 millimeters (10 inches)from the sides.Theseholes,when fflled with sand,
100
DRAINAGE MANUAL
will act as inverted drainagewells and, under most conditions, will lower the
mound. If the holesdo not provide the necessarydrainage,the testing equipment
shouldbe loweredto the lesspermeablezoneand the test rerun
At the close of the test, the soil is excavatedfrom around the outside of the
cylinder and cut for a short distanceunder the cylinder. A chain placedaround
the cylinder andpulled by a truck will usuallybreakthe soil acrossthe bottom to
allow examinationfor root holes, cracks,and possiblechanneling.
(d) Calculations.-Hydraulic conductivity computations for the ring permeametertest am madeusing the Darcy flow equation:
(3)
where:
K =
V =
A =
=
:. =
H =
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
101
PROCEDURES
1
.
1630 lo-14
0725 14%
11831
28546
0725 lo-14
1235
5.17
28546
34576
dry
#1235
1635
4.00
*34576
392%
dry
10.14-74
lo-14
dry
1.0299
10-15-74
+iO3
22663
1.2363
l&1&74
122663
+
27219
1.1404
27219
32151
10-l&74
1210 lo-16
1650 4.67
10-l&74
1650 lo-17
0820
Notes:
1550 32151
4932
46392 14241
1056
18
1.0559
1004
0.31
lK!
102
&y
dry
919
13
1.2028
995
0.30
104
102
dry
dry
1 This is the temperahue of the yater moving into the test zone and is measured in the teat cyliner.
Hole D-Z-Sample
= 1376
(A&ud
lo timprams
cfl6%)
Cakulati01~
K = *H
= s
K= w
Figure
3-2Oa.-Data
103-D-659.
and computation
conductivity
(metric
units).
102
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Votes: This is the temperoture of the water moving into the test zone and is measured
in the test cylinder.
1.0299
2Adjusted Q- ,,, , , , x 62.0 =57.5 (Adjusted to averoge tank water
temperature of 16oC which is the first reading after apparent stabilization)
Location:
Depth :
Calculations:
Hole D-2--Sample
Farm
42 to 48 inches
K= *H
= g
square inches
L- 6 inches
H- 12 inches
Therefore:
K- Qx0.00196-61.2x0.001965=0.12
Figure 3-20b.-Data
and computation sheet on ring permeameter test for hydraulic conductivity
(U.S. customary units). 103-D-659.
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
103
104
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Conductivity coejjkient
I!
a
1
2
3
4
5
6
I
8
9
10
(4.92)
(6.92)
(8.78)
(10.65)
(12.39)
(14.09)
(15.87)
(17.52)
(19.22)
(20.72)
1.67
2.34
2.96
3.54
4.13
4.67
5.23
5.78
6.32
6.86
(5.49)
(7.68)
(9.70)
(11.63)
(13.54)
(15.33)
(17.15)
(18.95)
(20.74)
(22.51)
(7.35)
(9.89)
(12.18)
(14.44)
(16.59)
(18.62)
(20.68)
(22.81)
(24.82)
(26.87)
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
105
PROCEDURES
Location:
Date:
Observers:
Texture of test zone: -
C = 6.92
Time
Tank reading.
m3 (ft3)
Time,
Initial
Final
Q
m3/min(f?/tnin)
Hydraulic
conductiviy, K
m/day (ft/day)
0800
0810
10
0.144
(5.10)
0.0144
(0.510)
16.658
(53.5)
0810
082cl
10
(9.98)
0.0138
(0.488)
15.953
(50.8)
0820
0830
10
0.119
(4.20)
0.0119
(0.420)
13.756
(43.6)
0830
0840
10
(8.36)
0.0118
(0.416)
13.619
(43.4)
0840
0850
10
0.0117
(0.415)
13.586
(43.2)
(0)
(0)
Calculations: K = z
K=
Figure 3-21.-Data
Q
(6.9;.3)(0.6)
= 1156Q, m/day
(104.05 Q, ft/day)
and computation sheet on test pit method for hydraulic conductivity. 103-D-1632.
106
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER III-FIELD
Initial
Date Tie
Final
Date Tii
AND LABORATORY
bnkRyting
Tii.
em
hours Initial Final
r-c,
trr
, IRLIP
Voy
CJfi
107
PROCEDURES
Lcxation:
Projecl:
Party:
tXeulatiom3:
Q=&z
A=~~=%~2236
=1641.7quare
centimeters for a
45.72~mtimctu
(18-&h)
ring.
Second
rnfiltmtion
rate=&
(cultim~perhoor
NOTES:
Run
Figure 3-22.-Data
dianwer
C. Laboratory
108
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
109
110
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CHAPTER
III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
111
112
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER III-FIELD
PROCEDURES
I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 12 I3 14 I5 I6 17 18 I9 20 21 22
2 I
JESJ
AND LABORATORY
i-
EAST
Location
OWI PE-3N
OW2 1.2E-2.13N
OW3
Figure 3-23.~Coordinate
2fE-2+
114
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
convenient.In this case, wells in all four quadrantscould have numbers with
combinationsof E, W, N, and S.
TheUSGSmethodis basedon a landsubdivisionsystemwhich usestownship,
range,section,and four lowercaseletters for well locations.The fust designation
of a well number denotesthe township, the secondthe range, and the third the
section.Each township contains 36 sections,and each sectionis 1 mile square
(640 acres). The lowercaseletters that follow the sectionnumber indicate the
positionof the well within the section.The fust letter indicatesthe quartersection,
the second the quarter-quarter section, and the third, if present, the quarterquarter-quartersection,or lo-acre tract. The letters a, b, c, and d are assignedin
a counterclockwisedirection, beginningin the northeastquadrantof the section,
or quarter-quarter section. If two or more wells are located within the same
lo-acre tract, they are distinguishedby anumeral following the lowercaseletters.
Figure 3-24 showsan exampleof the USGSnumberingsystem.1
3-21. Measuring Devices for Depth to Water.-There are severaldevices
for measuringthe depth to water in an observationhole. Figure 3-25 showsthe
most commonly used devices.Probably the most widely used is the weighted,
chalkedline. An ordinary steel tapewith a suitableweight attachedto the end is
chalkedfor the fmt 0.5 to 1.Ometer (2 to 3 feet) with carpenterschalkor ordinary
blackboardchalk. When immersedin water, the chalk will changecolor, andthe
point to which the tapepenetratesthe water surfacecan easilybe read. The tape
is lowered into the hole until it reachesthe water and then further lowered until
an evenmeter mark is held at the measuringpoint. The reading on the chalked
portion is subtractedfrom the readingat the measuringpoint and the difference
is the depthto water. This proceduremay requiremore than onetry to get the end
of the tapeproperly submerged,but canbe donequickly if the approximatedepth
to water is known.
Another method is to use a steeltape with a popper attachedto the end of
the tape. A popper can be made from a 12-millimeter (1/24nch) pipe plug. A
fasteneris welded to the headend of the plug so that it canbe fastenedto the end
of the steel tape. The threadedend of the plug is hollowed out to provide an air
pocket. The popper is lowered into the hole, and a distinct pop can be heard
when the popper meets the water surface. With a little experience,the water
surfacecan be located within 3 millimeters (0.01 foot). The tape is read at the
measuringpoint when thepopperisjust touchingthe water, andthe distancefrom
the endof the popperto the tapeis addedto the readingto obtain the depth of the
water surfacefrom the measuringpoint.
A graduated rule or dipstick made of 1Zmillimeter (l/2-inch) thick by
25millimeter (l-inch) wide hardwoodis usefulfor measuringwater levelswithin
~U.S.GeologicalSulveyWater-SupplyPapers.~issystrmisnotusedbytheUSGSintheStateofWashington
and cannot, of come, be used in States that do not use the rectangular system of the United States public land
surveys.
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
R. 29 W.
aad
{
SECTION
I?igure 3-24.-USGS
103-D-696.
-a-L
du
12
system.
115
DRAINAGEMANUAL
116
Power. PX-D-25996.
OIalked Line. PX-D-25997.
Figure 3-25.-Devices
CHAPTER
III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
117
2.5 meters (8 feet) of the surface.This devicecanbe jointed like a fishing rod or
hingedandfolded for convenience.The wood is not paintedor treatedin anyway,
which eliminatesthe needfor chalking. With ah nonelectricmeasuringdevices
except the popper,caution should be exercisedto avoid errors in measurement
causedby displacementof a sufficient volume of water with the device during
the measuringprocess,patticularly when measuringin small diameterpipes.
AU permanentpump installationsshouldinclude an air line and gaugewith
which to measuredrawdown during pumping. The air line usually consistsof
6-millimeter (l/4-inch) tubing of sufficient length to extend below the lowest
water level to be measured.The vertical distancefrom the centerof the pressure
gaugeto the bottom of the air line shouldbe measuredat the time of installation.
A pressuregaugeand an ordinary tire valve are placedin the line at the surface
so air can be pumped into the line and the pressuremeasured.To measurethe
depth of water, pump air into the line until a maximum reading occurs on the
gauge. This reading is equal to the pressureexerted by the column of water
standingabovethe bottom of the air line in the well. The depth to water below
the pressuregaugeis then computedby subtmcting the gaugereadingfrom the
vertical distanceto the bottom of the air line. If the gaugereadsin kilopascals,
multiply the readingby 0.102 to convert to meters.
Example: If the length of the air line from center of gaugeto bottom of air
line is 30 meters(100 feet) and the gaugereads150kilopascals(21.6 poundsper
squareinch), the water level in the well is 15meters (50 feet), 30 - (150 x 0.102)
[( 100- (21.6 x 2.3l)], below the center of the gauge.Unlesscarefully calibrated
against taped readings, the air line is accurate only to about plus or minus
0.15 meter (0.5 foot).
Severalcommercial electrical soundingdevicesare availablefor measuring
the depthto water in a well or observationhole. Most of thesedevicesare based
on completingan electrical circuit through the water in the well. Someuse two
electrodesandthe circuit is completedwhen they reachthe water surface.Others
use only one electrodeand the well casing servesas the other electrode.These
devicesusually employ flashlight batteriesfor power, andcontact with water is
signaledby a bell, buzzer, light, or movement of an ammeter indicator. The
electrodesareattachedto insulatedwire which is markedin incrementsof length
Devices are also availablewhich measurevarious water-quality parametersas
well as depth. Parametersmost likely to require measurementduring drainage
investigationswould includesalinity, pH, temperature,etc.
Instrumentshavealsobeendevelopedwhich usea diaphragmarrangementto
measureeither positive or negativepressures.Theseinstrumentsare sometimes
referred to as transiometers. As the water table fluctuates, they alternately
measure depth of water above the measuring point or negative pressure in
unsaturatedsoils.
S22. Plugged Observation Holes.-After a seriesof measurements,it may
be noted that the water level no longer fluctuates in certain holes, that the
fluctuation departsfrom its former pattern, or that the position of the water table
and the magnitude of fluctuation has changedin nearby holes. Suchholes may
have become plugged by an accumulation of silt. Possibleplugging can be
118
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
detected by pouring water into the hole and measuring the rate at which it
is acceptedinto the formation. A very slow rate, consideringthe soil in the
formation, indicates a plugged hole. Usually these holes can be retumed to
usefulnessby flushing the hole from the insideor by bailing. A stirrup pump can
be usedfor flushing by attachinga small diameterplastic hoseto it, inserting the
hose in the hole, and pumping water into the hole. The water will then flow
upward out of the hole between the casing and the plastic hose. The flushing
action will loosenthe materialthat forms theplug andwashit out or permit bailing
it. Under someconditions, a hand auger sized to fit inside the casinghas been
usedto cleanmaterial from a pluggedwell. Augering usedin combinationwith
bailing works well for somesoils.
When a monitoring well hasoutlived its usefulness,environmentalconsiderations and legal requirementscall for proper disposalor abandonment.The well
should be cut off 0.5 meter (2 feet) below ground surface and backfilled with
concreteto precludethe possibility of providing an avenuefor contaminationof
the ground water. State and local codes should be checkedto be sum that all
statutory requirementsaremet.
S23. Bibliography.ASCE, June1961,Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, vol. 87,
No. lR2, part 1.
Bureauof Reclamation,1977, Ground Water Manual.
Kirkham, D., 1945,PmposedMethod for Field Measurementof Permeability
of Soil Below a Water Table, Soil ScienceSocietyof America Proceedings, vol. 10, pp. 58-69.
Kirkham, D., and C.H.M. Van Bavel, 1948, Theory of SeepageInto Auger
Holes, Soil ScienceSociety of America Proceedings,vol. 13, pp. 75-82.
Luthin, J. N., and D. Kirkham, 1949, A PiezometerMethod for Measuring
Permeability of Soil In Situ Below a Water Table, Soil Science,vol. 68,
pp. 349-358.
Maasland,M., and H. C. Haskew, May 1958, The Auger Hole Method of
Measuringthe Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil and its Application to Tile
DrainageProblems. Paperpresentedat the International Commissionon
Irrigation and Drainage,Third Congress,SanFrancisco,Calif., Question8,
pp. 8.69-8.114.
Mantei, C. L., datedMay 2,1972. A-function Valuesfor Field Permeability
Measurement.UnpublishedBureauof Reclamationmemorandum.
Van Beer, W.F.J., 1958,The Auger Hole Method. InternationalInstitute for
Land Reclamation and Development, Bulletin No. 1, Wageningen,The
Netherlands.
Winger, R. J., Jr., December9-12, 1956, Field Determination of Hydraulic
Conductivity Above a Water Table. Papergiven at the annualmeeting of
,
the American Societyof Agricultural Engineers,(unpublished).
Winger, R. J., Jr., June 1960, In-Place Permeability Testsand Their Use/in
SubsurfaceDrainage, InternationalCommissionon Irrigation andDrain-
CHAPTER III-FIELD
AND LABORATORY
PROCEDURES
119
((Chapter IV
DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS
122
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
123
crops currently grown and trends, crop yields, irrigation practices, and the
extent and effects of local floods.
(m) Statusand scopeof any existing drainageprograms administeredor
undertakenby State,Federal,or private agencies.
The preliminary information collected from the aboveitems for field reconnaissanceis associatedwith the analysesof certain subsurfaceconditionsthat are
introducedin this sectionbut discussedin more detail in subsequentsections.
The analysisof subsurfaceconditions requireseither a value for the depth to
barrier or the knowledgethat the barrier is at sucha sufficient depth that it hasa
negligibleeffect on thedrainagerequirements.Thelogs of any existingwells may
show the depth of barrier; otherwise,new holesmust be drilled for barrier depth
determination.Suchholesshouldbelocatedat strategicpoints ondepth-to-barrier
contour maps.
To graphicallyshow the effect of subsurfacecharacteristicson drain location,
depth,and spacing,a seriesof ground-waterprofiles shouldbe madeshowing the
location, extent, and slope of the different strata. These features can then be
analyzedin relation to the slope of the ground surface and to the existing or
projected ground-water conditions.A sampleset of profiles is shown on figure
4-l. Wherepertinent soil strata(either fine-textured, slowly permeablematerial,
or coarse-textured,highly permeablematerial) are continuousover a large area,
a contour map of the surface of the stratum is often useful. Sucha contour map
is extremely helpful in planninga drainagesystemfor an areaunderlainat depths
of 1.8to 3 meters(6 to 10feet) by thesematerials.Contourmapsandground-water
maps drawn on transparentpaper can be used as overlays on a basemap of the
studyareawhich showsgroundsurfaceelevations,canalanddrain locations,and
other pertinent data. When making these overlays, using a color system as
suggestedon figure 2-l will simplify the interpretation.This methodis often very
helpful in locating new drains. Thesetypes of maps and profiles can be easily
developedusing a GIS (GeographicInformation System).
4-S. Subsurface Investigations.-A goodinvestigationof subsurfaceconditions representsa balanceamong: the availabledata: the amount and types of
additionaldatarequired; andthe time, money, andmanpoweravailable.Hydraulic conductivity measurementsrepresentthe grates t investmentin time, money,
and manpower, but the resulting data are the most important of all the data
produced in the subsurfaceinvestigations. Therefore, hydraulic conductivity
shouldbe measuredusing the best techniques.
(a) Log of Drainage Holes.-Each hole or cutbank used in a particular
drainagestudy should be completely logged so the description of soil characteristics has maximum useftdnessin identifying and correlating similar soils.
Figure4-2 showsthe type of log preferredfor a drainagehole. Personnellogging
holes should coordinate their efforts so that identical soil characteristicsare
recognizedand uniformly describedwherever possible.
(b) Projection of In-Place Hydraulic Conductivity Data to Similar Soil Horizons.-An in-place hydraulic conductivity test, when conductedin two or more
EXPLANATION
1244
1242
,240
1238
1238
1236
1236
1234
co
PROFILE
4Y
LOAMY
SAND
SL
SANDY
LOAM
FSL
FINE
SCL
SANDY
L
SANDY
CLAY
SiL
SILTY
LOAM
SILTY
CLAY
CL
CLAY
LOAM
LOAM
LOAM
LOAM
SiCL
1244
LS
LOAM
CLAY
1242
1240
,238
J 1236
i;
1c
1254
w
PROFILE
rMnin
cnnnt
2Y
NOTE
1244
1242
Ground
well
,240
1238
1236
1234
1252
3000
2000
1000
1000
moo
DISTANCES
3000
FROM
-mm
5ooo
6000
Y-Y AXIS IN METERS
PROFILE
Figure 4-l.-Typical
7000
8000
X-X
ground-water profiles. 103-D-1428.
SCQO
water
profiles
readings
of
based
March
on
13;1970.
ohs.
IOLE NO.
Hydraulic Conductivity
No. 1
T 120 N, R 64 W, 34 bbbb-Oahe
Project,
South
Dakota
:REW
J. Smith,
:ROP
September
S. Williams
LAND
Wheat (harvested
CLASS
in July)
DESCRIPTION
OF MATERIAL
STRUCTURE
TEXTURE
SiL(SiCL)
M.A.
Sand 16%
Silt
56%
Clay 26%
SiL(FsL)
M.A.
Sand 44%
Silt 51%
Clay
5%
DEPTH
4.61
to
6.61
6.61
to
8.81
COLOR
7.5YR
514
&own
1OYR
612
CZP
1OYR
516
and
5YR
514
TYPE
sm.
Ang.
_ Blocky
Platy
10.1967
3 std
C228Y U2f2
CLASS
GRADE
Fine
to
Medium
Moderate
Medium
PERM
Pump-in
0.5 in
per hour
Moderate
Pump-in
0.9 in
per bout
Figure 4-2.Sample
NOTES
S.Y.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
between peds
slightly plastic
roots, concentrated
along vertical ped faces
vertical imped simple closed tubular pores
tubular pores
capacity
mottles
of
126
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
127
128
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
EXPLANATION
/loJ-Ground-wotsr
elsvotion
11.3 -Depth
to
0
Observation
Contour
ground
hole
interval
water
e feet
Figure 4-3.-Typical
103-D-703.
129
130
DRAINAGE MANUAL
may give some indication of the relative hydraulic conductivity by the distance
betweencontour lines.Themapsshouldalsoincludeinformation on construction
and depth of the well. This information is useful in assuringthat the water table
map showscontourson hydraulically interconnectedground-waterbodies.
(c) Depth-to-Ground Water Maps.-One method of preparing these maps
involves overlaying the water table contour map on a topographicmap. This
procedurecan be doneby marking eachintersectionof contours and noting the
difference in their elevations at the intersection point. Using these values, a
contour map which shows the depth to water below the ground surfaceat any
point canbeprepared.Another methodof preparinga depth-to-groundwater map
is to mark the measureddepthsto water from the ground surfaceon a basemap
at eachmeasuringpoint and preparea contour map from thesevalues.A typical
depth-to-ground-watermap is shown on figure 4-4.
(d) Depth-to-Barrier Maps.-A depth-to-barrier map can be preparedin a
manner similar to a depth-to-ground water map if sufficient information is
availableon the location of the barrier. This type of map is useful in establishing
drain locations, estimating quantity of ground-watermovement, and providing
other information neededfor drainagecalculations.
(e) Water Table Profiles.-A
water table profile canbe madefor a seriesof
observationholes. The baseprofile is preparedby plotting the ground surface
elevation:the locationanddepthof theobservationholes;andany springs,canals,
or ponds that are in the profile. The profile is generallymade downslopein the
direction of water movementbut can be made in any direction. The elevationof
the water surfaceat eachobservationhole or otherknown point canbe plotted on
a print of this profile. The use of different colored pencils for readingstaken at
different times of the year facilitates a visual comparisonof fluctuations in the
water table along the profile.
A water table profile is even more useful if it also contains information on
subsurfacematerial. The logs obtainedfrom installationof the observationholes
canbe plotted at eachhole, and any other pertinent information canbe plotted at
the proper location. If soil textures are available,tentativecorrelationsbetween
holes may be possible.The elevationof the barrier in eachhole shouldalso be
plotted on the profile, as this information will be helpful for locating drains and
in calculatingother drainagerequirements.
cf) Piezometric Profiles.-Readings from severalclustersof piezometerscan
be plotted on a profile drawn throughthe clusters.The elevationof the piezomettic water table for eachpiezometercanbe plotted at the elevationof the bottom
of that piezometer.Lines drawn throughpoints of equalpiezometric water table
elevationshow linesof equipotential.Lines dmvn from higher elevationsthrough
lower elevationsandperpendicularto the equipotentiallinesform a flow network
and show the direction of movement of water and, possibly, the sourceof the
water. This procedureis particularly useful in locating an artesianwater source.
(g) Hydrographx-Drawings
may be made showing the elevation of the
water tablewith respectto time for any singleobservationhole, well, or piezome-
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
i-i
R.\BW.
3N
131
/
$
EXPLANATION
reDWh +o proumJ wJ+er
contour Int*r.l 2 Bet
Figure 4A.-Typical
103-D-661.
132
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
ter. Sucha drawing clearly showsfluctuationsin the water tableas well astrends
in water tablemovement.Figure4-5 showsa typical hydtogmph.When analysis
of the hydmgraphdoesnot provide an explanationof certainproblems,it may be
helpful to superimposeadditionaldataon the hydrographfor use in the analysis.
Figure 4-6 shows the plotted data for a special problem where river stage,
precipitation,periodsof canaloperation,and water deliverieswere all included
on the samehydrograph.
A useful tool in analyzing hydrograph data is to compare departuresfrom
normal weather data with hydrograph fluctuations. The plot often explains
upward or downward trendsin water levels.
Availablegeographicinformation systemsoftware designedfor useon a work
station makes development and modification of the maps, profiles, and hydrographsdescribedin this sectionmuch easierthan hand drafting methods.
4-10. Ground-Water Accretions to Drains.-In its natural state, ground
water follows the hydrologic cycle wherein a portion of the precipitation falling
on the land surface percolatesdownward to join the ground-water body. The
ground-water body moves slowly from a higher to a lower elevation. Over a
period of time, the undergroundbasinfills with water until it spills into a natural
outlet such as a spring or a stmam. As a result of the cycle, a rise occurs in the
water table during periodsof high precipitationanddeeppercolation,causingan
increasein flow at the natural outlet. A period of low precipitation causesa
lowering of the water tableand a decreasein flow. A stability is reachedwherein
the ground-water table and the natural dischargefluctuate within an established
pattern.
Whenirrigation water is addedto the land surface,thusincreasingpercolation,
the pattern is upset. The water table rises and the dischargeat the natural outlet
increases.If water is addedannuallyat a fasterrate than it can travel to the outlet
to be discharged,the water table will rise in searchof outlets. When the water
table approachesthe land surface, agricultuml production may be adversely
affected, andadditionalmanmadeoutlets in the form of drainsmust be installed.
The drainskeepthe water table from encroachinginto the root zone.A depth-towater tableof 0.9 to 1.5 meters (3 to 5 feet) is generallysatisfactory, depending
on local conditionsincluding type of crops grown.
The dataobtainedby observingan operatingdrainagesystem can be usedto
verify the designcapacityand drainagerequirementsfor a new system,provided
the soils, croppingpattern, climate, water management,and other conditionsare
similar. Before any data from an operatingproject are used,the effectivenessof
existing drainsshouldbe investigated.Only when thesedrainsarefunctioning as
expectedshouldthe databe usedto verify the designof new systems.
Cll. Outlet Conditions.-(u) Physical Constraints.CSne of the most important considerationsin all drainageplanning is to determinethe adequacyof
the outlet for the systemof drains. An inadequateoutlet must be made adequate
by channelconstruction or pumping of the discharge.Either of thesemeasures
may affect the overall feasibility of a &Gage project.
I!!!!!!!!
I I
III1
I I
III
I I
III
133j-
NOllVA313
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
1339 - NOIlVA313
INVESTIGATIONS
133
a I-?-32dd
..
.............
.......
OBSERVATION
WELLS
ALON
EAST EDBE OF
SEC 32. 1. IN.,
R. 7 W.
....
TOTAL IRRltATIONy
DELIVERIES TO LAT.
1951
I iii
Is52
I953
6
SO
IS54
Figure 4-6.-Additional
,..... :-...:I.:
I955
1956
1957
I958
l9-
i;i;;iiig
19-
,-I.-- -----.
-F1.Q 13.9-0.9-0.4
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
135
136
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
137
Hectares
1
2
3
Total
96
Acres
240
100
x!Q
256 hectares 640 acres
2
Class
1
2
3
Annual benefit
per hectare
per acre
$181.25
156.50
107.75
$72.50
62.60
43.10
$17,400
6,260
Total $36,590
Averageannualbenefit = $36,590/256= $142.93per hectare($36,590/640=
$57.17per acre)
DRAINAGE
138
MANUAL
(1
+iY-1
i(1 + i)
cost
slmlmaly:
Drainage
Irrigation
O&M
=
=
Total
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
139
100 -
only
80-
be used
trends
to indicate
in crop
production.
Supporting
dota
limited
to permit
in detailed
71
z
8
2
k!!
too
use
analysis.
50
40
Range of normal root
zone for drain design.
30
k!
20
IO
0
1 (FEET)
j
6
I
0.5
MINIMUM
Figure 4-7.-Crap
1.5
1.0
DEPTH TO FLUCTUATING
I
2.0
2.5
WATER TABLE,
IO
,
3.0
METERS
DRAINAGE MAt+JAL
140
cost summary:
Drainage =
O&M
=
(1 + i) - 1
i(1 + i)
Total
B/C ratio
1293/1305(517/522) = 0.99
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
141
farmer doesnot apply sufficient water to bring the soil to field capacityover the
entire field, crops in the drier areasmay suffer from lack of moisture and will
probably developsalt problems.If the farmer irrigates in a manner that ensures
all areassufficient water, someareaswill receivemore water thanrequiredwhich
results in somedeeppercolation.Figures4-S and 4-9 show typical distribution
patternsof two different sprinkler systems.
In the planning stageof a sprinkler-irrigated project, the drainageengineer
must assumegoodsprinkler systemdesignandcareful operation.All subsurface
investigationsshouldbe made, and the estimateddminagerequirementsshould
be determined to satisfy leaching requirementsand normal deep percolation
losses.Investigationsshouldinclude ground-watermovement from other areas,
canaland lateral leakage,and studiesof the water table fluctuations before and
after irrigation. Measureddeeppercolation,if greaterthan that requiredfor salt
balance,shouldbe usedin designingthe drainagesystemif the amountof deep
percolationdiffers from planningstageestimates.
4-17. Tests for Estimating Deep Percolation From Sprinkler Systems.The tests should be located in an area where the sprinkler lateral pressuresare
typical of the system. Severaltests may be neededwhere large variations in
pressureoccur in the line becauseof topographyor other factors.
Catchcansshouldbeplacedsymmetrically in a grid coveringan areasprinkled
by two or three nozzles.Thesecansshouldbe at least 10centimeters(4 inches)
in diameterand set at the centerof 3- by 3-meter (lo- by lo-foot) grids with the
sprinklersplacedat the grid comers. The cansshouldbe set carefully with their
tops parallel to the ground. Vegetation or other obstructions should not be
permittedto interfere with entry of water into the cans.If necessary,the cansmay
be fastenedto spikesto hold them upright. Water collectedin the cansmust be
measuredfor two settingsof the sprinkler line. The catch volume for each set
must be added together to obtain the total catch volume in a grid square.
Generally, all water caught in the cans can be assumedto infiltrate the soil.
However, any significantrunoff from the test field shouldbe subtractedfrom the
volume.
Measurementsto be madeam: (1) depthof water in the cans,(2) time for the
water to accumulate,and (3) total time of irrigation per setting of the sprinkler
line. If the water depthin the can is 50 millimeters (2 inches)or more, depthscan
be determined to plus or minus 2 millimeters (0.1 inch). For less than 50
millimeters (2 inches),the depthsof catch shouldbe determinedfrom volumetric
measurementsto ensureaccuracy.
142
DRAINAGE
TYPICAL
MANUAL
SPRINKLER
PATTERN
S - Indicates
NYBER ;F
location
of sprinklers
SPRINKLERS OVERLAPPING
~-.~__._.
_
14.3 HOURS
116mm (457)
76mm (3.0)
95 mm (3.791
13%
OF PATTERN
72 %
._-.-.-.._
__-
60 %
21 %
103-D-1640.
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
143
TYPICAL
PIVOT SPRINKLER
PATTERN
DISTRIBUTION
DEEP PERCOLATION
ALONG SPRINKLER
20
40
PERCENT
50
Go
OF LITERAL
LINE
70
LENGTM
Figure 4-9.-Typical
60
90
loo
31.9s
798
Percent
Evaporationandnonbeneficialconsumptiveuse ........
Surfacenmoff ..........................
Deep percolation .........................
10 to 15
3 to 5
15 to 22
144
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
INVESTIGATIONS
145
((Chapter V
Spacing of Drains
148
DRAINAGE MANUAL
and 5 versusg
basedon the
(feet
400
350
300
250
800
ZI
al
200
600
150
100
50
50
100
150
Computed
Figure 5-l.-Comparison
200
Spacing,
250
300
meters
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
151
F
?I
Y
(6)
OBSERVATION
HOLE
4S-2tE
0
IO
YEAR
Figure 5-3.-Ground-waterhydrographs.
Drawing 103-D-777.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
153
154
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
period, D = d + +.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
d=
1 + d/L(2.55 In d/r-c)
d =
where:
d =
d =
L =
r =
C
AND CONSTFIUCTION
155
for:
> 0.31
= 3.55-1.6;+2
156
DRAINAGE
h4ANUAL
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.1
i
2
3
20
30
40
50
70
100
200
300
0.3
0.5 0.7
345
10
20
~40507OlW
200300
d Cmetewl
Figure 5-5a.-Curves
for deteunining
Drawing 103-D-1653.
Figure 5-5b.-Curves
for detemining
units). Dmwing 103-D-1653.
Hooghoudts
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
157
AND CONSTRUCTION
120
43
42
= 42 meters
33
38
33
30
27
24
<
=
21
-5
0
13
15
12
0
5
3
0
3
45
10
203050
loo
300
500
NY33
3ooo
L (melets)
Figure 5-6a.-Expanded
curves for determining Hooghoudts convergence correction (metric
units). Drawing 103-D-1654.
Figure 5-6b.-Expanded
curves for deWmining
(U.S. customary units). Drawing 103-D-1654.
Hooghoudts
convergence correction
158
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
Table S-L-Approximate
AND CONSTRUCTION
deep percolationfrom
(percent of net input).
159
surface irrigation
By texture
Texture
Ls
SL
L
SE
SCL
Percent
30
26
22
18
14
Texture
CL
SiCL
SC
C
Percent
10
6
6
6
By infiltration rate
Jnf. rate
mm/b
( Ad
(kFO5)
1.27
2.54
(JO)
5.08
w9
7.62
(.30)
10.2
(.40)
(.50)
12.7
15.2
W)
20.3
(.80)
Deep percolation,
percent
3
5
8
10
12
14
16
18
h&fate
mm/h
( /h)
25.4
(YOO)
31.8
(1.25)
(1.50)
38.1
50.8
(2.00)
63.5
(2.50)
16.2
(3.00)
102.0
(4.00)
Deep percolatioq
Percent
20
22
24
28
31
33
37
Example2:
Assumethe total readily availablemoisture in the root zone(allowable
consumptiveusebetweenirrigations) hasbeendeterminedas 107millimeters (4.2 inches) and that the infiltration rate of the soil in the area is
25 millimeters (1 inch) per hour with a correspondingdeeppercolationof
20 percent.
The net input of water into the soil per irrigation will be s
134millimeters (5.25 inches),where 0.80 = 1.00 - 0.20. The deeppercolation will be 134- 107= 27 millimeters (1.05 inches).The buildup in the
water table per irrigation would be this deeppercolation amount divided
by the specific yield in the zone between the drain and the maximum
allowablewater table.
Rainfall in arid amasis usually, but not necessarily,so small that the effects
of deeppercolationfrom this sourceduring the irrigation seasoncanbeneglected.
In semihumidareas,deeppercolationfrom rain may be appreciableandmust be
accountedfor inestimating subsurfacedrainagerequirements.Whenit is apparent
that precipitationis a significant sourceof soil moistureanddeeppercolation,the
curve of figure 5-7 can be used to estimate the infiltrated precipitation. This
infiltrated precipitation can then be usedin a manner similar to that describedin
section 2-6 to determine the resultant irrigation scheduleand the amount and
timing of deeppercolation from rainfall and irrigation. In areasthat frequently
have 3 or 4 days of rainfall separatedby only 1 or 2 rainlessdays, the transient
flow methodsyield more accuratevaluesfor dischargeif the accumulateddeep
Precipitation
Measured
45
0.5
0
I
(inches)
1.5
1.0
2.5
I I I I I I I I I I I I
I I
40
IEASURED
TECIPITATlOC
31mm
3mm
(0.11)
33mm
(1.30)
0
0
I I
IO
15
IIIIII
20
25
30
IIll
35
Measured
40
111
45
Precipitation
25mm
CO.969
I
I
I
55
(millimeters)
CALCULATIONS
26mm
(I.047
(1.22)
If IFILTRATEC
RAINFALL
22mm
CQ65,
160
65
31(1.227+
20 (O&Y)
= 5lmm(2.02)
Accumulative
infiltrated
rainfall
from
curve
= 38mm
(1.51)
38(1.51) - 26 (l&I?
= I2 mm (0.441)
51 C2.02? + 33 U.30) = 64mm
(3323
Accumulative
infilrated
roinfall
fram
= 41 nvn(l.62?
41(1.62%36(1.51)=3mm
I
I
I
75
I
80
I
65
I
90
cwve
011
I
95
ICH
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
161
162
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Irrigation or
srwwmelt (SM)
SM
First
Second
Third
Fourth
Fifth
Sixth
Date
April 22
June6
July 1
July 21
August 4
August 18
September1
Time between
irrigations,
&YS
45
25
20
14
14
132
time period. Using this value, the value of $ is then found from figure 54.
Knowing the initial yO,we can then calculatey, the height to which the midpoint
water table falls during this time period. This process is repeated for each
successivetime period, which resultsin a water table height for eachsuccessive
rechargeand drainout. The processis shown in tables5-2a and 5-2b.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
163
AND CONSTRUCTION
al
Irrigation
No.
Time period,
t, days
Buildup per
inigation,
meters
YO.
meters
D,
meters
sr?
1
YO
1.
meters
1.22
0.701
7.31
7.05
0.0742
.0710
0.575
.590
0.701
0.414
0.554
6.98
.0272
.870
0.482
0.622
7.01
.0152
.958
0.596
0.736
7.07
.0123
.978
0.720
0.860
7.13
.0087
.985
0.847
0.987
7.19
.0087
.985
0.972
1.112
7.26
.0088
.985
1.095
KDt
6
117
116
0.140
SM
45
1
.140
25
.140
2
20
.140
3
14
4
.140
14
.140
5
14
.140
1.235
al
Irrigation
No.
Q
Time period,
t, days
Co
Buildup per
irrigation,
feet
YO.
feet
D,
feet
KDt
z
1
YO
Y.
feet
4.00
2.30
24.00
23.15
0.0742
.0710
0.575
.590
2.30
1.35
1.82
22.91
.0272
.870
1.58
2.04
23.02
.0152
.958
1.95
2.41
23.20
.0123
.978
2.36
2.81
23.41
.0087
.985
2.77
3.22
23.61
.0087
.985
3.17
3.63
23.82
.0088
.985
3.58
6
117
116
SM
0.46
45
.46
25
.46
20
.46
14
.46
14
.46
14
.46
4.04
164
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Explanationof eachcolumn:
Column @.-Number of each successiveincrement of recharge, such as
snowmelt (SM), rain, or irrigation.
Column Q.-Length of drainoutperiod (time betweensuccessiveincrements
of rechargeor betweenincrementaldrainoutperiods).
Column @.-Instantaneous buildup from each recharge increment (deep
percolationdivided by specific yield).
Column @.-Water table height above drains at midpoint between drains
immediatelyafter eachbuildupor at beginningof incrementaltime periodsduring
the nonirrigation seasondrainout (col. @ of preceding period plus col. @ of
current period).
Column @.-Average depth of flow, D = d + ? (d shouldbe limited to $).
Column @.-A calculatedvaluerepresentingthe flow conditionsduring any
particular drainout period: sL2
K x col. 0 x col. 0.
Column B.-Value taken from the curve on figure 5-4.
Column. @-Midpoint water tableheight abovedrain at endof eachdrainout
period, col. @ x col. 6.
Table5-2 showsa fmal y0 = 1.235meters(4.04 feet), which is approximately
equal to the maximum allowable y0 of 1.22 meters (4.00 feet). Therefore, the
spacingof 442 meters (1,450 feet) results in dynamic equilibrium. As statedin
section5-4, this spacingsolution doesnot accountfor headloss due to convergence. Using Hooghoudts method of correcting for convergenceas given in
section54 and using figure 5-5, we find that for d = 6.7 meters (22 feet) and a
drain spacingof 442 meters (1,450 feet), the equivalentdepth, d, is 6.1 meters
(20 feet). TheD to be usedin the dram spacingcomputationsis: D = d f 2 =
6.1+ F. The trial and error approachis againusedto find the correctedspacing
of 427 meters(1,400feet). Table5-3 showsthe resultsof usingD with a spacing
of 427 meters ( 1,400feet).
The calculationsin table5-3 result inessentiallythe samewater tableheights,
yO,that were obtained in the previous calculationsin table 5-2 and verify the
427-meter (1,400-foot) spacingas corrected for convergence.Figure 5-S illustrates the water table fluctuation producedas a result of the conditions of this
example.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONST!=lUCTlON
165
Table 5-3a.-Computation
Irrigation
No.
f,
days
Buildup per
irrigation,
meters
Yor
meters
D,
meters
2SL
KD't
y
YO
meters
1.22
0.689
6.71
6.44
0.0730
.0695
0.565
.600
0.41
0.554
6.73
.0267
.870
0.48
0.622
6.41
.0149
.955
0.59
0.736
6.46
.0120
.970
0.71
0.856
6.52
.0085
.986
0.84
0.987
6.59
.0086
.986
0.97
1.112
6.65
.0087
.985
1.09
Y,
6
117
116
0.69
0.140
SM
45
1
.140
25
.140
20
.140
14
.140
4
14
5
.140
14
.140
1.235
No.
6
days
Buildup per
inigation,
feet
YO.
feet
D,
feet
KD't
SLY
YO
feet
4.00
2.26
22.00
21.13
0.0730
.0695
0.565
.600
2.26
1.36
1.82
20.91
.0267
.870
1.58
2.04
21.02
.0149
.955
1.95
2.41
21.21
.0120
.970
2.34
2.80
21.40
.0085
.986
2.76
3.22
21.61
.0086
.986
3.17
3.63
21.82
.0087
.985
3.58
Y.
6
117
116
SM
0.46
45
.46
25
.46
20
.46
14
.46
14
.46
14
.46
4.04
166
DRAINAGEMANUAL
Figure 5-8.-Water
of water tablefluctuation
with drain on the barrier layer.
Irrigation
No.
Time period,
t, days
Buildup per
irrigation,
meters
H
meters
KHt
-is
in meters
z
H
metels
6
117
116
SM
0.1546
.0905
0.590
.720
0.719
0.518
0.658
.0321
.900
0.591
0.732
.0199
.945
0.691
0.832
.0180
.950
0.789
0.930
.0141
.975
0.911
1.051
.0159
.970
1.015
1.158
.0176
.955
1.103
0.140
45
.140
25
.140
20
.140
14
.140
14
.140
14
1.22
0.719
.140
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
Table54b.-Computation
of water tablejluctuation
with drain on the barrier layer.
Irrigation
No.
Time period,
t, days
Buildup per
hi&on,
feet
167
AND CONSTRUCTION
in feet
KHt
feet
sL2
z
H
feet
4.00
2.36
0.1546
.0905
0.590
.720
2.36
1.70
2.16
.0321
.900
1.94
2.40
.0199
.945
2.27
2.73
.0180
.950
2.59
3.05
.0141
.975
2.99
3.45
.0159
.970
3.33
3.80
.0176
.955
3.62
6
117
116
SM
0.46
45
.46
25
-46
20
.46
3
14
4
.46
14
.46
5
14
6
.46
DRAINAGE MANUAL
168
=575meters(19feet).
= g
=0.444
KDt
= 0.096when:
= 0.444
KDt
From the abovecalculations,the water table will drop 1.5 meters (5 feet)
below the ground surfacein about 32 days.
Example2: Using example 1, determinethe drain spacingrequired to drop
the water table 1.5 meters (5 feet) below the ground surfacein
20 days.
KDt
= 0.096, when ;
(uncorrectedfor convergence)
= 0.444.
CHAPTER
V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
169
L = [(gx$mg]m
From figure 5-5, d= 3.9 meters(12.8 feet) andD= 5.25 meters(17.2 feet).
L = [(~~~6~~]m=68.5meters(224feet)(cormcteddminspacing).
A drain spacingof 68.5 meters (224 feet) is required to lower the water
table 1.5meters (5 feet) below the ground surfacein 20 days.
S-11. Drain SpacingUsing Steady-StateFormulas-The theory of steadystatedrainageconsidersa uniform, steadyrate of rechargeto the drainagesystem
which, under specifiedconditions of depth of dram depth to barrier, hydraulic
conductivity, and dmin spacing,will causethe water table betweenthe drainsto
rise to and remainat someheight so long as that rate of rechargecontinues.
For eachsetof physicalconditions(depth of dram, depth to barrier, height of
water table betweendrains,and hydraulic conductivity), there is a different drain
spacingfor eachassumedvalueof steadyrecharge.Therefore,the validity of the
dram spacing obtained by use of the steady-stateformulas dependson the
assumedsteady recharge. The steady-stateassumptionsseldom representthe
conditions produced as a result of the intermittent rechargesfrom irrigation
applicationsand the transient flow conditions. The method of determining the
steady rechargerate is based on the experienceof Reclamation engineersin
comparingtransientand steady-statesolutions.
The steady-statedram spacingformula generallyusedin the irrigated areasof
the United Statesis the Donnanformula.
Donnanformula,LZ = 4K(?-a2)
where:
drain spacing,meters (feet);
hydraulic conductivity, meters (feet) per day;
a
distancebetweendram depth and barrier, meters(feet);
b
distance between maximum allowable water table height between
drainsand the barrier, meters (feet); and
Qd = rechargerate, cubicmetersper squaremeter (cubicfeet per squarefoot)
per &Y.
Note: This formula is valid for any consistentset of units.
L
K
=
=
=
=
170
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
= 6.7+?
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTFWCTION
171
In steady-statenomenclature:
a=d=Oanda*=0;
b=d+max.H=O+
1.22= 1.22meters(4feet)andb*= 1.49m*(16ft*);
and
0.025
Qd = 14 = 0.0018meter (0.0059 foot) per day.
As mentionedpreviously, this value for Qd shouldbe divided by two for
drainson the barrier. Then, Qd = 0.0018
2 = 0.0009 meter (0.00295foot)
per by.
Using Donnansformula:
L2 = (4)(3.05)(1.49)
= 20,200 m* (217,000 ft 2) and L = 142 meters
0.0009
(466 feet) as compared to 125 meters (410 feet) by the transient flow
method in section5-9.
Thepreviousexamplesshow that the steady-statemethod doesnot necessarily
result in the samedrain spacingsasthe transientflow methods.BecauseQdis an
empirical value, this result is expected.The steady-statemethod does,however,
give spacingswhich are reasonablyclose for use where quick estimates are
neededor asgoodfmt approximationsfor the transientflow method. Very narrow
spacingscalculatedby the steady-statemethod havebeenfound invalid because
of problems with the basic assumptionof steady-stateconditions. The drain
spacingsobtainedusing the steady-statemethodshouldbe correctedfor convergence,using the methodspreviously describedin section5-5.
5-12. Determining Discharge Froni Spaced Drains.-The discharge of
spaceddrains canbe computedusing the following formulas:
qp = 86
qp = &
where:
qP
y,orH
K
D
172
DRAINAGE
d
L
MANUAL
The terms in the aboveformulas relate to the terms shown on figure 5-4.
Subsurfacewater flowing into an areafrom upslopesourcescan be evaluated
quantitativelyby useof the basic equation:
q. = KiA
(3)
where:
qu = unit flow, cubic meters (feet) per second:
K = weighted averagehydraulic conductivity of the saturatedstrata above
the barrier, meters (feet) per second;
i = slope (obtained from a ground-water table contour map along a line
normal to the contours,becauseflow is in this direction); and
A = areathrough which flow occurs, squaremeters (feet).
Generally, the maximum water table height would be used to obtain the
saturateddepth from which K is obtained.This same depth would be used to
obtain the area,A, for a unit width. The plane along which the area must be
obtainedis parallel to the contoursor normal to the direction of flow.
An applicationof equation(3) is given in section5-58.
The valueof quin equation(3) is the total amountof moving water within the
saturatedprofile above the barrier; however, an interceptor dram cannot be
expectedto pick up more thana portion of this water when the bottom of the drain
is abovethe barrier. For practicalpurposes,the dmin canbe expectedto intercept
only that portion of the saturatedprofile above the water surfacein the drain
Equation(3) then becomes:
q,, = KiA y
y+d
where:
q,, =
K =
i =
A =
Y =
volume rate of flow per unit length of drain from underflow sources;
hydraulic conductivity in meters (feet) per second;
slopeof water table;
saturatedareain squaremeters (feet) of flow in a unit length of width,
height in meters (feet) of maximum water surfaceimmediatelyabove
proposeddraim and
d = distancein meters (feet) from dram invert to barrier.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
173
suffice. In making a single computation for q,,, the situation must be carefully
consideredto obtain either an averagevalue or limiting high and low values.
Water tablecontourswill changethroughoutthe year. It is important that records
be availablefor at leasta year so that an estimateof the valuesof i and A can be
made.
Sometimes,the ground-watercontribution from a surfacewater body suchas
a stream, pond, or lake must be evaluated.This evaluation may be done by
analyzingsurfaceand subsurfaceinflow, precipitation, transpirationand evaporation, imported and evaporatedwater, surface outflow, and the changein the
surfacestorage.
Contributions to ground water by seepagefrom canalscan be obtainedby a
ponding test. In this test, seepageloss can be measuredby changesin volume,
correctedas necessaryfor transpirationand evapomtionlosses.Other methods
for estimatingseepagelossesare describedin the following paragraphs.
In the planning phaseof an irrigation project, considerationshouldbe given
to the effects seepagefrom unlined canals and laterals has on the drainage
requirement. If lining is neededbut not provided, additional drains may be
requiredto protect nearbycrops. A method of estimatingthe seepagelossesfrom
unlinedcanalsand lateralsis given in section5-15.
To evaluatethe benefits from reducingcanalseepageto the groundwater, the
amountof this seepagemust be known. The effect of canallining on the drainage
requirementcanbe determinedanda cost comparisonmadebetweencanallining
and drain construction.The drainagerequirementmay be reducedby lining the
canalsand in someinstancesmay beeliminated.Lining of a canaldoesnot permit
the assumptionthat seepageis eliminatedbecauseeven the best lining usually
permits someseepage.The effect of canallining on thedrainagerequirementwill
dependupon the capability of the formation to convey water in relation to the
seepagerates.
Drains shouldbe designedfor the total accretions:
4 = qp+ 4u
(5)
where:
q = cubic units of flow per unit of time per unit lengthof drain;
qp = flow in aboveunits due to deeppercolation;and
qu = flow in aboveunits due to underflow from outsidethe area or due to
seepagefrom surfacewater bodies.
S-13. Design Discharge for Collector Drains.-The dischargeq in equation 5, determinedfor eachunit lengthof pipe, canbe usedin the formula Q = qL,
where Q is the dischargein cubic units per secondat the end of a pipe L units
long. This formula for Q is applicablefor a lengthof pipe,L, which servesan area
that can be irrigated within about2 days. If q is the maximum rate of discharge
per unit length of pipe, the formula gives the dischargeonly for the period that
the water tableis highest.At anyother time, the rate of dischargewill be lessthan
maximum. For example,considera collector drain receiving water from a group
DRAINAGE MANUAL
174
A
x
0
Drains abovebarrier: q = Cw
Drainsonthebarrier:
4KW
A
q = C86,4001, x
(7)
where:
4 = discharge[cubic meters (feet) per secondper unit area]; yO,K, D, H,
and L are as describedin section5-12;
A = areadrainedin squaremeters (feet); and
C = areadischargefactor.
The factor C is the relationship between possible dischargeand probable
discharge,and is determinedfrom table 5-5.
Table5-5.-Area
Hectares drained
O-16
16-32
3249
49-65
65-8 1
81-97
97-113
113-130
130-194
194-259
259-324
324-389
389-453
453-518
518-2.023
discharge factors.
Acres drained
040
40-80
80-120
120-160
160-200
200-240
240-280
280-320
320-480
480-640
640-800
80-960
960-1.120
1,120-1,280
1.280-5.000
Factor, C
1.0
1.0-0.92
0.92-0.87
0.87-0.82
0.82-0.79
0.79-0.76
0.76-0.74
0.74-0.72
0.72-0.65
0.654.60
0.60-0.56
0.56-0.54
0.54-0.52
0.52-0.50
0.50
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
B.
AND CONSTRUCTION
175
Interceptor Drains
176
DRAINAGE
Firs+
required
MANUAL
drain
Figure 5-9.-Measurements
needed for estimating location of first drain below an unlined
canal or lateral. Drawing 103-D-1656.
+w
3.5
(8)
where:
q1 = seepagein cubicmeters(feet) per linearmeter (foot) of channelper day,
whenwater table is below channelbottom (free dminagecondition);
Kr = hydraulic conductivity adjacentto the channelsection,meters(feet) per
day;
d
B
Example:
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
177
where:
t = time in days for water table mound to rise from water table depth at
beginningof irrigation seasonto water surfacein canal;
K2 = weighted hydraulic conductivity between root zone depthand barrier,
meters (feet) per day;
=
distance
from water table depth at beginning of irrigation seasonto
Y
normal water surfacein the channel,meters (feet);
D1 = distancein meters (feet) between water table depth (at beginning of
irrigation season)and the barrier plus one-half y;
=
seepage
under free draining conditions,ms/m/d (fts/ft/d); and
41
S = specific yield determinedfrom hydraulic conductivity in the K, zone,
percentby volume.
For example, if the distance between water table depth (at beginning of
irrigation season)and the barrier is 6.1 meters (20 feet), K2 = 0.46 m/d (1.5 ft/d),
v = 2.74 meters (9 feet), S = 12 percent, and q1 = 1.0 ms/m/d (10.71 fts/ft/d) as
previouslycalculated.Find the time, t, as definedabove.
D1 = 6.1 +!$
t = (3.1416)(0.46)(2.74)2(7.45)(0.12)= 1o days
(1.0)2
Theuse of q1 in formula (9) doesnot accountfor the fact that the seepagerate
beginsto decreasewhen the water tablemoundreachesthe bottom of the channel
and will continueto decreaseuntil the mound risesto the water surfaceelevation
in the channel.At this point, the seepagerate becomesessentiallyconstantandis
called the terminal seepagerate, q2. The seepagerate, q2 can be determinedby
the formula:
q2 = 1.0
178
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Wzh,
X
where:
q3 = seepagein cubicmeters (feet) per linearmeter (foot) of channelper day
when the selectedroot zonedepthat the edgeof the irrigated areais
maintainedby a drain;
K2 = weighted hydraulic conductivity between root zone depthand barrier,
meters (feet) per day:
D2 = one-half the sum of the distancesbetween: (1) barrier and water
surface in channel,and (2) barrier and selectedroot zone depth at
the edgeof the irrigated area;
h, = difference in elevationbetweenselectedroot zonedepthat the edgeof
the irrigated field and water surfacein channel;and
X = distancefrom centerlineof channelto the edgeof the irrigated area.
Example: If hs = 1.22meters (4 feet) andX = 18.3meters (60 feet), then
D, = (6*1+ 2.74) + (6*1+ 2.74 - 1.22) = 8 23 meters(27 feet)9md
2
0.46 x 8.23 x 1.22
93 =
= 0.252ms/m/d (2.70 fWft/d)
18.3
Step2: If the canalis on a sidehill where the ground-watermovement is in
onedirection andwhereq3 is lessthan q2, useq3 as the seepagefactor
in estimatingthe distancefrom the canalcenterlineto fnst drain. If
movement is in two directions or from a canal on a ridge with
irrigation on both sides,when q3 is lessthan 5, useq3,
The examplein this sectionhas the canalon a sidehill with all ground-water
flow in one direction and q3 less than 42; therefore, use the q3 seepageof
0.252 cubic meters per linear meter (2.70 cubic feet per linear foot) of channel
per &Y.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
179
K@--h*)
243
where:
R = distancein meters(feet) from channelcenterlineto fust requireddrain;
h = distance in meters(feet) betweendrain and barrier: and
H = distance in meters (feet) between barrier and maintainedroot zone
depthat edgeof irrigated area.
K2, q3, andX am aspreviously defined.
Example: If h = 6.1 meters(20 feet) andH = 6.1+ (2.74 - 1.22)= 7.62 meters
(25 feet), then
R = 0.46 [(7.62)2- (6.1)2]
+ 18.3= 37.4 meters (123 feet)
2 x 0.252
Someirrigation rechargebetweenthe drain and the edgeof the irrigated area
abovethe drain hasnot beenconsideredin the calculations.This rechargeareais
accountedfor by using the 37.4 meters (123 feet) as the first estimate of the
distance from channel centerline to first required drain Irrigation recharge
betweenthedrain andthechannelcanbeestimatedandaddedto the canalseepage
asfollows:
(a) Deeppercolationfrom irrigation during the peakperiod, 14daysbetween
irrigations = 9.40 millimeters (0.37 inch).
(b) Average daily rate of rechargeduring irrigation seasonwould then be
9.40
i == 0.67 millimeter (0.00067meter or 0.0022foot) per day.
14
(c) Irrigation rechargeto be drainedbetweenthe drain and edgeof irrigated
area= i(R -X) = (0.00067 (37.4 - 18.3) = 0.0128 cubic meter per linear meter
(0.14 cubic foot per linear foot) of drain per day.
(d) Irrigationrechargepluscanalseepageq3, = 0.0128+ 0.252= 0.265mVn/d
(2.84 ftVft/d).
The secondestimateof the distancefrom channelcenterlineto the first drain
using irrigation rechargeplus canalseepagewould be:
R = 0.46 [(7.62)2- (6.1)2]
+ 18.3= 36.4 meters (120 feet)
2 x 0.265
Irrigation rechargewill now be i(R - X) = (0.00067)(36.6- 18.3) = 0.0123
mVn/d (0.13 ftVft/d) and,if addedto the canalseepage,q3 would not changethe
secondestimateof R.
180
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Any additional parallel drams required to keep the water table below the
acceptablelevel canbe computedby the dram spacingmethodsdescribedin part
A of this chapter. Thesemethods were developedfor level lands but give an
acceptablespacingfor slopesup to about 10 percent.
s16. Location of Fist Drain on Irrigated Sloping Land.-When an
irrigated arealies on a slope,deeppercolationfrom irrigation may causeshallow
water tablesandthe needfor spaceddrams.When seepagefrom canalsor laterals
is negligible, a strip along the upper edge of the irrigated areamay not require
spaceddrainsbecauseof the downhill movement of the water. However, some
distance down the slope the water table will become too shallow for crop
production and farming operations.This sectiondescribesa method, basedon
steady-stateconditions,to determinethe location of the first drain downslope.
When infiltration is steady,the water tablewill approachsteady-stateconfigurations asshown in the profiles on figures 5-10 and 5-l 1. The water table canbe
determinedfrom thesefigures for combinationsof surfaceand barrier slope.A
samplesolution follows:
(a) Assumeseepageloss from lined canalis negligible.
(b) K = averagehydraulic conductivity of soil profile under irrigated land =
5.08 centimeters(2 inches)per hour or 1.22meters (4 feet) per day.
(c) t = irrigation season= 135days.
(d) L = lengthof irrigated slope= 457 meters (1,500 feet).
(4 DP = deep percolation from irrigation and rainfall for 135 days =
0.091 meter (0.30 foot).
Figure 5-10.-Water
I0.25.
b
103-D-1657.
Drawing
CHAPTER
Figure 5-ll.-Water
V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
181
I 1.25. Drawing
b
103-D-1658.
1*22(()027)2
o*76
= 0.76
b
7.32
= 0.593, and
(0.027)(457)
5.94
= (o.02i3(457) = 0.481
= O,$L =
X
h
- = 1, G
L
182
DRAINAGE MANUAL
1%
Y
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
183
therefore,%h = to.027)t457)
4.88
= 0.395
When? = 1, h = 5.94 -2.44 = 3.50 meters(11.5 feet)
h
3.50
andG = (0.027)(457) = o'284
Plot thesepoints on figure 5-12 as shownand draw a line betweenthe points.
Where the line intersects the curve, read $ = 0.058 on the abscissa.The
distancefrom the edgeof the irrigated areato the point where the water table is
h
z
0.335
.380
.390
.425
.460
.496
.528
.555
.560
&
(12.34)
&
(40.5)
; (1,500)
h
meters
4.13
4.69
4.81
5.25
5.68
6.12
6.52
6.85
6.91
X
feet
13.6
15.4
15.8
17.2
18.6
20.1
21.4
22.4
22.1
meters
0
22.9
21.4
45.7
68.6
91.4
114.3
137.1
141.7
feet
0
75
90
150
225
300
315
450
465
184
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Plot h and X as shown on figure 5-13, where h is the vertical height of the
water table abovethe barrier andX is the distancefrom the edgeof the irrigated
field.
(q) The drain spacingfor the remainderof the areacanbe determinedusing
methodsdescribedin part A of this chapter.The spacingcalculationsdo not take
into account sloping barriers: however, the results are reasonablyreliable for
slopesup to 10percent.
The fmt 26.5 meters(87 feet) from theedgeof the irrigatedareawill bedmined
by the downhill movement of water. This distancemust be accountedfor in the
solution for drain spacing. The basic dmin spacing, L, is about 305 meters
(1,000 feet). Then,L + 26.5 = 331.5meters (1,087 feet). To fmd depthsbetween
drams, slopesSs,and &, must be used.
For example:
331.5 Ss= 331.5 x 0.030 = 9.95 meters (32.61 feet)
331.5 &, = 331.5 x 0.027 = 8.95 meters (29.36 feet)
The depth to the barrier at 331.5meters (1,087 feet) will then be:
7.32-(9.95 -8.95)= 6.32 meters (20.74 feet)
The averagedepth to the barrier is:
7.32 +6.32
= 6.82 meters(22.37 feet)
2
Using Donnans steady-stateequation,the distancebetweendram depth and
barrier, a, for a drain depth of 2.44 meters (8.0 feet) is:
L2 = (4)U.22)(5.222-4.@) = 807u md
9 9
0.00068
L = 284 meters(932 feet).
Transient flow methods should be used to check results of the steady-state
analysis.
(r) The fmt drain is located284 + 27 = 3 11meters(1,020feet) from the upper
edgeof the irrigated field. The spacingis basedon dmwdown from two drains,
but at 30 meters (97 feet) from the upper edgeof the irrigated field, natural flow
down the slopekeepsthe water table at 2.4 meters (8 feet). Therefore, no water
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
185
186
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
would enter a dram at this point, and the effect is the sameas having a drain at
this point. The downslope dmin will maintain a minimum 1.2-meter (4-foot)
watertable depthalongthe slopeabovethe dram. The sizeof the fast drain should
be designedto handleall deeppercolatingwater betweenthe upperedgeof the
field plus normal flow from the downslopeside-or about 1.5 times as much as
a normal spaceddmin.
For fields whereonedramis not quiteadequatebut two dramswould overdrain
the area,the plannersand designersmust decideon what is best for the farmer
and project-to install one or two drains. Generally, the decisionis basedon
economics,but project or district policies may infhrence the decision.An economic studyof the areawould probablyshow that the useof only onedrain, which
would place the lower end of the field in nonirrigable status, would be more
economical.
To determinethe distancedownslopefrom the last drain wherethe water table
would be 1.2 meters(4 feet) from the land surface,the following procedurecan
be used:
(1) Measurethe distancefrom the last drain to a naturaldrain. In the example,
this is 488 - 3 11 = 177meters (580 feet). Draw a line betweenthe centerlineof
the drain and the water surfacein the natural channel.
(2) At 5 or 89 meters (292 feet) downslopefrom the &am, determine the
depth from the barrier to the line connectingthe drain to the water surfacein the
natural channel.
(a) Ground surfaceis (311 + 89) 0.03 = 12.0 meters (39.37 feet) below the
top of the field.
(b) Elevation of the barrier is 0.027 (400) + 7.3 = 18.10meters (59.38 feet)
below the top of the field.
(c) Elevation of the last dram is 0.03 (311) + 2.4 = 11.73meters(38.51 feet)
below the top of the field.
(d) Elevationof the water surfacein the natural drain is 14.6meters (48 feet)
below the top of the field (fig. 5-13).
(e) Elevation of the drain depthbetweenthe last drain andthe natural drain is
L
-= 14.8+ 11.73 = 13.17meters (43.25 feet).
2
2
cf) Distancefrom dram depth to barrier at 4 is:
a = 18.1- 13.2= 4.9 meters (16.08 feet).
(3) Compute the height of the water tablemidway betweendrains:
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
L =
a =
=
ft: =
Qd =
AND CONSTRUCTION
187
Using Donnansequation:
L2 = 4K(bZa)
Qd
or
b2*
L2ed
4K
=
(178)2(0.00068)
= 4 42
b2-ap2
(4)(1.22)
j2
=
4.32
=
18.5
a
b2 = 4.42 + 18.5 = 22.92
then,
b = 4.79 meters (15.7 feet)
and,
therefore, y0 = b - a = 4.79 -4.3 = 0.49meter
(1.61 feet), the height of the
water table abovethe dram
At a point 89 meters(292 feet) downslopefrom the last drain the water table
will be 13.2- 0.49- 12= 0.71 meters(2.33feet) below the groundsurface,which
is not adequate.By plotting a fourth degreeparabolaof the drawdown curve
betweendrains when y0 = 0.49 meter (1.6 feet), the point where the water table
will be 1.2 meters (4 feet) below the ground surfacecanbe estimatedas follows:
x
L
0
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
X
meters
0
8.8
17.7
35.7
53.3
71.3
89.0
Y
feet
(0)
(29)
(58)
(117)
(175)
(234)
(292)
meters feet
0.3439y, = 0.169 (0.553)
0.5904~~= 0.289 (0.949)
0.8704~~= 0.426 (1.399)
0.9744~~= 0.477 (1.566)
0.9984~~= 0.489 (1.605)
V = 0.490 (1.608)
Distance from
groundsurfaceto v
meters
feet
2.44
(8.0)
2.16
(7.1)
1.92
(6.3)
1.52
(5.0)
1.22
(4.0)
0.98
(3.2)
0.73
(2.4)
DRAINAGE MANUAL
188
dm.h:
= 8 - 0.01372X(in feet)
Depth t0 Water: D, = Dd - y, D, = yd - ys -y, or D, =
2.44 - 0.01372X- y (in meters) below ground surfaceor
8 - 0.01372X- y (in feet) below ground surface.
From the previoustabulation,the water table will be 1.2meters(4 feet) below
the ground surfaceat about53 meters (175 feet) downslopefrom the drain. The
areathat would be inadequatelydrainedfor deep-rootedcrops, if only one drain
is installed,would be at about 125meters(411feet) on the lower edgeof thefield.
C.
Open Drains
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
189
PLAN
zoo
0
6CILE
oc
200
1
RET
400
366
365
364
STATIONS
IO
PROFILE
HYDRAULIC
I5
PROPERTIES
n=.030
REACH
O-38 to /3+20
4.0
,001
NO4
ST RM
8
. 5.5
33
d
0.9
2.3.
Normal Q in the hydraulic properties table is the estimated subsurface accretions plus the return flaw from irrigation.
Storm 0 in the hydraulic properties table is the normal 0 plus the
estimated surface run-off from a storm of approw.5 year
frequency.
Figure 5-14.-Typical
190
DRAINAGE MANUAL
1.486 2M l/2
Manning formula, v = II
r s
where:
V
=
r =
s =
n =
(13)
(metric form)
(134
Clay
sandy loam
Fine sands
Velocity, meters
(feet) per second
1.2
0.8
0.5
(4.0)
(2.5)
(1.5)
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTFWCTION
191
Table 56a.-Crowsectional
area and hydraulic radius for small V-shaped
ditches (metric units). Drawing 103-D&42.
14 : 1 SIDE SLOPES
2: 1 SIDE SLOPES
3: 1 SIDE SLOPES
192
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Table Mb.-Cross-sectional
3 : 1 SIDE SLOPES
The ideal minimum gradientin a drain would have sufficient velocity at low
flows to preventdepositionand growth of aquaticplants.This velocity would be
in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 meter (0.75 to 1.0 foot) per secondfor preventionof silt
and fme sand deposits, 0.5 to 0.6 meter (1.5 to 2.0 feet) per secondfor the
preventionof weedsand grasses,and 0.8 meter (2.5 feet) per secondor more to
inhibit growth of aquatic plants. In areas where ideal velocities cannot be
obtained,drains shouldbe designedwith a minimum velocity of about 0.3 meter
(1.0 foot) per secondfor the normal flow. In some collector drains, pumping
plantsmight be requiredwherethe gradientmust bebuilt into the drain Pumping
plants in drains have the disadvantagesof constant maintenance,expensebf
operation,and icing during the wintertime. They shouldbe usedonly when the
velocitiesat normal flow are well below the minimum 0.3 meter (1.0 foot) per
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
193
second.Gradientsfor natural outlet drains usually are not altered except where
the channelstmighteninggradientsallows increase.
Minimum gradesrequire maximum maintenance:therefore, when gradients
are used that result in velocities of 0.3 meter (1.0 foot) per secondor less for
normal flows, provisions should be made for shorter periods of time between
drain cleaning.
5-20. Depth of Drain.-The depthof an opendrain for carrying surfacewater
is controlled by the quantity of water it carries. The depth of a deep, open
subsurfacedrain is controlled by physical and hydraulic propertiesof the soils,
permissiblewater table levels, constructionequipment,and quantity of water it
must carry. The most difficult designcaseis that of a drain which receivesrunoff
water from tributary drains, while picking up groundwater throughoutits reach.
The drain must be deepenoughso that the normal water surfacewill be below
the water table to allow the drain to pick up groundwater. Also, the drain must
be large enoughto accept tributary dram discharge.The normal water surface
elevationin the collector drain must not be higher than that in the tributary dram
Designing the capacity for carrying floodflows is usually no problem in a
completely open drain system. When the Fist two requirementsare satisfied,
capacityis adequateto handlemost floodflows. A floodflow may raisethe water
level temporarily in the dram to a point higher than the ground-waterelevation.
This water level inhibits the drain from picking up groundwater, but crops would
not be burnedif the condition did not last for more than 48 hours. Where flash
floods occur frequently and the soils are highly erosive, separatedeepdrainage
andfloodwater systemsmay be more economical.
If the tributary drainsam closeddrains,the normal water surfaceelevationin
the open collector drain shouldbe below the invert elevationof the closeddmin
by a distancesufficient to allow for some floodwater flow down the open drain
without affecting the closeddrain. This practicewill prevent water from backing
up in the closed drain. The additional distance should be 450 millimeters
(18 inches),if practical, but can be as low as 150millimeters (6 inches)if banks
are stable or if the open drain depth would otherwise be unreasonable.An
occasional,tempomry rise in water level over the closeddrain causedby floods
is not detrimental.
In general,subsurfacedrainsshouldbe from 2.4 to 3 meters(8 to 10feet) deep
to provide the besteconomic balancebetweendrain cost and drain spacing.On
occasion, local conditions may require deeper or shallower drams. The most
important condition would be location of the permeableand impermeablestrata.
S-21. Drain Section.-The most hydraulically efficient open channelhas
maximum capacityfor a given slopeand cross-sectionalarea.Themost efficient
crosssectionhas the smallestwetted perimeter.Basedon thesefacts, a semicircular section would be the most efficient. However, for channels excavated
in earth, the semicircular shapeis impractical for various reasons, including
constructiondifficulty. Trapezoidalcross sectionsam most often usedand have
beenfound to be the most economicalsectionfor earthchannels.
194
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
0 1
a. \
\
\
E
\
\
I
AND CONSTRUCTION
195
EDitch
TYPICAL
1.5m (5) Mm. from
V-TYPE
SURFACE
DRAIN
AND COLLECTING
DITCH
R.0.w. Line
SECTIONS
tJperatlng rood
t-
OPERATING
ROAD-ONE
SIDE ONLY
OPERATING
Figure 5-15.-Typical
ROAD-BOTH
ground surface
SIDES
os shown
on profile.
/some
Dia.
type
FLOW _
surfacing
0s
,/Station
5
c
and Invert
\
\
C.M.F--(
TYPE
rI
I IN-LINE
CULVERT
around
Stotlon
surface
Precast
TYPE 2 IN-LINE
Figure
METAL
5-16.-Typical
culverts
concrete
pipe
CULVERT
103-D-1662.
ond
Invert
CUTOFF
elevation
COLLAR
Riprop or gravel
blanket
required
only where
field or other
erosion
is anticipated.
ure mamtenance.
Centers
bath
CONCRETE
CUTOFF
f
meters feet
460 1(18) 0.460 1.50
530 l(21) 0.460 1x1
DIAMETfiR
mm 1 (in.)
NOTE:
II) For near soit free soil,heavy gTe galvanized C.M.P may be used
(2) For soline or alkaline soils, golvonized
pipe should not be used
(3)Minimum
pipe diameter
is 0.45 m.
Top of
roadway
~*C.M.l?
TYPICAL SECTION OF
SINGLE BARREL CULVERT
NOTE:
TYPICAL SECTION OF
DOUBLE BARREL CULVERT
For protection
details at ends of culverts,use
depth
flow to determine
type and extent of protection.
Figure 5-16.-Typical
or PC.P
for
storm
COL LAR
Nominal t C&I&
mm (in.) Reid.
65 2.50 #3
70 2.75 #3
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONST!WCTlON
199
200
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Structure
meters
feet
0 to 0.6
0 to 2.0
No structurebut someripmp
0.3 to 1.5
1.0 to 5.0
Rock cascadedrop with sheetpiling
1.5 and over 5.0 andover Baffled apron or rectangular-inclined
(R.1.) drops
(c) Crossings.-Cmssing
structures can be of either metal or concretepipe
dependingon the importanceof the crossing,which is measuredby the capital
loss that would result from its failure. In chemically active soils and waters that
would be corrosive to the pipe, the pipe shouldbe protected with an asphaltor
similar coating. Crossing structures for major highways, railroads, and canals
shouldbe designedfor flows from a 25-yearstorm; for lessmajor crossings,flows
from a lo-year storm can be used;and flows from a 5-year storm can beusedfor
roadswithin a field or for farm ditches.Circular pipe culverts canbe placedwith
a maximum of 50 percentof their diameterbelow gradeline;however, 25 percent
or 0.3 meter (1 foot) maximum is thepreferredlimit. Pipe-arch,corrugated-metal
culverts, if justified, canbeplacedwith about20 percentof the rise valuebelow
gradeline.The pipe shouldextend beyondthe toe of the fill, and collars should
be placedon the pipe as required. h4aximumvelocity for a full pipe shouldbe
about 1.5meters (5 feet) per second.A siphon-typestructureshouldnot be used
for drainagecrossingsbecauseof the variation in flow. During low flows, any
transported sediment will be depositedin the siphon, and without scheduled
maintenance,the crossingwill becomeplugged.
5-28. Natural Channels.-In many instances,a natural channel(Kouns and
Pemberton, 1963)is usedas an open drain for conveyanceof irrigation surface
wastewaterand storm water. The addition of irrigation surfacewaste (or in some
cases,subsurfacedrainageflow) will often changea normally dry streamto one
with a continuousflow, at leastfor the irrigation season.This changecorresponds
to a changefrom an ephemeralstreamto an intermittent or perennialstream.The
continuous wetting of the natural channel banks may result in an unstable
condition when a floodflow occurs.
The stability of the natural channelusedas an open drain shouldbe checked
by a tractive force analysisbasedon particle-sizeanalysesor plasticity indicesof
soil textures.Stability shouldbe determinedfor 5-year frequencyfloodflow, plus
irrigation waste flow. The tractive forces usedto check stability, in addition to
being affected by wetted banks, am also adjusted for the type of sediment
transportedby the channel.If instability is indicated, control structureswill be
required.
::._.
--..-_-._I::+:
1-j
\
-l-l
1--_2::
*:,,.;
t.;:
.o.
..
k__
_-____
..
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
TONGUE
BELL
AND
AND
SPIGOT
PLAIN
END
Figure 5-17.Joint
GROOVE
TYPE
LUGS FOR
TYPE
AND CONSTRUCTION
TYPE
FOR
FOR
CLAY
CONCRETE
FOR
CLAY
201
CONCRETE
OR
PIPE
CONCRETE
PIPE (CLAY
PIPE
PIPE SHOWN)
OR CONCRETE
PIPE
202
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
;.,
.c
...
.,
i
bO
B
~
.S
.~
~
.,
Q,
.6.
"0
.s
bO
j
0
~
.~
."
.,
Q,
.6.
.g
~
"a.
."
.,
~
bO
"
~
..
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
203
D.
Pipe Drains
5-30. Introduction.-No&y,
pipe drainsareusedwhen they are lower in
capitalandannualcoststhan opendrains.The computationof annualcostsshould
include, in addition to the construction and maintenancecosts, values for the
right-of-way costs and for the loss of project income from land in open drains.
Comparisonof the environmental and esthetic valuesbetween open and pipe
drainsshouldalso be made.
In general,pipe drains shouldonly collect and remove ground water, but in
specialinstances,they may haveto carry storm water or excessirrigation surface
waste. When waters other than ground water are collected,larger pipe must be
usedto carry the increasedflow andto preventcloggingfrom surfacedebris.Pipes
shouldbe designedto flow only half full when surfacewater is collected.
S-31. Pipe for Drains.-Pipe drainsconsistof buried pipe with sometype of
openingsin the pipe through which water can enter. The water is then carried in
the pipe to a point of disposal. The pipe is usually manufactured from clay,
concrete,plastic, or any of the suitablematerial that will not deterioraterapidly
with time.
Ordinarily, clay and concretedrainpipeis placedwith 3millimeter (l/%inch)
openingsor cracksbetweenthe pipelengthsthroughwhich water entersthe drain.
Somerigid pipes are manufactured with holes or similar specialprovision for
water entry, but they are usually too expensivefor generaluse.
Pipe joints ate sealed when pipe drains are laid under canals, railroads,
highways, or near trees. Any one of the standardsealingmethodsusedin laying
sewer pipe is appropriate.Sealingprevents piping soil into the drain that may
204
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
result in damageto the overlying structure, and keepsroots from entering and
clogging the dram
Concreteand clay drainpipeis manufacturedwith plain tongue-and-groove,
or bell-and-spigotends. With the latter two end types, the adjoining sections
interlock, making them easier to place and hold to grade and alignment than
sectionswith plain ends.For all types of pipe ends,the openingsbetweenpipe
sectionsmust be maintainedat about 3 millimeters (l/8 inch). To ensurethat the
joint spacingwill be maintained,the bell and-spigotandtongue-and-groovepipe
shouldbe provided with wedgesfor centering,andlugs for spacing.A suggested
arrangementfor placing thesewedgesandlugsis shownon figure 5-17, but other
methodscan be usedif approvedby the ContractingOfficer. It is suggestedthat
3-millimeter (l/8-inch) spacerlugs beusedbecausesmalleropeningsmay not be
sufficient and larger openingscould allow entry of soil and envelopematerial.
Corrugated plastic pipe is manufactured in long rolls, or 6-meter (20-foot)
joints, the length dependenton the diameter.Water entersthe pipe through slots
or holescut in the valley portion of the corrugations.The openingsare generally
evenlyspacedaroundthe circumferenceof thepipe andmust provide aminimum
of 2,120 squaremillimeters of openinlet areaper meter (1 squareinch per foot)
of pipe. A seriousproblem occurs when the pipe is stretchedduring the laying
process,causingthe slots or holesto widen, which allows the gravel envelopeto
enter the pipe. Stretching the pipe also has the disadvantageof reducing its
strength.Figure 5-18 showsa typical sectionof corrugatedplastic pipe. Nonperforated corrugatedplastic pipe is usedin those areaswhere sealedjoints would
be specifiedif concreteor clay pipe were used.Successivelengthsof plasticpipe
are connectedby manufactured splicers or by splitting a length of the same
diameterpipe and laying it around abutting ends of pipe, seefigure 5-18. The
split pipe is then wrappedwith plastic tape or otherwisetied in place.
Corrugatedplastic pipe is currently being manufacturedin sizesfrom 75 to
9OOmillimeter (3- to 36-inch) nominal diameter.This sizerangeis adequatefor
most agricultuml drainageapplications.The costsof constructionat the drainage
site will usually determinethe type of material usedfor drainpipe.
S-32. Pipe Specifications.-Unreinforced concretepipe specificationsfor
closeddrainsmay be either ASTM C 14,C 412, C 118,or C 444, latestrevisions.
In additionto therequirementsof thesespecifications,the following requirements
must be met:
(a) A minimum of 10 sacksof cementper cubic meter (7-l/2 sacksper cubic
yard) of concretemust be used. A low-alkali cement is required for dminpipe
except where it is positively known that the aggregatesto be used are not
sufficiently reactive to require the low-alkali limitation. When concreteaggmgatesam reactive,a low-alkali cementshouldbeusedto protect againstdisruptive
expansion.
(b) All pipe shouldbe steamcuredfor a minimum of 48 hoursbetween38 and
60 C (100 and 140F) or shouldbe kept moist cured for not lessthan7 days.All
surfacesof the pipe shallbe kept moist continuouslyfrom the time of completion
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
205
206
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Earth work
Pipe
Gravel envelope
Total
Percent
42
2
100
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
207
b
5
is
0
6
15
12
RATE OF INSTALLATION
METERS PER MINUTE
Figure 5-19.-Rate ofinstallation of drains by drain depth forthree different types of trenching
machines. Drawing 103-D-1664.
Drain depth,
meters
feet
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
8.0
Drain spacing
meters
feet
108
152
184
211
234
255
288
355
498
605
693
768
835
945
Length of
drain per
hectare, meters
Length of
drain per
acre, feet
92.6
65.8
54.3
47.4
42.7
39.2
34.7
123.0
87.5
72.0
62.9
56.8
52.2
46.1
($0.56/ft)
Cost per meter (foot) of pipe = ($11.52/m)(O.42) = $4.84/m ($1.47/ft)
Using similar assumptionsandmethodsfor eachdrain depth,table5-7 canbe
made.
Table 5-7,Cost
Drain
depth,
meteni
Drain
spacing.
meters
Length
per hectare,
meters
Time
per hectare,
minutes
1.4
1.5
1.7
1.8
2.0
2.1
2.4
108
152
184
211
234
255
288
92.6
65.8
54.3
47.4
427
39.2
34.7
9.22
7.22
6.60
6.47
7.02
7.59
11.39
Drain
depth,
feet
4.5
5.0
5.5
6.0
6.5
7.0
8.0
Drain
SPacinp,
feet
355
498
605
693
768
835
945
Length
per acre,
feet
123.0
87.5
72.0
62.9
56.8
52.2
46.1
Time
per acre,
minutes
3.73
2.92
2.67
2.62
2.84
3.07
4.61
Excavation
136
106
96
96
104
111
168
Excavation
55
43
39
39
42
45
68
l/ These costs and relationships may vary from correct values, but the procedures are similar.
Total
756
548
459
412
391
373
400
cost,
dollars
per meter
8.16
8.33
8.46
8.70
9.16
9.51
11.53
Total
306
222
186
167
158
151
162
cost,
dollats
per foot
2.49
2.54
2.58
2.66
2.78
2.89
3.51
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
209
800
8
g
a
60C I/
i
I
K 4oc
W
a
I-
Icn
00 2oc 1.2
1.6
DEPTH
2.0
2.1
TO DRAIN, METERS
Figure 5-20a-Cost
relationships by drain depth for drains installed with
ahigh-speed tren&er (metric units). Drawing 103-D-1665.
DEPTH
TO
DRAIN,
FEET
210
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
FEET
IO
500
400
L$
3
x
li
300
b
$
5
a
>
7
i
1.8
l!OO
Least
cost
2.4
DEPTH TO DRAIN,
Figure 5-21.Aost
1666.
3.0
100
i
METERS
g"
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
211
AND CONSTRUCTION
high-speedtrenchersat depthsof about 2.1 meters (7 feet) will cost the least.If
conventional trenchers are used, drains should be placed about 2.6 meters
(8.5 feet) below ground level.
Figure 5-22 showsefiects of reducingexcavationandpipe costsby one-half,
based on drains installed with a conventional trencher, examples 4 and 5.
Reducingexcavationcostsby 50 percentdoesnot affect selectionof dmin depth.
However, reducingpipe costs by 50 percentchangesoptimum depth of drain to
2.4 meters(8.0 feet) insteadof 2.6 meters (8.5 feet).
DEPTH
4
TO DRAIN, FEET
8
IO
12
150
875
750
150
Least
cost
250
1.2
1.8
2.4
lo0
3.0
3.6
212
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER
V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
213
leachingconditions. It hasbeenobservedthat basematerialshaving a predominanceof particleswhich rangein sizefrom 0.05 to 0.4 millimeter tendto be easily
moved.As a rule of thumb, this material will passthe No. 40 sieveandberetained
by the No. 200 sieve. Velocities as low as 0.03 meter (0.1 foot) per secondwill
movethis sizeof material.For thesesoils,it is critical thatplacementof a properly
designedand installedgradedgravel envelopebe a part of the drain construction
process.
The gradationrequirementsshouldnot be changedevery time a different textured soil is encountered.From borings taken about every 180meters (600 feet)
along the centerlineof a drain, the most permeablebasematerial for significant
lengths of the drain should be determinedand the envelopedesignedfor this
material. Different gradation requirementscan be specified if there are long
sections of drain where the gradation and hydraulic conductivity of the base
material indicatethat a less expensiveor easierto obtain envelopematerial can
beused.However, a properenvelopematerialmust bedesignedandusedfor these
sectionsor the overall effectivenessof the drain might be impaired.
The envelopeshouldbe well graded,free of vegetablematter, clays, andother
deleterioussubstanceswhich could, in time, changethe hydraulic conductivity
of the envelope.For sieveanalysisof the envelopematerial, 100percent should
passthe 38.l-millimeter (l- l/Xnch) clear, squarescreenopenings,andnot more
than 5 percent shouldpassthe 0.297-millimeter (No. 50 United StatesStandard
Series)sieve. Becausefew pit-run sandsand gravels meet theserequirements,
most envelopematerial must be machinesorted.Washingis required only when
cleansandandgravel arenot plentiful andthe only sourceis from pits containing
silt- or clay-coatedmaterial.
An envelopematerial is consideredto be well gradedwhen all particle sizes
from the largestto the smallestare present.To determinewhether a material is
well graded,coefficients describingthe slope and shapeof the gradationcurve
havebeendefined as follows:
Coefficient of uniformity, C, = 2
and
Coefficient of curvature,C, =
P3012
(4owd
where:
D~o,&o, and060 = diameter of particles in millimeters (mm) passing the
lo-, 30-, and 60-percent points on the envelope
material gradationcurve.
To be well graded,the coefficient of uniformity must be greater than 4 for
gravelsand greaterthan 6 for sandsand, in addition, the coefficient of curvature
must be between 1 and 3 for both gravelsand sands.
214
DRAINAGEMANUAL
Base material,
40 percent
retained
(diameter of
particles, mm)
0.02-0.05
0.05-0.10
0.10-0.25
0.25-1.00
9.52
9.52
9.52
9.52
100
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
0.59
0.59
0.59
0.59
0.81
1.07
1.30
1.45
0.33
0.38
0.40
0.42
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.3
0.074
0.074
0.074
0.074
38.1 10.0
38.1 12.0
38.1 15.0
38.1 20.0
8.7
10.4
13.1
17.3
2.5
3.0
3.8
5.0
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
DRAIN TRENCH
AND CONSTRUCTION
EXCAVATION
215
CUBIC METERS
IEPTH
meters)
0.05
0.10
0.15
0.20
0.25
0.30
0.40
0.50
E
0:80
0.90
1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
3.00
3.50
4.00
4.50
L500
40 cm
50 cm
0.020
0.040
0.060
0.080
0.100
0.120
0.160
0.200
0.240
0.280
0.320
0.360
0.400
0.600
0.800
1.000
1.200
1.400
1.600
1.800
L2000
0.025
0.050
0.075
0.100
0.125
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
0.350
0.400
0.450
0.500
0.750
1.000
1.250
1.500
1.750
6Ocm
0.030
0.060
0.090
0.120
0.150
0.180
0.240
0.300
0.360
0.420
0.480
Kz
0:900
1.200
1.500
1.800
2.100
2.400
2.700
L3000
E
2:500
70 cm
0.035
0.070
0.105
0.140
0.175
0.210
0.280
0.350
0.420
0.490
0.560
0.630
0.700
1.050
1.400
1.750
2.100
2.450
2.800
3.150
3.500
80 cm
0.040
0.080
0.120
0.160
0.200
0.240
0.320
0.400
0.480
0.560
0.640
0.720
0.800
1.200
1.600
GE
2:800
3.200
3.600
L4000
90 cm
100 cm
0.045
0.090
0.135
0.780
0.225
0.270
0.360
0.450
0.540
0.630
0.720
0.810
0.900
1.350
1.800
2.250
2.700
3.150
3.600
4.050
L4500
0.050
0.100
0.150
0.200
0.250
0.300
::2
%i
0:800
0.900
::%i
;Ez
3:OOo
3.500
tii
L5000
-pdpmpl##
cl-
BASIS OF GRAVEL
ENVELOPE
COMPUTATIONS
10 cm
Of
1Ocm
Figure 5-23a.-Excavation
amounts forvarious trench widths and depths and lOO-millimeter
gravel envelope amounts for various pipe sizes (metric units). Drawing 103-D-684.
216
DRAINAGE
DRAIN
TRENCH
EXCAVATION
FOR VARIOUS
GRAVEL
4in.
0.030
MANUAL
DEPTHS
AND
ENVELOPE
YARDAGE
WIDTHS
YARDAGE
1 0.049
* Yardages
1 0.061
1 0.085
1 0.072
are approximate
BASIS
OF
1 0.105
but satisfactory
GRAVEL
YARDAGE
1 0.127
for
1 0.150
estimating
0.175
purposes.
COMPUTATIONS
r&+
0, ;. , .., 0
:.o
. .
. .
:
..
,:
.
:@I
:. 0
;i;;
: : .,.
.o.
.
Eb
I
IT
Figure 5-23b.Gxcavation
amounts forvarious trench widths and depths and 4-inch gravel
envelope amounts for various pipe sizes (U.S. customary units). Drawing 103-D-684.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
217
envelope
m
Figure 5-24.-How
entering a spaced drain from a gravel envelope for concrete or clay pipe.
Drawing 103-D-1668.
(b) Procedure.-
(1) Fill the irrigation pipe to the etchedline with the envelopematerial. Drop
it on a hard rubber pad 10 times from a height of about 25 millimeters (1 inch).
Refdl to the line with envelope.
(2) Slowly immersethe apparatusinto a larger containerof water until water
risesabovethe envelopematerial and all air has beenremovedfrom the sample.
218
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
(3) Apply water to the top to maintain a constanthead above the envelope
material while the water outsidethe apparatusis removed.
(4) Maintain the constant head under free-flow conditions for a 5-minute
interval.
(5) Catch, measure,and record the effluent for a l-minute interval. Hold a
constanthead for another25 minutes and again catch, measure,and record the
effluent for 1 minute. Repeatthis procedureafter another30 minutes of constant
head. By the end of an hour, the presenceof any material that might causea
reduction in hydraulic conductivity should be evident. In some of the less
permeableenvelopematerials, a reduction in hydraulic conductivity may not
becomeevidentfor 24 hours or more. Therefore,the test on any material that has
a hydraulic conductivity of lessthan about 750 millimeters (30 inches)per hour
at the end of 1 hour should be continuedand measurementstaken at the end of
12 and 24 hours. If a substantialreduction occurs in the hydraulic conductivity
betweenthe 12thand 24th hour, the test shouldbe continuedanda measurement
taken at the end of 36 hours. If another substantialreduction in the hydraulic
conductivity occurs between the 24th and 36th hour and the causecannot be
readily determined,the material should not be used for envelopematerial. To
avoid difficulties from air bubbles,the water shouldbe deaerated,especiallyif
test is for extendedperiods.
(c) Calculations.-Use the Darcy flow equationin the form:
K=$
(14)
where:
K = hydraulic conductivity in centimeters(inches)per hour;
Q = volume of water passingthrough the material in cubic centimeters
(inches);
A = cross-sectionalareain squarecentimeters(inches);
t = time in hours for which sampleis collected(1/6Othof anhour for most
cases);
L = length of material column in centimeters(inches);and
h = height of water level abovebaseof cylinder in centimeters(inches).
As a generalguideline,a hydraulic conductivity rate of an envelopematerial
which is 10 times the rate of the basematerial is adequate.It has also been
observed that envelope materials which have hydraulic conductivity rates in
excessof 150meters (500 feet) per day [635 centimeters(250 inches)per hour]
are difficult to placewithout segregation.If segregationoccurs,voids developin
the envelopewhich allow fines from the basematerial to move into the drain.
5-38. Gap Width, Length of Pipe Sections,and Hydraulic Conductivity
of Envelope.-In designinga closeddrain, it is assumedthat: (a) the pipe will
accept the drainagewater when it arrives at the dminline, and (b) the pipe will
carry away the water without a buildup of pressurewithin the pipe. Unless these
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
219
assumptionsam met, the drain will not function as intended,and the land may
not be effectively drained.To meet the first assumptionrequiresconsiderationof
the relationship among the hydraulic conductivity of the gravel envelope,the
length of pipe sections,and the gap width betweenpipe sections.To meet the
secondassumptionrequiresthat the pipesizeanddrain slopebe sufficient to carry
the water away after it entersthe pipe. The designfor the secondassumptionis
explainedin sections5-46 and 547.
The theoreticalrelationshipbetween rate of flow, hydraulic conductivity of
the gravel envelope,and the head loss due to convergenceof flow to the gap
openingsbetween lengthsof pipe has beendeterminedby W. T. Moody of the
Bureauof Reclamation(Moody, 1960).His relationshipis valid for all conditions
of thecloseddrain, from empty to flowing full, but is not valid if the drain is under
pressure.Moody concluded that increasing the hydraulic conductivity of the
gravel envelopewas a more effective method for increasingthe rate of inflow
than increasingthe gapwidth. The curvesand equationson figure 5-24 provide
a meansof analyzingthe aboverelationships.
For corrugatedplastic pipe having close, uniformly spacedslots or perforations throughout the length of the dram, figure 5-25 can be usedto analyzethe
relationshipsdevelopedby Moody. The curveson this figure were derived from
electricanalogstudiesperformedby Reclamationpersonnel(Mantei, C. L., 1971,
1974).
The designcurves in this sectionCM be used in severalways. Generally, the
rate of designinflow will be known before using thesecurves.If a certain length
of pipe is more readily availablethan others, the minimum required hydraulic
conductivity of the envelopecan be determined.If the envelopematerial to be
usedis known and its hydraulic conductivity determined,the maximum permissiblepipe lengthcanbe determined.Wherethe basematerialis highly permeable,
it should be testedto determineif its hydraulic conductivity meets the requimments. If it does, there is no need to import envelope material becausethe
excavatedmaterial will servethe purpose.Drams constructedof plasticdrainpipe
with a trencherrequire envelopematerial to be installedwith the pipe to provide
supportfor it during backfilling operations.For theseconditions, it may be less
costly to provide a gradedenvelopethan to use excavatedmaterials.
As anexample,assumethat a RIO-millimeter(4-inch), corrugatedplastic drain
is to be installed and that it will run three-fourths full. The design inflow is
0.000013cubic meter per secondper meter (0.00014cubic foot per secondper
foot) of dram. Assuminga 100~millimeter(4-inch) gravelenvelope,thehydraulic
conductivity neededfor the drain can be determinedand the suitability of the
availableenvelopematerial canbe checkedin the laboratory.
220
DRAINAGE MANUAL
(ft?/d)
K = Hydraulic conductivity
m/d
(ft./d)
in
H = Average
n = e/b
IO.5
5
E
J
10.0
2
c
9.5
potentiol
of gravel
difference,
envelope
meter
(ft.)
3.2
\,
2.6
a
6.0
- I.6
5.5
- 1.6
5.0
Figure 5-25.440~
103-D-1669.
entering a spaced drain from a gravel envelope for plastic pipe. Drawing
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
221
(22 + 29 $
n = ; = 1.78
cp= (9.5) [from lOO-millimeter(4-inch) pipe curve on figure 5-251, and
K=-e=
bjjq
1.12
= 16.2meters (53.2 feet) per day =
(0.0572)(0.127)(9.5)
67.6 centimeters(26.6 inches)per hour.
The gravel envelopematerial requiresa hydraulic conductivity of 67.6 centimeters(26.6 inches)per hour [ 16.2meters(53.2 feet) per day] if a lOO-millimeter
(4-inch) envelopeis used.The smallestdiameterpipe usedin a drainagesystem
will alwaysrequire the greatesthydraulic conductivity for the envelopematerial.
If the pit run material had a hydraulic conductivity of only 51 centimeters
(20 inches)per hour [12.2 meters (40 feet per day)], the material shouldhave to
be processedto remove someof the fines to increasethe hydraulic conductivity
or elsethe thiclmessof the envelopewould haveto be increased.This increased
thicknesscanbe determinedby substitutingthe measuredhydraulic conductivity
into the previousequation:
HdL
Kbq
1.12
= 0.169 meter (0.556 foot) = 169milli(12.2)(0.0572)(9.5)
meters (6.7 inches).
222
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Assumingthe water level canbe allowedto standjust at the top of the envelope
with the pipe running full:
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
223
AND CONSTRUCTION
$157.00
72.(i8
$229.68
$157.00
209.06
$356.06
$213.00
68.38
$281.38
100 feet
$48.00
LZ.2.3
$70.23
$48.00
63.75
$111.75
$65.OO
20.82
$85.82
224
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Percent
0
oto20
oto30
20 to 50
20 to 50
Lessthan
S-40. Laying Pipe Drains-The ftished bed for all pipe should be made
smooth, including removal of material underthe bell end of the bell-and-spigottype joint, to ensurethat the full length of pipe will be evenly and uniformly
supported.Whenthe bell-and-spigot-typejoint is used,the bell endshouldalways
beupgrade.Thepipe shouldbe laid with the adjacentendscloselyabuttedagainst
the spacinglugs. A drainpipelengthshouldalwaysbeheldinplace by mechanical
or other meansuntil the next length of pipe is readyto be placed.Any pipe which
is broken, cracked, or objectionablein any way should be discarded.Trenches
that have been inadvertently overexcavatedshould be refilled with selected
material and carefully compactedto original density or brought to grade with
envelopematerial. During placementof the pipe, the water level in the trench
shouldnot exceed50 percent of the pipe diameterabove the invert of the pipe.
Water may beremovedfrom thetrenchby permitting it to flow throughpreviously
installedpipe. A screencover shouldbe placedover the exposedend of the pipe
until the next length of pipe is placed.This screenshouldhavea maximum mesh
openingof 3.2 millimeters (l/8 inch).
Corrugatedplastic pipe requiresspecialprecautionsduring laying operations.
Theplasticpipe must be well beddedandthe beddingmaterial shouldcompletely
surroundthe pipe. The strengthof the pipe dependsupon the beddingmaterial in
addition to the designof the pipe corrugations.Care must be taken when laying
the pipe to keepfrom stretchingit more than 5 percent.Any greaterstretch could
causedeformation of the corrugations and permit collapseof the pipe during
backfilling of the trench. Plasticpipe tendsto float in water, so the trench should
bebackfilled assoonaspossibleafter pipe installation.At siteswhereplasticpipe
is being installed 0.6 meter (2 feet) or more below the water table, it may be
necessaryto addblinding material at the rear of the trenchersto prevent floating
of the drainline.
When a portion of a pipe drain is not neededas a subsurfacedram, such,as
under roads,laterals,and surfacedrains, or where roots could enter dram op/nings, the drams should be constructedwith sealedjoints. All joints should be
sealedby hot-pouredjoint compounds,factory-fabricatedjoining connections,or
rubber gaskets.Trenchesmust be kept free of water whenjoints arebeing sealed
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
225
226
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
About 0.3 meter (1 foot) of fill shouldbe carefully placedover the envelope
before starting the generalbackfiiing operations.This procedureensuresthat
backfill material doesnot drop directly onto the gravel envelopecausingpipe
displacementor failure. No more than about 300 meters (1,000 feet) of trench
shouldbe openat any one time. In unstablesoils, this opentrench length should
be reduced to 8 meters (25 feet) or less. Rocks larger than 130 millimeters
(5 inches)in diametershouldnot bepermitted within 0.3 meter (1 foot) abovethe
pipe, and frozen earth clods shouldnot be permitted within 1.2 meters (4 feet)
abovethe pipe. Specialcompactionof the backfill is not requiredexcept where
pipe drainscross below irrigation or surfacewater drainageditchesor roads. At
theselocations,earth backfill shouldbe compactedto a depthof 1meter (3 feet)
below the bottom of the ditch or roadbedbeing crossed.The compactionshould
be carried for such lengthsalong the trench that settlementor erosionunder the
road or ditch will not occur.
The top 0.6 meter (2 feet) of a trenchina field shouldbebackfilled with topsoil
that has been laid aside during the excavation of the trench. Excess backfill
material, with all rocks, caliche, and other such material removed, should be
depositedin a uniform windrow over the trench. Puddlingthe trench to restore
the windrow to normal ground surfaceis permitted when carefully done.Under
certainsoil conditions,puddlingcancausechannelingof thewater andmovement
of fine soils into the drain.
Upon completionof the drain all canal,lateral,andfarm ditch linings; fences;
and concreteor asphaltroads should be restored to their original or improved
condition.
-3. Manholes.-Manholes are located in pipe drains to serveas junction
boxes, silt and sandtraps, observationwells, dischargemeasurementfacilities,
entrancesto the drain for maintenance,and to permit easy location of the drain
Theream no setcriteria for the spacingof manholes.In general,a manholeshould
beusedat junction points on a drain or at major changesin alignmenton collector
and suboutlet drains. Manholes are not required at every junction of closely
spaced[less than 210 meters (700 feet)] relief or interceptor drainsor collector
drains.Manholesare usuallynot requiredat gradechangesif the gradebecomes
steeper.Specialeffort should be made to locate manholeswhere they will not
interfere with fanning operations.
If a manhole cannot be justified for the purposesdescribedabove,a simple
Y-section, T-section, or holes made in the collector pipe can be used to tie the
relief or interceptordrainsto the collector drain Changesin pipe diametershould
be madeat a manhole,if convenient.
Manholes should extend a minimum of 300 millimeters (12 inches) and a
maximum of 600 millimeters (24 inches) abovethe natural ground surfacefor
easyrecognition.They shouldbe placedin fencerows or at other out-of-the-way
locations if at all possible. Neither a manholenor a cleanoutis required at the
upper endof a line, but this end of the line must be plugged.The location of the
plugged end should be recorded both in fieldbooks and on as-built drawings.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
227
228
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Handle - a4 bar-,
Note: Use chain or other locking
device between hondles.
PLAN
..- .
COVER
60 cm 124)
cm (36)
max.
precast
concrete
pipe.
BASE
or
or
SECTION
Figure 5-26.-Typical
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
229
546. Strength of Drainpipe.--(u) General.-Since closed drains in irrigatedareasare usually placedat considerabledepth below the ground surface,
the ability of the pipeto carry the backfill loadis an important consideration.Both
concreteand clay pipe are madein severaldifferent strengths,so designsfor the
properstrengthpipe arenot only necessaryto ensurethepermanenceof the drain
but also to permit use of the most economicalpipe.
Figure 5-27 shows the load per linear meter (foot) on pipe from different
backfilling materials for varying backfill depths and trench widths. The loads
shownwill vary slightly with the diameterof the pipe, so they am not exact,but
they are within the limits of accuracyof other factors that affect the load and are
satisfactoryfor usein design.The loadsarebasedon Marstons formula asshown
on figure 5-29. Note that trench widths are measuredat the top of the pipe, and
thesevaluesare used whether the trench sidesare vertical or sloping. A nomograph for solving the Marston formula for rigid pipe is given on figure 5-28. A
safety factor of 1.5 shouldbe usedto determinethe strength of concreteor clay
pipe requiredwhen strengthsare determinedby physicaltesting.
(b} Rigid&e.-Table
5-9 showsthe allowable crushingstrengthof various
pipe laid in a gravel envelope.For pipe not laid in a gravel envelope, only
75 percentof thesevaluesshouldbe used.The tabular valuesshown in table 5-9
assumethat a classC beddingwill result whenusinga gravelenvelope.A classC
beddingdesignatesa shapedbed fitted to the lower part of the pipe. If a different
classof beddingis provided, the tabular valuescanbe adjustedaccordingly.For
more information on beddingclassifications,seeASTM C 12.
Thefollowing procedurecanbeusedto determinethe strengthof piperequired
for a particular installation:
(1) Knowing the unit weight of soil, depth of trench, and width of trench at
top of pipe, usefigure 5-27 or 5-28 to determinethe loadper linear meter (foot)
on the pipe.
(2) Knowing the diameter and type of pipe, use table 5-9 to determine the
quality of pipe requiredto supportthe load.
Example: Assume the preliminary design indicates a 250-millimeter
(lo-inch) diameter concrete pipe is required and the depth of
backfill over the pipe will be 2.6 meters (8.6 feet). For a
25Omillimeter (lo-inch) pipe with a lOO-millimeter (4-inch)
gravel envelope,a 610-millimeter (24-inch) wide ditch should
be satisfactory;however,this groundis not expectedto be stable,
so a ditch width of 0.8 meter (2.5 feet) at top of the pipe is
estimated.The backfill material will be saturatedtopsoil weighing 1,760kilogmms per cubicmeter (110 poundsper cubic foot).
From figure 5-27, for a 2.6-meter(8.5-foot) cover, the load is:
(1990)(1.1) = 2,189kilogramsperlinearmeter(l,472poundsperlinearfoot)
SATURATED TOPSOIL
1600 KILOGRAMS PER CUBIC METER *
WEIGHING
/EIGHING
3 2.1
j 2.4
4
2.7
; 3.0
,
L
:
:
.
3.4
3.1
4.0
4.3
4.6
4Scm
525cm
6Ocm
62.Scm7Scm
82.Scm9Ocm
1OSm
120 cn
7600
8480
9120
9680
10160
10480
10800
11040
11280
11440
11520
9440
10560
11520
12320
12960
13520
14000
14400
14720
14960
15200
11360
12720
13920
15040
15920
16720
17440
18ooO
18560
18880
19280
13280
14880
16480
17760
19040
20080
20880
21680
22400
22960
23520
16960
19360
21680
23600
25280
26%0
284CO
29760
30880
21840
32800
22720
26240
29WO
32560
35280
37600
4OWO
42320
44320
46080
47680
264GU
30880
34880
38720
42000
452RO
481~
509~1
5344~
55840
57~?4O
!
1
j
j
$
1
18720
21760
24160
26400
28640
30560
32320
33920
35280
36560
37600
=8
ti
S
6
7
8
9
10
u 12
.$
12
13
14
1s
8
P
WET CLAY
i
i
]
15120
17200
19040
20720
21760
23520
24720
25760
26640
27360
28160
SATURATED TOPSOIL
100 POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT *
Trench Width at Top of Pipe
18in
21 in
24in
27iin
3Obt
33b1
Mht
42in
48 in
475
530
570
605
635
655
675
690
705
715
720
590
660
720
770
810
845
875
900
920
935
950
710
795
870
940
995
1045
1090
1125
1160
1180
1205
830
930
1030
1110
1190
1255
1305
1355
1400
1435
1470
945
1075
1190
1295
1380
1470
1545
1610
1665
1710
1760
1060
1210
1355
1475
1580
1685
1775
1860
1930
1990
2050
1170
1360
1510
1650
1790
1910
2020
2120
2205
2285
2350
1420
1640
1850
2035
2205
2350
2500
2645
2770
2880
2980
1650
1930
2180
2420
2625
2830
3010
3185
3340
3490
3615
1125
1290
1465
1610
1755
1890
2005
2110
2215
2305
23%
1235
1460
1630
1790
1970
2105
2260
2385
2515
2620
2720
1495
1725
1985
2155
2390
2585
2770
2950
3110
3250
3395
1730
2030
2285
2590
2800
3060
3265
3505
3700
3890
4080
WET CLAY
b
b
1s
1.8
2;
21
2.1
3.0
3.4
3.7
4.0
4.3
4.6
* For backtill
for backfiil
8480
9520
10480
11280
11920
12560
13040
13440
13840
14160
14480
weighing
weighing
10320
11760
12960
14080
15040
15920
16880
17280
17760
18320
18720
12240
14CGO
15600
16960
18240
19360
204lM
21280
22LWO
22720
23360
1500 kilograms
1700 kilograms
14080
16240
18160
19420
21440
22880
24160
25440
26320
27280
28080
16240
18560
20800
22960
24800
26560
28080
29600
30880
32180
33200
18ooO
22240
23440
25760
23080
30240
32080
33760
35440
36880
38320
19760
23360
26080
28460
31520
33680
35300
38160
40240
41920
43520
23920
276CG
31760
34480
38240
41360
44320
47200
49760
52000
54320
load sbownby
load shownby
27680
32480
36560
41440
44800
48960
52240
56080
59200
62240
65280
0.94.
1.06 etc.
6S
3
m
I
8
0
9
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1s
530
595
655
705
745
785
515
MO
865
885
905
645
735
810
880
940
995
1055
1080
1110
1145
1170
765
875
975
1060
1140
1210
1275
1330
1375
1420
14@l
880
1015
1135
1245
1340
1430
1510
1590
1645
1705
1755
1015
1160
1300
1435
1550
1660
1755
1850
1930
2010
2075
on concrete or clay pipe per linear meter (foot) for various backfill materials. Drawing 103D689.
0.9,
for backfill
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
231
Table S-9a.-Allowable
for rigid pipe drains in a
fipe
Diameter
(3
Clay
d
jtrengtl
26.2
_____
26.2
30.6
35.1
39.4
_---43.8
-_--_
48.1
_-_-_
52.5
56.8
61.3
72.3
78.3
87.6
ye
Extra
w
Clas!
2
33.0
Sewe
.3
class
n Concrete6Drainagc
2c
3 Heavy
Duty
24.0
30.7
26.2
24.0
27.0
30.7
24.0
28.5
30.7
24.0
29.2
33.0
33.7
24.0
30.7
24.0
37.5
33.0
24.0
35.2
2
24.0
36.0
4517
24.0
37.5
26.2
51.0
39.7
29.2
54.7
32.2
2;
58.5
35.2
43:5
66.0
_____ -__-------___
43.5
-_--_
_--_-____
24.0
17.5
17.5
24.0
:;; g
33.0
17.5
24.0
33.0
17.5
24.0
200 (8)
250 (10)
35.2
17.5
24.0
39.0
24.0
17.5
----_
z?i iif{
18.4
24.0
375(15)
43.5
19.0
25.0
----_
_--_26.2
-____ 28.5
% I::{
48.0
-____
_-------_
500(20)
---_525(21)
52.5
31.6
_____ 34.9
57.0
600 (W
-_--675 (27)
39.3
61.5
_---750(30)
43.6
-----____
825(33)
z-z
_-------!WO(36)
72'0
A
io Pertorated c0ncrete Qe
*i
** I 0 Special Quality
I The valueslisted in this table are 1.5 times the valuesgiven in the respectiveASTM Specitiitions listed
below which we minimum 3 edge bearing s&qths.
CurrentASTh4SpecifmionNo.
100 (4)
43.8
----43.8
48.9
52.5
56.8
_____
63.4
_____
72.3
_____
84.3
96.3
102.9
.09.5
.20.4
.31.4
ZiiG
F
2 c700-91
-_-__
43.5
_-__43.5
43.5
43.5
49.5
----57.0
----_
66.0
_____
72.0
78.7
86.2
94.5
96.0
98.2
5 C412M-90
3 C14M-90
6 C118M-90
4 a-62
C444M-90
(Reapproved 1986)
NOTE :
Table S-9b.-Allowable
crushing strength in pounds per linear foot for
rigidpipe drains in a gravel envelope (U.S. customary units}. Drawing 103-D-1670.
Pipa
dieter.
inches
6
6
IO
I2
I4
I6
IX
20
CLAY SE :R PIPE
Ext ro
Standard
St remth
St renMh
I.800
3.000
::Ei
t:%l
x%i
z
33
36
Ys
2.260
3:600
3.900
X:%
3:E
3.m
4.360
3.m
3.600
3.300
4.950
3.300
4.500
:Gi
6:260
g.oa
Ext ro
Qwlity
3.600
3.600
4.200
4.600
4.125
4.660
XNCRETE
RAN TILE
Standard
guality
stra
blity
21:
3.000
3.ooo
3.ooo
6.600
Gloss
2.260
2.260
6.115
x:
2: 100
2.260
tsl
2115
2:970
3. I60
3.610
1.m
I.200
I.200
I.200
I.200
I.200
tfiz
4.020
x*z
6:460
6:366
Standard
I.600
I.676
I.950
i:El
I:%
p5&
2:660
:%i
2:400
%:Efl
a.ooo
6.760
NOTES:
I%
l:6Yl
1.660
1.s
3NCRETE 1 NNAGEPIR
2.700
2.ll6
4.950
6.600
*Also
**Also
1.660
I.650
**
a.606
Perforotad
Special
Chml
Concrate
i ty
Pipe
When tb
crushing
strength
of the Dips
listed
an unusual
Iced
condition,
rainforced
concmte
culvert
pipa
should
be considwed.
Sea Fader01
No. SS-P-371.
Type
II and ASlU C76-74.
The thru-w
o Iood
factor
bowing
of
I.5
strength
orsuing
values
Class
how
bwn
C baddirm.
will
not
maat
sonar
or
Specifications
ultipliod
by
Hw
out:
2.100
xz
2:260
2,326
234
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Using table 5-9, the allowable crushing strength of all pipes listed, except
standardclay and standardconcretedraintile, will exceedthe requiredstrength.
(c) Plastic pipe.-For corrugatedplastic pipe, the strengthdependsupon the
bedding material. All plastic pipe drains should be surroundedby at least a
lOOmillimeter (4-inch) gravel envelope.The loading capacity shouldbe determinedby Marstons methodfor flexible pipe.Figure5-29 showsloadcoefficients
for various soils basedon the ratio of the depthof fill to the trench width.
Flexible pipe deflects when loaded,which results in a transfer of the load to
thebeddingmaterial. Safeloadsfor corrugatedplasticpipethat meetReclamation
materialsspecificationsam thoseloads that will cause10 percentor lessdeflection as determinedby:
A=
DC W$
EI + 0.061Er3
(16)
where:
A =
D =
c =
WC=
=
L =
E =
I
AY
where:
F = Load per linear inch on a parallel plate test apparatus(sand-bearing
strengthis 1SF)
Ay = Vertical deflection of pipe in millimeters (inches)
Figure 5-30 showsthe backfill loadingson flexible and rigid pipe according
to depth to top of pipe for a 450-millimeter (l&inch) wide trench. This figure
shows loadings by pipe size and backfill material. The following tabulation
shows the weight of backfill causinga lo-percent deflection on pipe meeting
Reclamation specificationsfor corrugatedpolyethylene pipe, with a stiffness
equalto 275 kilopascals(40 poundsper squareinch) (sandbearing):
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
1 w,=CdwBt
235
(Ib/ft)
C,j=LOOd coefficient
IO
II
12
I3
I4
Figure 5-29.-Load
coefficients for computing weight of backfill, based on Marston
formula. Drawing 103-D-1671.
15
236
DRAINAGE MANUAL
(FEET)
(5)
(101
(15)
(20)
(25)
(30)
1000)
1900)
1300
iSO0)
1100
(700)
8
g
fi
P
900
(600)
i=
&
f
Q
g
Y
v500)
= 700
a
g
5
2
.i
1400)
3
500
(300)
300
(200)
(100)
3
HEIGHT
5
OF FILL
7
IN
9
METERS
Figure 5-30.-Backfill
loads on pipe in a 450-millimeter @-inch) wide trench, based on
Marston formula. Drawing 103-D-1672.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
100
125
150
200
4
5
6
8
Deflection A
inches
millimeters
10.2
12.7
15.2
20.3
237
AND CONSTRUCTION
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
Vertical load
W,, lblin
WC,lblft
125
156
188
250
1,500
1,872
2,256
3,000
238
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Cal. 1
Pipe size
6
6
6
8
10
Stations that define the section of pipe to be sized from upstream down.
Length of pipe defined.
Accretion rate usually in f?/s per foot.
Accmtions to the defined length of pipe col. 2 x col. 3.
Total accretions to downstream end of defined length of pipe, including all upstream contributions.
Slope of the defined length of pipe.
Pipe size in inches based on figure 5-31b.
lad s,e,ay(
IO adois
AND CONSTRUCTION
U! ed!d
,e,e~
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
Figure 5-31a.-Flow
103-D-666.
0.01
0.03
a?
a3
0.7 09 I
3
3
7
SK)
DISCHARGE 101 IN CUBIC FEET
30
PER SECOND
30
7osomo
300
3007009m
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
Figure 5-32.-Plan
AND CONSTRUCTION
241
242
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
IO
IO
20
30
40
80
RATIO OF HYDRAULIC
Figure. 5-33.-Hydraulic
60
70
ELEMENTS
a0
90
100
110
(PERCENT)
I20
I30
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
243
The maximum inflow into the sumpmust be determinedfor the total drainage
requirementof the areato be drainedby the sump.For example,if the pumping
plant must relift water from a drainagesystemwith a total area of 259 hectares
(640 acres),the following data must be known and computationsmade:
q = 0.6
I[ 183
I
2x(0.37)(1.52)(6.25) (254)(10,000)
= 0.01186m3/s(0.415ft%)
(86,400)(183)
244
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
p=s+lt
t
where:
P = Pumping rate at maximum inflow in liters per second (gallons per
minute)
t = Runningtime of pump andmotor in minutesfor maximum inflow based
on the selectedcompletecycling time with equalon-and-off times
S = Sumpstoragevolume in liters (gallons)
I = Inflow rate in liters per second(gallonsper minute)
Then p = 4,270 + 11.86x 60)
= 23.7 L/s (376 gal/min)
7
6x60
The minimum andmaximum water levelsin the sumpmust be determinedfor
individual outlet conditions.In general,the maximum water level for startingthe
pump shouldbeat aboutthe top of thepipe draindischarginginto the sump.Never
should it exceed one-half the pipe diameter over the top of the drain. The
minimum elevationshouldbe from 0.6 to 1.2 meters (2 to 4 feet) abovethe base
of the sump.Rumplifts are the differencein elevationbetweenwater level in the
sumpand the dischargeelevation,seefigure 5-34.
The volume of requiredstorageplus the criteria that the minimum water level
shouldbe 0.6 to 1.2meters (2 to 4 feet) abovethe bottom of the sumpdetermines
the sizeof the sump.Generally,the sumpwill becylindrical andplacedvertically,
but can also be placed horizontally. Assuming the pipe drain enters 3 meters
(10 feet) below the ground surfaceand that the sump will be bothcylindrical and
vertical, the distancebetweenthe start and stop elevations,D, shouldbe small to
keep the depth of the sump reasonable.For example, assumeD = 0.6 meter
(2 feet). Knowing the volume of required storage, V, to be 4.27 cubic meters
(151 cubic feet), the diameterof the sump, d, is computedfrom:
V
dz = 0.78540
dz = (0.7$(0.6)
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
245
AND CONSTRUCTION
Meter
Chsl
tar
J
F-~
El.396m
(1300)
Pipe collector
Plug
-Round sump
- Stilling chamber
Concrete hose>
Figure 5-34.-Typical
103-D-1673.
Figure 5-34 shows the required designelevationsand arrangementof equipment for an automatic drainagepumping plant.
For planningestimates,thepump andpowerunits canbe selectedfrom reliable
pump andmotor manufacturers,using their literature andchartsto determinethe
most efficient pump and motor. For constructionspecificationson small units,
seethe Bureauof Reclamations Ground Water Manual (1977).
Multiple pumps can be used for large areas.When pumps of equal size are
used, they can be operated to cycle only one pump at a time. The storage
requirementis computedusing the capacityof only one pump. If the pumps are
not of equalcapacity,the storageshouldbedesignedfor the capacityof the largest
pump.
E.
246
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
247
Basedupon water table location and soil profile data, three generaltypes of
conditionswere recognized,eachrequiring a different combinationof hydraulic
conductivity test methods.Figure 5-37 shows the location of the test sites and
the combinationof hydraulic conductivity methodsrequiredat eachsite. Typical
soil profiles of subareasA, B, and C are shown on figure 5-38.
The water tablein subareaA was about2.1 meters (7 feet) from the surfaceat
the time of the investigation,but the farmer reportedthat it roseto within 0.3 to
0.6 meter (1 or 2 feet) of the surfaceduring theperiodof heaviestirrigation. These
high water table conditions indicatedthe needfor horizontal hydraulic conductivities under saturated conditions in the 0.6- to 2.1-meter (2- to 7-foot),
sandy-clayloam zone. Becausethis zone was dry, a shallow well pump-in test
would be used.Below 2.1 meters (7 feet), in the sandyloam layer, the horizontal
hydraulic conductivitiesunder saturatedconditions could be determinedby the
auger-holetest. For the pump-in tests, three additional l&meter (6-foot) deep
holeswere augeredat grid points D- 1, C-3, and B-4. For the auger-holetest, the
original 3-meter (lo-foot) deepholes at theselocationswere used.
248
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CHAPTER
V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
249
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
SURAREAc
Figure 5-37.Samplefarm
SUI
m
SCL
Wotrr
SL
3.96 I (13)
03)
S
-
4.06 m IIS)
4.66
6.42
m ll7.6)
C
-
-I 4
-1
3.90m
(1281
,Lz=2iy
loam
L = Loam
4.11m(13.5)
4.37m (IS1
CL
S.IBm (17)
CL
-
2.74m#)
3.0Sm(idl
SL = Sandy loam
LS = bxny
sand
SCL = Sandy cloy loam
S = Sand
CL
4.87 m IIS1
4.67
II57
L
1.46m(4.6)
SL
tobl.
6. I 111(261
Figure 5-38.-Typical
-I,.,rn
(2dl
soil profiles
pm
of sample farm subareas. Drawing 103-D-673.
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
251
The water table in subareaB was at about 1.46meters (4.8 feet); the clay layer
from the 1.2- to 2.0-meter (4- to 6.5foot) level could causea perchedwater table
during the irrigation season.To check this possibility, the vertical hydraulic
conductivity of the clay layer was measured.This measurementrequireduse of
the ring permeametertest, and tests were run at grid points D-2 and E-3. During
the tests,the water tableat E-3 roseinto the 15Omillimeter (6-inch) test zoneand
the test had to be abandoned.Becausethe clay layer appearedhomogeneousand
isotropic at E-2, the piezometertest was substitutedfor the ring penneametertest.
This test gave a value for horizontal hydraulic conductivity, and in view of the
homogeneity of the clay, the vertical hydraulic conductivity could then be
assumedto be about the same.
Becausethe 1.2- to 2.7-meter (4- to g-foot) profile in subareaC was homogeneousand the water table was at 1.46 meters (4.8 feet), the auger-holetest was
usedfor determiningthe hydraulic conductivity in this zone, andthe piezometer
test wasusedfor determiningthe hydraulicconductivity of the clay loam andclay
zonesbelow 4.1 meters (13.5 feet).
Pointson the 240-meter(800-foot) grid were usedto determinethe probable
barrier layer. This determinationrequiredmeasuringthe hydraulic conductivity
of the various layers below the prospective dmin depth. At these depths, the
auger-hole test was not practical becauseof the depth of the layers, so the
piezometer test was used and tests were run at C-2, C-4, E-O, E-2, and G-4.
Figure 5-39 shows the location of all test sites and the hydraulic conductivity
data.
S-56. Moisture Holding Capacity in the Root Zone.-The three subareas
of the samplefamr were examinedfor themost critical moisture-holdingcapacity
within a 1.Zmeter (4-foot) root zone.SubareaC wasfound to be the most critical.
In this subarea,the availablemoisture was 29.5 millimeters (1.16 inches) in the
first 0.3 meter (1.Ofoot), 31.75millimeters (1.25 inches)in the second0.3 meter
(1.0 foot), 36.83 millimeters (1.45 inches)in the third 0.3 meter (1.0 foot), and
36.83 (1.45 inches)in the fourth 0.3 meter (1.0 foot).
The total readily availablemoisture (TRAM) in the 1.2-meter (4-foot) root
zonewas calculatedasoutlinedin section26 of this manual.The critical quarter
in this caseis the first 0.3 meter (1.Ofoot), and the TRAM in the sampleprofile
is:
TRAM = (29.5 x 0.70)/0.40 = 51.6 millimeters (2.03 inches)
S-57. Annual Irrigation Schedule.-The irrigation schedulefor the sample
farm, as for any fame, variesfrom year to year becauseof crop rotation, size of
farm, weather,andplanting dates.However, for a specificclimate, irrigation and
cropping practices usually follow a pattern. Over the long term, the features
determiningirrigation schedulestend to be about the sameeachyear. Therefore,
anaverageirrigation scheduleoften is usedindraindesign. Aninigation schedule
for the crop most generallygrown andhaving the greatestdrainagerequirement
is usedin the drain design.On the samplefarm, that crop is alfalfa.
T_rsle7
-*(7.3,9.01=l.95~(a~
-*- 9.Ol=l.40
-x324-Surface
~7.~1O.OHkpth
tatap and bottom
of me tested
= I .90- Hydraulic conductivity of zone tested
inillchFsperhalr
SCALE
--6
(6.3,10.9r1.25
...-...-.- ..-
@%2~(6&,11.5):2.20
(7.~~i%J,/
OF FEET
E
Figure S-39.~In-place
I3
,O
A
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
253
AND CONSTRUCTION
crops
Alfalfa
Corn
Beans
Small grains
Average
percent
Brown
per year
40
20
20
20
Growing season
May 15 to Sept. 21
May 15 to Sept. 15
May 15to Aug. 15
Mav 15 to Aug. 15
Percentof moisture
extractedper quarter
of root zone
1st 2nd 3rd 4th
40
30
20
10
Month
&Y
June
July
August
Sentember
Growing
days
16
30
31
31
15
cu
Millimeters Inches
53.8
2.13
123.7
4.83
138.7
5.46
123.4
4.86
45.7
1.80
Dailv CU
Millimeters
Inches
2.29
0.09
4.06
.16
4.32
.17
1.52
.06
1.52
.06
Consumptive use and irrigation requirement for beans and small grains
Month
WY
June
July
August
Growing
davs
16
30
31
15
cu
Millimeters
Inches
54.1
2.13
122.7
4.83
138.7
5.46
59.9
2.36
Dailv CU
Millimeters
Inches
2.29
0.09
4.06
.16
4.32
.17
1.02
.04
254
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
84x504
= 85 millimeters (3.33 inches)
50.6
The soil moisture was assumedto be at field capacity after snowmelt in the
spring, May 15. The irrigation schedulefor alfalfa is shown becausethis will be
usedin estimatingthe dram spacing.
Irrigation schedulefor alfalfa
Date
Farm deliverv
millimeters inches
5115
84.6
3.33
6l3
84.6
3.33
6114
84.6
3.33
84.6
3.33
6/Z
715
84.6
3.33
84.6
3.33
7115
7i25
84.6
3.33
814
84.6
3.33
84.6
3.33
8115
S/2
84.6
3.33
9/9
84.6
3.33
Total 930.6
36.63
Becausethe soil holds5 1.6millimeters (2.03 inches)of total readily available
moisture at field capacity,the irrigation efficiency is:
51.6
Fatm efficiency = 84.6 x 100 = 61 percent
Of this, about 10percent,or 8.4 millimeters (0.33 inch), runsoff assurfacewaste,
leaving 76.2 millimeters (3.00 inches) to infiltrate the soil. This meansabout
24.6 millimeters (0.97 inch) will deeppercolateto the ground-water table upon
eachirrigation. Deeppercolation= 76.2 - 5 1.6 = 24.6 millimeters (3.00 - 2.03 =
0.97 inch) per irrigation. The total annual deep percolation for 11 irrigations,
assumingthat rainfall is negligible,will be about 271 millimeters (10.7 inches).
Observation well data from the site may also be useful in estimating deep
percolationfrom an irrigation event.Changesin water table elevationbeforeand
after an irrigation event can be used to calculate deep percolation amounts.
NeutronProbedata,which indicatedeeppercolationvalues,alsomay be available
from irrigation schedulingservicecompanies.
5-59. Other Water Sources Causing High Water Table Conditions.Precipitationin the samplefarm areais low anderratic, so it was not considered
a contributing sourceto the ground water. The remainingsourcesof high ground
water during the irrigation seasonam: (a) ground water moving into the area
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
255
where:
Q =
K =
i =
A =
(19)
limeter per hectare(0.03 inch per acre)per irrigation. This small amountof water
can be easily removedthrough the spaceddrain system.If the amount is on the
sameorder of magnitudeas deeppercolationfrom irrigation, an analysisshould
be madeto determinewhether an interceptor drain shouldbe constructedat the
upperboundaryof the samplefarm.
Irrigated
form on south
side of somple farm.
c Lined
3600
1
El00
irrigo
tion
lateral
EXPLANATION
I
&O
I
E-l
E-2
E-3
Figure 5-I0.-North-south
-E-4
E-5
1
E-6
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
(b) Deeppercolationfromfarm
AND CONSTRUCTION
ditches.-The
257
(B +w
3.5
With irrigation deliveriesat the rate of 0.14 cubic meters (5 cubic feet) per
second through V-shaped farm ditches constructed in sandy loam soils, the
velocity shouldnot exceedabout0.61 meter (2.0 feet) per second.Assumingthat
the side slopesare l-1/2 to 1, the cross-sectionalarearequiredcan be computed
from the formula:
where:
= Cross-sectionalareain squaremeters (squarefeet)
Q = Irrigation delivery rate in cubic meters (cubic feet) per second
V = Velocity in meters (feet) per second
0.61 -
From table 5-6, the depth of water, d, in the V-shapedfarm ditch would be
about 0.4 meter (1.3 feet), and the width of the water surface, B, would be
1.2 meters (3.9 feet). From the in-place tests, the hydraulic conductivity in the
farm ditch section would be about 3.05 centimeters (1.2 inches) per hour or
0.73 meter (2.4 feet) per day.
Then:
41
258
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
A-l
A-2
B
C-l
c-2
c-3
73
107
52
76
91
107
240
350
170
250
300
350
i?.
: SUBAREA
\
--a -w
.
SUBAREA
C-3
04k(SL)=1.9
in/h
~-I~~(SCL)=O.S in/h
HC
4-H=l.Z in/h
C-I
0-9Yf(SL)=i.Z in/h
\ 9-14f(SCL)=O.Sin/l.,
I
I 14-19f(CL)f0.2
in/h
\ IS-20f(C)=0.1 in/h
\
-e ______
__-------r
: -----
\
? SUBAREA
\
200
I*~~1
400
I
SCALE
OF
C-
-7
/
+,,,------e--s,
b-$*(SL)=Z.O
in/h
/2-7f(SCL)=I.O
in/h
1 I-12f(SL)=2.2
in/h
I 12-16&(L)= 0.6 in/h
i 16-ldf(CL)=0.3 in/h
i 16-2df (C)- 0.1 in/h
I
/
1 13-17f(CL)=O.2 in/h
4, ll-2Of(C)=O.l
in/h
B
HCin/h
-d-16=0.9
---_
.2
,- ,---
~-,~
i SUBAREA
-----
HC-Weighted
hydraulic
conductivity
0-Ti(SL)=Z.O
in/h
2-lf(SCL)=OB
in/h
7-12k(SL)=l.2 in/h
IZ-16f(L)=0.6 in/h
l6-IOf(CL)=0.3in/h
16-20k(C)=o.1 in/h
/h
:
.
---e-_-e-
SUBAREA
A
A-2
800
FEET
Figure 541.Subareas
of the sample farm having similar drainage conditions. The weighted, average, in-place hydraulic conductivity data are shown for
each subarea. Drawing 103-D-676.
SUb-
area
C-l
c-2
A-l
A-2
c-3
Depth
meters
1.2-2.7
2.74.3
4.3-1.6
4.6-6.1
1X2.7
2.74.3
4.34.6
4.6-6.1
1X2.1
2.1-3.7
3.74.9
4.9-5.5
5.5-6.1
1.2-2.1
2.1-3.7
3.74.9
4.9-5.5
5.5-6.1
1.2-1.8
1.84.0
4.0-5.2
5.2-6.1
1X2.7
2.74.3
4.34.6
4.6-6.1
Texture
feet
4-9
9-14
14-15
15-20
4-9
9-14
14-15
15-20
4-7
7-12
12-16
16-18
18-20
4-7
7-12
12-16
16-18
18-20
4-6
6-13
13-17
17-20
4-9
9-14
14-15
15-U)
SL
SCL
CL
c
SL
SCL
CL
c
SCL
SL
L
CL
C
SCL
SL
L
CL
C
C
SL
CL
c
SL
SCL
CL
c
Kz, hydraulic
conductivity
cm/hr
in/h
3.05
1.2
1.27
0.5
0.51
0.2
0.25
0.1
4.06
1.6
1.27
0.5
0.51
0.2
0.25
0.1
1.52
0.6
3.05
1.2
2.03
0.8
0.76
0.3
0.25
0.1
2.54
1.0
5.58
2.2
2.03
0.8
0.76
0.3
0.25
0.1
0.25
0.1
3.81
1.5
0.51
0.2
0.25
0.1
4.83
1.9
1.27
0.5
0.51
0.2
0.25
0.1
K1x5
compared with K2
of layers above
Remarks
Barrier
Barrier
3.05
2.03
0.76
0.25
(1.2)
(0.8)
(0.3)
(0.1)
x
x
x
x
5=
5=
5=
5=
Barrier
5.58
2.03
0.76
0.25
(2.2)
(0.8)
(0.3)
iO.ii
x5=
x5 =
x5 =
x5=
Barrier
Barrier
Barrier
Barrier
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
261
For maximum effectiveness,the drains shouldbe locatedin the more permeablelayers.The in-placehydraulic conductivity data were usedto determinethe
most desirabledrain locations. For example,if spacingrequirementscould be
satisfactorily met, a &am shouldnot be locatedthrough the lesspermeablearea
representedby grid points D-3 and E-3. In this case,the drainscould be located
on either side of this less permeable area and still meet the drain spacing
requirements.Figure 542 showsthe location of the drainsfor the samplefarm.
262
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER V-DESIGN
AND CONSTRUCTION
263
((Chapter VI
OF
266
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER VI-OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE
OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
267
268
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER VI-OPERATION
AND MAINTENANCE
OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS
269
((Chapter VII
7-l. Return Flow Analysis Using the Transient Flow Concept.-A study
of ground water hydrographsin an irrigated area generally shows that a water
table risesduring the irrigation seasonand reachesits highestelevationafter the
last irrigation of the seasonor, in an area of year-roundcropping, at the end of
the peak portion of the irrigation season.The water table thenrecedesduring the
slack or nonirrigation portion of the year and rises again during the irrigation
seasonthe following year.
If the annualdischargefrom anirrigatedareadoesnot equalrecharge,thetrend
of the cyclic water table fluctuation will be progressivelyupward from year to
year. When annualdischargeand rechargebecomeequal, the highestlevel and
therangeof water tablefluctuation becomereasonablyconstantfrom yearto year.
This condition is defined as dynamic equilibrium. The method of drainage
analysisdevelopedby the Bureauof Reclamationtakesinto accountthe transient
regimenof the ground-waterrechargeand discharge.
Figure54, basedon theBureausmathematicaltreatmentof the transientflow
concept,showsgraphicallythe relation (at the midpoint betweenparallel drains)
between the dimensionlessparameters.The curves on figure 5-4 for these
parametersrepresentthe solution for the casewhere drams are abovea barrier
and on a barrier, respectively.
The dischargeformulas for parallel drains am:
q,2!wL
(dramsabovebarrier)
4 y
(drainson barrier)
where:
4 = dramdischargein cubic meters(feet) per linearmeter (foot) of drain
per day,
K = hydraulicconductivity in cubic meters(feet) per squaremeter (foot)
per day [meters (feet) per day], and
271
272
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
-y)xLxS
where:
YO = initial water tableheight,
Y = final water table height,
L = drain spacing,and
S = specific yield.
The following is an exampleof drain spacingcomputationsand the development of areadischargeand monthly distribution dischargecurves.The pertinent
soil, crop, irrigation, drain design, and climatic characteristicsare briefly describedbelow:
(a) Dram depth is 2.4 meters (8 feet); maximum permissibleheight of water
table midway betweendrams,yO,is 1.2 meters (4 feet) abovedrain. This height
providesa minimum root zoneof 1.2 meters (4 feet).
(b) Hydraulic conductivity of the subsoil,in the zone where the water table
will fluctuate, is 38 centimeters(15 inches)per hour [9.1 meters(30 feet) per day]
with a correspondingspecificyield of 23 percent.
(c) The depthfrom the drain to the impermeablebarrier, d, is about 10meters
(33 feet). This depthcorrespondsto anequivalentdepth,d, of 9.1 meters(30 feet)
when spacing computations are corrected for convergency by Hooghoudts
method, discussedin section5-S.
(d> The weighted averagehydraulic conductivity in the zone between the
maximum allowable water table and the impermeablebarrier is 48 centimeters
(19 inches)per hour, or 11.6 meters (38 feet) per day.
(e) Soil texture of the root zoneis sandyloam. Deeppercolationundernormal
irrigation practices on sandy loam soils amounts to about 28 percent of the
irrigation application.
(jj The tabulationbelow showsthe crops grown in the area,amountof water
for each crop per irrigation, runount of deep percolation for each crop per
irrigation, and the buildup in the water table causedby eachirrigation.
(g) The irrigation schedule,shown on figure 7-1, shows the number and
timing of irrigations for each crop as reported by the farmers in the <area.
Safflower-vegetableand barley-vegetablecropsare doublecroppedon the same
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
273
274
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
millimeters
140
130
130
130
115
140
application,
inches
5.5
5.0
5.0
5.0
4.5
5.5
Deep percolation,
millimeters
39
36
36
36
32
39
inches
1.54
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.26
1.54
0.15
0.15
0.15
0.14
0.17
feet
0.56
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.46
0.56
The water table reachesthe maximum allowable height, yO,above the drain
immediatelyafter the last irrigation of the seasonor at the endof thepeakportion
of the irrigation season.Therefore, the averageflow depth,D, canbe computed
for the first drain-out period. With this flow depth and the valuesof K, t, S, and
KDT
a predeterminedvalue of L, the valueof the parametercanbe computedfor
SLZ
the fast time period. With this value, the correspondingparametert can be
obtainedfrom the curve for drains above barrier on tigure 5-4. Knowing the
initial water tableheight, v, at the beginningof the time period, the valueof y, the
height to which the midpoint water table falls during the time period, can be
computed. This procedure is repeated for each successivetime interval. If
dynamicequilibrium exists,the water tablemust againreach,but not exceed,the
initial height at the sametime in the following year. Seesection5-7.
Table7-l showscomputationsfor the following 5-year crop rotation: (1) alfalfa, (2) safflower and vegetables,(3) cotton, (4) barley and vegetables,and (5)
bermuda.In table 7-1, the columnscontain the following information:
Column 1.-Crop under consideration.
Column 2.-Designation of each successiveincrement of ground-water rechargefor eachcrop, seefigure 7-l.
Column 3.-Length of drain-out period or time betweenrechargein days.
Column 4,Buildup of water table in meters (feet) dueto eachrecharge.
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
275
-.
SLZ
Column 9.-Midpoint water tableheight abovedrain at end of eachdrain-out
period (column 5 x column 8).
Figure 7-2 shows the water table fluctuation for eachcrop in the rotation as
producedby a 488meter (1,600-foot) drain spacing.This figure illustrates the
fact that a singledrain spacingcannotbe expectedto be the optimum for all crops
grown in rotation in the samefield. In this example,the maximum permissible
water table height occurs with two of the crops. Therefore, the 488-meter
(1,600-foot) spacingis the maximum allowablefor optimum production.
Table 7-2 shows how the discharge formula, q =2 K !a!!?
L
is used with
276
DRAINAGEMANUAL
Table 7-la.-Drain
spacing computations with convergence correction
included for the example j-year crop rotation program (metric units).
L = 488 meters, K = 11.6 meters per day, S = 23 percent,
and d = 9.1 meters. (Sheet I of 2.) 103-0-1679-l.
1
crop
Alfalfa
:
iafflower
2
rrigation
Number
buildup,
Meters
Yo.
deters
6
D,
[eters
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
1.219
1.161
I.426
I.488
I.499
I.493
I.490
I.498
I.586
3.668
3.741
I.801
3.850
3.894
3.930
1.027
1.113
1.075
3.412
3.475
D.489
D.489
D.311
D.426
D.536
DA48
D.752
D.848
D.934
1.016
1.092
1.158
1.219
1.275
1.326
1.375
0.484
0.568
0.672
0.775
0.867
0.954
I.754
I.726
j.357
I.388
p.394
b.391
P.388
b.388
j.437
b.479
j.513
a.543
P.571
a.592
a.610
a.656
P.702
3.680
a.351
J.382
J.388
a.388
a.299
a.357
a.412
a.467
).519
a.568
a.610
a.653
).690
a.723
a.754
a.781
9.808
9.830
9.385
9.427
9.479
9.531
9.577
9.623
8
Y
YO
1.0351
I.1690
3.0455
3.0556
3.0597
3.0597
3.0576
D.0318
D.0300
D.0301
D.0302
0.0303
0.0304
0.0305
0.0203
0.0204
0.0349
0.1680
0.0456
0.0556
0.0597
0.1310
0.0275
0.0237
0.0199
0.0200
0.0202
0.0202
0.0204
0.0204
0.0205
0.0206
0.0206
0.0207
0.020E
FE:
0:021s
0.02oc
0.0202
0.0202
0.136c
b.812
I.220
j.742
I.673
M45
M45
M65
I.840
I.850
I.850
I.850
I.850
I.850
I.850
I.920
I.920
I.810
I.225
I.740
1.670
I.650
1.320
3.870
3.893
I.920
I.920
I.920
3.920
I.920
I.920
I.919
I.919
I.919
I.917
0.917
0.240
0.851
0.912
0.920
0.920
0.920
0.313
9
reLs
j.990
I.255
I.316
I.328
I.322
I.318
I.326
I.418
I.498
I.568
I.630
I.681
I.723
I.759
I.856
I.944
1.902
I.242
3.305
I.318
3.318
3.157
3.271
3.380
3.493
3.596
3.692
3.780
3.860
3.935
1.003
E!l
1:169
1.216
0.330
0.412
0.518
0.618
0.713
0.798
0.299
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE
277
PROBLEMS
Table7-la.-Drain
crop
2
higatior
Number
4
3uildup.
Meters
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.140
0.140
0.140
0.140
0.140
0.140
0.140
cotton
i
Barley
1
t
egetables
J-
1
Bermuda
o.p55
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.155
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
0.171
5
Yo.
6
D.
D.454
D.248
D.342
0.453
D.549
D.633
0.705
0.766
0.817
0.862
0.902
0.271
0.313
0.381
0.438
0.517
0.585
9.370
9.269
L
YO
Meters
K2
0:200
0.327
0.436
0.555
0.668
0.771
0.865
0.334
0.356
0.477
0.581
0.665
0.736
0.789
0.842
0.887
0.913
0.946
0.961
0.987
1.009
9.315
9.370
9.418
9.461
9.498
9.528
9.552
9.577
9.595
9.278
9.299
9.336
9.363
9.403
9.437
9.464
9.226
9.245
9.309
9.363
9.421
9.479
9.531
9.577
9.307
9.318
9.379
9.431
9.472
9.508
9.535
9.561
9.583
9.596
9.613
9.621
9.633
9.645
0.1770
0.0431
0.0276
0.0278
0.0279
0.0280
0.0281
0.0282
0.0283
0.0284
0.2032
0.0609
0.0414
0.0395
0.0297
0.0299
0.0299
0.1523
0.1485
0.0294
0.0296
0.0218
0.0199
0.0200
0.0202
0.1785
0.0769
0.0296
0.0298
0.0300
0.0301
0.0322
0.0303
0.0304
0.0325
0.0305
0.0326
0.0306
0.0306
0.1879
0.205
0.755
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.870
0.866
0.865
0.865
0.866
0.145
0.640
0.770
0.783
0.860
0.860
0.855
0.260
0.272
0.860
0.860
0.916
0.924
0.923
0.921
0.188
0.555
0.860
0.860
0.850
0.850
0.840
0.850
0.850
0.836
0.849
0.835
0.849
0.849
0.180
*eLs
0.093
0.187
0.298
0.394
0.478
0.550
0.611
0.662
0.707
0.747
0.131
0.173
0.241
0.298
0.377
0.445
0.500
0.166
0.045
0.172
0.281
0.400
0.513
0.616
0.710
0.163
0.185
0.306
0.410
0.494
0.565
0.618
0.671
0.716
0.742
0.775
0.790
0.816
0.838
0.182
278
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Table 7-lb.-Drain
spacing computations with convergence correction
included for the example j-year crop rotation program (U.S. customary units).
L = 1,600 feet, K = 38 feet per day, S = 23 percent,
and d = 30 feet. (Sheet 1 of 2.) 103-0-1679-l.
1
2
4
5
6
8
9
-3
rrigation
ime, hildup.
D,
1
crop
Number
bays
i;
23
;i
it
:;
4lfalfa
:z
:i
:;
10
17
ii
28
30
66
14
12
:i
10
afflower
:i
::
::
10
::
egetable
::
10
::
67
Feet
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
4.00
3.81
1.40
:*z
1:62
1.61
1.62
1.92
2.20
2.43
2.62
2.79
2.93
3.05
3.36
3.66
3.52
1.35
1.56
1.61
1.60
1.02
1.40
1.76
2.13
2.47
2.78
3.07
3.34
3.58
3.80
~~
4:36
4.50
1.59
1.86
2.21
2.54
2.85
3.13
Feet
;z
;g
I.0351
I.1690
M455
30:82
30.81
Es:
io597
:i%
30:96
31.10
31.21
31.31
31.40
31.47
31.53
31.68
31.83
%:f
30:78
30.80
30.80
30.51
%;I:
31:06
31.23
31.39
31.53
31.67
31.79
31.90
32.00
32.09
32.18
32.25
30.79
30.93
31.10
31.27
31.42
31.57
0.0305
0.0203
0.0204
0.0349
0.1680
0.0456
0.0556
0.0597
0.1310
0.0275
0.0237
0.0199
0.1603
8E
0:02Oa
0.0202
0.0203
0.1360
YO
F2t
3.812
3.220
3.742
3.673
D.645
D.645
0.665
0.840
0.850
0.850
0.850
0.850
0.850
0.850
0.920
0.920
0.810
0.225
0.740
0.670
0.650
0.320
0.870
0.893
0.920
0.920
0.920
0.920
0.920
0.920
0.919
0.919
0.919
0.917
0.917
0.240
0.851
0.912
0.920
0.920
0.920
0.313
3.25
0.84
::ii
:~~
1:06
1.36
:-ii
2:06
2.23
2.37
2.49
2.80
3.10
2.96
0.79
1.00
1.05
A-E
oh39
1.25
1.62
1.96
2.27
2.56
2.82
3.07
3.29
3.49
3.68
3.84
3.99
1.08
1.35
1.70
2.03
2.34
2.62
0.98
CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL
279
DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
Table 7-lb.-Drain
spacing computations with convergence correction
included for the example S-year crop rotation program (U.S. customary units).
L = 1,600 feet, K = 38 feet per day, S = 23 percent,
and d = 30 feet. (Sheet 2 of 2.) 103-D-1679-1.
1
crop
I
cotton
3ime
lays
89
22
14
14
14
14
14
:44
&I
;t
20
t
Barley
::
:i
4
buildup,
Feet
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
0.46
76
::
t
egetable:
:tl
10
Iii
39
tz
15
::
15
15
16
I
Bermuda
:i
15
;:
-
0.t
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.51
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
0.56
D,
FEi
Feet
1.49
30.74
30.41
30.56
30.74
30.90
31.04
31.16
31.26
31.34
31.42
31.48
30.44
30.51
30.63
30.72
30.85
30.96
31.05
30.27
30.33
30.54
30.72
30.91
31.10
31.27
31.42
30.55
30.58
30.78
E
1:49
1.81
2.08
2.32
2.52
2.69
2.84
2.97
0.89
1.02
1.25
:*?I
I:92
2.10
0.55
Ei
1:44
1.83
2.20
i-if
1:10
1.17
1.57
1.91
2.18
2.41
2.58
2.75
2.90
2.98
3.09
3.14
3.23
3.30
3FZ8
31:21
31.29
31.38
31.45
31.49
31.55
31.57
31.61
31.65
0.1770
0.0431
0.0276
0.0278
0.0279
0.0280
0.0281
OdE
0:0284
0.2032
8
y_
YO
D.205
D.755
3.870
D.870
D.870
3.870
D.866
D.865
0.865
0.866
0.145
0.640
0.770
0.783
0.860
0.860
0.855
0.260
0.272
0.860
0.860
0.916
0.924
0.923
0.921
0.188
0.555
0.860
0.860
0.850
0.850
0.840
0.850
0.850
0.836
0.849
0.835
0.849
0.849
0.180
0.0609
0.0414
0.0395
0.0297
0.0299
0.0299
0.1523
0.1485
0.0294
%E
0:0199
0.0200
0.0202
0.1785
0.0769
0.0296
0.0298
0.0300
0.0301
0.0322
0.0303
0.0304
0.0325
0.0305
0.0326
0.0306
0.0306
0.1879
9
Fc%
0.31
0.62
0.98
1.30
1.57
1.81
2.01
2.18
2.33
2.46
0.43
0.57
0.79
0.98
1.24
1.46
AC
0:15
0.57
0.93
1.32
1.69
2.03
2.34
0.54
0.61
1.01
1.35
1.62
1.85
2.02
2.19
2.34
2.42
2.53
2.58
2.67
2.74
0.59
#Ground
Surface
!.44
v)
aa
fi5
c
c----c-
r--1--;-+
I
a
A
3,
___-
J -___--w--
--
5
----
A
/A
t%
____/louble
cc
-----------------
Q,
z
F
c
g
=-E
L-
---.-T
1-w
Z
0
+--,------p---$------.-
1.00
-------
50
.22
.oo
b.50
4
Figure 7-2.-Water
table fluctuation for each crop in the example >-year crop rot&on program. 103-D-1675.
I.00
i
kl38W30~
P3QW3AoN
Ina
l43ByT3ld3s
1snDnv
AlfW-
3Nlw
AVW
1Ilidv
HNVN
80
0-L
pu~uu 8 u!q#m
Apnueus~nkup PeP6!J!
AWnt1933
AHvnNvP
282
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
283
284
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
(2.01)(1,000)
= 0.023 ms/s per kilometer(l.3 fts/per mile)
86,400
Discharge can also be expressedas cubic meters (feet) per secondper hectare
(acne),as follows:
(2.01)(10,000)
= 0.00048ms/s per hectare(O.O068fP/s per acre)
@Wo9W8)
266
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
Ft;b;
Discharge
(q), m?m/day
Avera e Discharg
JMdaY
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
iafflower
15
16
17
18
19
20
1
2
:
egetables
3
4
5
6
1
I
Cotton
2
3
4
(0.14!$(0.426)(9.351)
(0.38Ojt9.334)
(0.536)(9.412)
(0.493)(9.391)
(0.648)(9.467)
(0.596)(9.442)
(0.752)(9.519)
(0.692)(9.490)
(0.848)(9.568)
(0.780)(9,534)
(0.934)(9.610)
(0.860)(9,574)
(1.016)(9.653)
(0.935)(9.612)
(1.092)(9.690)
(1.003)(9.646)
(1.158)(9.723)
(1.064)(9.676)
(1.219)(9.754)
(1.120)(9.704)
(1.275)(9.781)
(1.169)(9.729)
(1.326)(9.808)
(1.216)(9.752)
(1.375)(9,830)
(0.330)(9.309)
(0.484)(9.385)
(0.412)(9.350)
(0.568)(9.427)
(0.5 18)(9.403)
(0.672Jt9.479)
(0.618)(9.453)
(0.775)(9.531)
(0.7 13)(9.501)
(0.867)(9.577)
(0.798)(9.539)
(0.954)(9.623)
(0.299)(9.294)
(0.454)(9.370)
(0.093)(9.191)
(0.248)(9.269)
(0.187)(9.238)
(0.342)(9.315)
(0.298)(9.293)
(0.453)(9.370)
7
(0.394)(9.341)
= 0.594
= 0.528
= 0.752
= 0.690
= 0.914
= 0.838
= 1.067
= 0.978
= 1.209
= 1.108
= 1.337
= 1.227
= 1.416
= 1.339
= 1.577
= 1,441
= 1.678
= 1.534
= 1.772
= 1.619
= 1.858
= 1.695
= 1.938
= 1.767
= 2.014
= 0.458
= 0.677
= 0.574
= 0.798
= 0.726
= 0.949
= 0.870
= 1.101
= 1.009
= 1.237
= 1.134
= 1.368
= 0.414
= 0.634
= 0,127
= 0.343
= 0.257
= 0.475
= 0.413
= 0,632
= 0.548
0.561
0.721
0.876
1.023
1.159
1.282
1-400
1 509
*
lJXK
1.696
1.777
1.853
1.236
0.626
0.762
0.910
1.055
1.186
0.891
0.381
o300
OM4
0.590
CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL
DRAINAGE
PROBLEMS
287
Irrigatior
Number
5
-I-
Cotton
7
8
9
10
11
1
2
3
4
egetrtbles
I
t
5
6
7
Discharge(q), d/m/day
0.149f?O.549)(9.418
(0.478)(9.383 I
(0.633)(9&l)
(0.550)(9.419)
= 0.770
= 0.668
= 0.892
= 0.772
(0.75oji9.498j = 0.998
(0.611)(9.450) = 0.860
(0.766)(9.528) = 1.087
(O&2)(9.475) = 0.935
(0.817)(9.552) = 1.163
(0.707)(9.498) = 1.000
(0.862)(9.577) = 1.230
(0.747)(9.518) = 1.059
(0.902)(9.595) = 1.290
(0.131)(9.210) = 0.180
(0.271)(9.278) = 0.375
(0.173)(9.23 1) = 0.238
(0.3 13)(9.299) = 0.434
(0.241)(9.265) = 0.333
(0.381)(9.336) = 0.530
(0.298)(9.293) = 0.413
(0.438)(9.363) = 0.611
(0.377)(9.333) = 0.524
(0.517)(9.403) = 0.724
(O&5)(9.367) = 0.621
(0.585)(9.437) = 0.823
(0.500)(9.394) = 0.700
(0.640)(9.464) = 0.902
(O.MQ(9.227) = 0.228
(0.045)(9.167) = 0.061
(0.200)(9.245) = 0.276
(0.172)(9.230) = 0.237
(0.327)(9.309) = 0.454
(0.281)(9.285) = 0.389
(0.436)(9.363) = 0.608
(0.400)(9.344) = 0.557
(0.555)(9.421) = 0.779
(0.513)(9.401) = 0.719
(O&8)(9.479) = 0.943
(0.616)(9.452) = 0.868
(0.771)(9.531) = 1.095
(0.7 10)(9.499) = 1.005
(0.865)(9.577) = 1.234
(O-163)(9.226) = 0.224
(0.334)(9.307) = 0.463
(0.185)(9.237) = 0.255
Average Discharg
m3/m/dav *
0.719
0.832
0.929
1.011
1.082
1.145
0.735
0.306
0.383
0.47 1
0.568
0.673
0.761
0.565
0.145
0.256
0.421
0.583
0.749
0.906
1.050
0.729
0.359
288
DRAINAGE MANUAL
Irrigation
Number
2
3
4
5
6
7
Bermuda
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Average Discharge
m%nJdav *
(0.306)(9.297)=
(0.477X9.379)=
(0.410)(9.349) =
(0.581)(9.431) =
(0.494X9.391) =
(O&5)(9.472) =
(0.565)(9.427) =
(0.736)(9.508) =
(0.61W9.453) =
(0.789X9.535) =
(0.671)(9.480) =
(O&842)(9.561) =
(0.716)(9.502) =
(0.887)(9.583) =
(0.742X9.5 15) =
(0.9 13)(9.596) =
(0.775)(9.532) =
(0.946)(9.613) =
(0.790)(9.539) =
(0.961)(9.621) =
(0.816)(9.552) =
(0.987)(9.633) =
(0.838X9.563) =
(1.009)(9.645) =
(0.182)(9.235) =
0.424
0.667
0.571
0.816
0.691
0.939
0.794
1.043
0.870
1.121
0.948
1.200
1.014
1.267
1.052
1.305
1.101
1.355
1.123
1.378
1.161
1.147
1.194
1.450
0.250
0.459
0.619
0.745
0.866
0.957
1.034
1.107
1.159
1.203
1.239
1.269
1.305
0.850
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
289
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
1
2
3
4
5
7
= 19.1
= 15.3
= 18.1
= 3.8
&4oj(30.7oj = 6.4
(1 LW(30.52) = 4.7
(1.60)(30.80) = 7.3
(1.08)(30.54) = 4.9
(1.64)(30.82) = 7.5
(1.06)(30.53) = 4.8
(1.62)(30.80) = 7.5
(1.04)(30.52) = 4.7
(1.61)(30.80) = 7.4
(1.06)(30.53) = 4.8
(1.62)(30.81) = 7.5
(1.36)(30.68) = 6.2
(1.92)(30.96) = 8.9
(1.64)(30.81) = 7.5
(2.20)(31.09) = 10.1
(1.87)(30.93) = 8.6
(2.43)(31.21) = 11.2
(2.06)(31.06) = 9.5
(2.62)(31.31) = 12.2
(2.23)(31.11) = 10.3
(2.79)(31.40) = 13.1
(2.37)(31.18) = 11.0
(2.93)(31.47) = 13.7
(2.49)(31.24) = 11.5
(3.05)(31.53) = 14.3
(2.80)(31.39) = 13.0
(3.36)(31.68) = 15.7
(3.10)(31.53) = 14.4
(3.66)(31.83) = 17.2
(2.96)(31.48) = 13.9
(3.52X31.76) = 16.6
(0.79)(30.40) = 3.6
(1.35)(30.67) = 6.2
(1.00)(30.50) = 4.5
(1.56)(30.78) = 7.1
(1.05)(30.52) = 4.8
(1.61)(30.81) = 7.4
(1.04)(30.52) = 4.8
(1.60)(30.80) = 7.3
(0.5 1)(30.25) = 2.3
(1.02)(30.51) = 4.6
(0.89)(30&l) = 4.0
rverage Dischwz
ft?ftiday *
~.149J*(4.00)(32.00
(3.25)(31.62 I
(3.81)(31.91)
(0.84X30.42)
Alfalfa
1 Forthetimeperiodbetweenirrigations
c+ 27WL = 21c(38)/1600
6.1
6.1
6.8
8.2
9.3
10.3
11.2
12.1
12.6
13.6
15.1
15.5
10.1
5.8
6.0
6.0
4.8
4.3
DRAINAGE MANUAL
290
rrigation
Vumber
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
afflower
15
16
17
18
19
20
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
23
4
Discharge
(1.40)(30.70) = 6.4
(1.25)(30.62) = 5.7
(1.76)(30.88) = 8.1
(1.62)(30.81) = 7.4
(2.13)(31.06) = 9.9
(1.96)(30.98) = 9.0
(2.47)(3 1.23) = 11.5
(2.27)(31.13) = 10.5
(2.78)(31.39) = 13.0
(2.56)(3 1.28) = 11.9
(3x)7)(31.53) = 14.4
(2.82)(31.41) = 13.2
(3.34)(31.67) = 15.8
(3.07)(31.53) = 14.4
(3.58)(31.79) = 17.0
(3.29)(31&l) = 15.5
(3.80)(31.90) = 18.1
(3.49)(31.74) = 16.5
(4.00)(32.00) = 19.1
(3.68)(31.84) = 17.5
(4.19)(32.10) = 20.0
(3.84)(31.92) = 18.3
(4.36)(32.18) = 20.9
(3.99)(32.00) = 19.0
(4.50)(32.25) = 21.6
(1.08)(30.54) = 4.9
(1.59)(30.79) = 7.3
(1.35)(30.67) = 6.2
(1.86)(30.93) = 8.6
(1.70)(30.85) = 7.8
(2.21)(31.10) = 10.2
(2.03)(31.02) = 9.4
(2.54)(3 1.27) = 11.8
(2.34)(31.17) = 10.9
(2.85)(31.43) = 13.3
(2.62)(31.31) = 12.2
(3.13)(31.57) = 14.7
(0.98)(30.49) = 4.5
(1.49)(30.74) = 6.8
(0.31)(30.15) = 1.4
(0.82)(30.41) = 3.7
(0.62)(30.3 1) = 2.8
(1.13)(30.56) = 5.1
(0.98)(30.49) = 4.5
(1.49)(30.74) = 6.8
(1.30)(30.65) = 5.9
jvesageDischarge
ft /ft/daY l
6.0
7.8
9.5
11.0
12.5
13.8
15.1
16.2
17.3
18.3
19.2
20.0
13.3
6.7
8.2
9.8
11.4
12.8
9.6
4.1
3.3
4.8
6.3
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE
PROBLEMS
291
1yg;g;
5
6
Cotton
7
8
9
10
11
1
2
3
Bi
:Y
4
5
6
7
.ble
m-age Discharge
*
f?&/da y
7.8
9.0
10.0
10.9
11.7
12.4
7.9
3.3
4.1
5.1
6.1
7.2
8.2
6.1
1.6
2.8
4.6
6.3
8.1
9.8
11.4
7.9
3.9
DRAINAGE
292
MANUAL
Table 7-2bdischarge
computations for the example 5-year crop rotation
program (U.S. customary units). (Sheet 4 of 4.) 103-D-1680-4.
crop
Irrigation
Number
2
5.3
(0.149~+(1.17)(30.61)
(1.01)(30.52) = 4.6
5.0
(1.57)(30.80)
(1.35)(30.68) == 7.2
6.2
6.7
(1.91)(30.96)
7.4
(1.62)(30.82) == 8.8
8.1
(2.18)(31.10)
8.5
(1.85)(30.94) == 10.1
9.3
(2.41)(31.22)
9.3
(2.02)(31.02) == 11.2
10.3
12.0
10.1
12.9
10.9
11.1
(2.58)(3 1.30)
(2.19)(31.10)
(2.75)(31.39)
(2.34)(31.18)
11.8
(290)(31&i) == 13.6
11.3
(2.42)(31.21)
12.4
10
(2.98)(31.50)
11.8
(2.53)(31.27) == 14.0
12.9
11
(3X)9)(31.55)
12.0
(2.58)(31.29) == 14.6
13.3
12
(3.14)(31.57) == 14.8
12.5
(2.67)(31.33)
13.6
13
(3.23)(31.61) == 15.2
12.8
(2.74)(31.37)
14.0
(3.30)(31.65) = 15.6
(0.59)(30.30) = 2.8
9.2
Bermuda
14
v
Aver;ge Discharge
*
ft /ftldav
=
=
==
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE
293
PROBLEMS
Month
distribution of dischargeffom
(3,730 acres).
Discharge
hectare-meters
acre-f&
JatlUaty
February
Match
April
51.8
41.0
50.0
64.9
May
June
81.2
92.5
July
August
September
October
November
December
loo.5
88.2
75.2
74.0
76.7
69.7
815
715
610
600
622
565
Total
865.7
7,018
Table 744echarge
crop
Alfalfa
Safflower
Vegetables
Cotton
Barley
Vegetables
Bermuda
Number of
annual irrigations
16
14
6
11
7
7
14
Discharge
hectare-meters
acre-feet
Month
420
332
405
526
658
750
1510 hectares
by crop.
Recharge
Per irrigation
Annuahy
millimeters
inches
meters
feet
39.1
35.6
35.6
35.6
32.0
35.6
39.1
1.54
1.40
1.40
1.40
1.26
1.40
1.54
0.625
0.497
0.213
0.390
0.225
0.250
0.549
2.05
1.63
0.70
1.28
0.74
0.82
1.80
Total
2.749
9.02
=0.550 meter(l.80)
294
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL
DRAINAGE
PROBLEMS
295
296
DRAINAGE MANUAL
1.07
0.8-
0.8-
0.7-
0.6 -
*[I
os-
0.4 -
0.3-
0.2 -
0.1 -
o.o0.001
KW
-iiF
Figure 7-7.-Dimensionless
curves of maximum water-table height, y, versus time, t, for
parallel drains at various distances above an impermeable barrier.
CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL
DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
297
1
\\
\
it
\
\ \
c- 4
\ \
. \
+\
4
.
Figure 7-8.--Dimensionless curves of rate of discharge, q, versus time, t, for parallel drains at
various distances above an impermeable barrier.
The program will calculate a drain spacing and provide a table showing
computation of water table fluctuation. The table of water table fluctuation is
similar to tables 5-3 and 5-4. Using the drain spacing(computedor enteredby
user), the table showsthebuildup per irrigation, the height of the water table (Y,),
the flow conditionsduring a dmin-out period (KLMV4, and the midpoint water
tableheight abovedrain at the end of eachdrain-out period (Y). The user canuse
this table to determinethe drain spacingeffectiveness.
This program may be usedto obtaindrain spacingsbasedon the field dataand
the deeppercolation. In thosecaseswhere there are physical constraintson the
ideal drain design,this componentwill provide information on the water table
for different drain spacingsand/or depths, allowing the user to make a more
informed decision on design. It has also been found useful to calculate drain
298
DRAINAGE
MANUAL
0.1
1.0
+k
Figure 7-9.-Dimensionless
curves of volume of water removed, V, Venus time, t, for parallel
drains at various distances above an impermeable barrier.
spacingswith the transient-stateanalysiscomponent,andthen employthe uncertainty componentto determinethe reliability of the spacing.
Data required to usethe program to computedrain spacingare:
(a) Permeability,in meters (feet) per day.
(b) The maximum allowable water table above the drain at the midpoint of
the drain in meters (feet).
(c) The distancefrom the dram to barrier, in meters (feet).
(d) Specific yield, a decimalnumber.
(e) The radius of the dram, including pipe and gravel envelope,in meters
(feet).
cf) Depth to the drain, in meters (feet).
(g) Scheduleof deeppercolationeventsby month and day.
(h) Deeppercolationamount for eachevent in millimeters (inches).
The DrainageDesign Under Uncertainty componentis basedon Donnank
steady-stateequation. Normal design proceduresuse average site values for
hydraulic conductivity (K), depth of flow zone(D), andrechargerate (Qd). The
use of thesevaluesresults in a computeddrain spacingwhich shouldcontrol the
depth to water table at a desired level. A problem with using averagevaluesof
CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL
DRAINAGE PROBLEMS
299
300
DRAINAGE MANUAL
CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL
DRAINAGE
PROBLEMS
301
APPENDIX
wa
SI METRIC
Length
To convert from
To
Multiply by
angstromunits
nanometers(nm)
micrometers (pm)
millimeters (mm)
meters(m)
mils
inches(in)
0.1
1.0 x 10-4
1.0 x 10-T
1.0 x 10-10
3.937 01 x 10-G
3.937 01 x 10-9
micrometers
millimeters
meters
angstromunits (A)
mils
inches
1.0 x 10-3
1.0 x 104
1.0 x 104
0.039 37
3.937 01 x 10-s
millimeters
micrometers
centimeters(cm)
meters
mils
inches
feet (ft)
1.0 x 103
0.1
1.0 x 10-3
39.37008
0.039 37
3.280 84 x 10-3
centimeters
millimeters
meters
mils
inches
feet
10.0
0.01
0.3937x 103
0.3937
0.032 8 1
inches
millimeters
meters
mils
feet
25.40
0.0254
1.0 x 103
0.083 33
304
feet
APPENDIX
millimeters
meters
inches
yards 64
304.8
0.3048
12.0
0.333 33
meters
inches
feet
0.9144
36.0
3.0
meters
millimeters
kilometers (km)
inches
feet
Yards
miles (mi)
1.0 x 103
1.0 x 10
39.37008
3.28
1.09361
6.213 71 x 10-4
kilometers
meters
feet
miles
1.0 x 103
3.280 84 x 103
0.621 37
miles
meters
kilometers
feet
Yards
1.60934 x
1.60934
5280.0
1760.0
nauticalmiles (nmi)
kilometers
miles
1.8520
1.1508
103
Area
To convert from
squaremillimeters
To
Multiply by
squarecentimeters(cm2)
squareinches(in2)
0.01
1.550x
squarecentimeters
squaremillimeters (mm2)
squaremeters (m2)
squareinches
squarefeet (ft2)
100.0
1.0 x 104
0.1550
1.07639 x 10-3
squareinches
squaremillimeters
squarecentimeters
squaremeters
squarefeet
645.16
6.4516
6.4516 x lo-4
69.444 x 10-4
103
APPENDIX
305
squarefeet
squaremeters
hectares(ha)
squareinches
acres
0.0929
9.2903x 10-6
144.0
2.295 68 x 10-S
squareyards
squaremeters
hectares
squarefeet
acres
0.836 13
8.3613 x 10-5
9.0
2.066 12 x 10-4
squaremeters
hectares
squarefeet
acres
squareyards(yd2)
1.0 x 104
10.76391
2.471 x 10-4
1.19599
acres
squaremeters
hectares
squarefeet
4046.8564
0.404 69
4.356 x 104
hectares
squaremeters
acres
1.0 x 104
2.471
squarekilometers
squaremeters
hectares
squarefeet
acres
squaremiles (mi2)
1.0 x 106
100.0
107.6391x 105
247.10538
0.3861
squaremiles
squaremeters
hectares
squarekilometers (km2)
squarefeet
acres
258.99881 x 104
258.99881
2.589 99
2.787 84 x 107
640.0
Volume-Capacity
To convert from
To
Multiply by
cubic millimeters
cubic centimeters(ems)
liters (L)
cubic inches(in3)
1.0 x 10-3
1.0 x 10-5
61.02374 x 106
cubic centimeters
liters
milliliters (mL)
cubic inches
fluid ounces(fl oz)
1.0 x 10-3
1.0
61.02374 x 10-3
33.814x lo-3
306
APPENDIX
milliliters
liters
cubic centimeters
1.0x
1.0
cubic inches
milliliters
cubic feet (fts)
16.38706
57.87037 x 10-S
liters
cubic meters
cubic feet
gallons
fluid ounces
1.0 x 10-3
0.035 31
0.264 17
33.814
gallons
liters
cubic meters
fluid ounces
cubic feet
3.7854 1
3.78541 x
128.0
0.133 68
cubic feet
liters
cubic meters (ms)
cubic dekameters(dam3)
cubic inches
cubic yards (yd3)
gallons(gal)
acrefeet (acre-ft)
28.316 85
28.31685 x 10-3
28.316 85 x lo-6
1728.0
37.03704 x 10-3
7.480 52
22.95684 x 104
cubic miles
cubic dekameters
cubic kilometers (km3)
acre-feet
4.168 18 x 106
4.168 18
3.3792x 106
cubic yards
cubic meters
cubic feet
0.764 55
27.0
cubic meters
liters
cubic dekameters
gallons
cubic feet
cubic yards
acre-feet
1.0 x 103
264.1721
35.314 67
1.30795
8.107 x 10-4
acre-feet
cubic meters
cubic dekameters
cubic feet
gallons
1233.482
1.23348
43.560 x 103
325.8514x 103
cubic dekameters
cubic meters
cubic feet
acre-feet
gallons
1.0 x 103
35.31467 x 103
0.810 71
26.417 21 x 104
10-3
10-3
1.0 x 10-3
APPENDIX
cubic kilometers
cubic dekameters
acre-feet
cubic miles (mi3)
307
1.0 x 106
0.81071 x 106
0.239 91
Temperature
degreesCelsius(C)
kelvin (K)
degreesFahrenheit(T)
degreesFQutkine@)
E
t
G
t, = (tf - 32)/1.8
=&-273.15
& = t, + 273.15
= (G + 459.67)/1.8
= G/1.8
tf=t,/1.8+32
G= 1.8t,
= 1.8 b + 491.68
Acceleration
To convert from
metersper second
squared
G's (standard
gravitational
acceleration)
To
Multiply by
metersper second
squared(m/s2)
0.3048
Gs
0.03108
3.280 84
Gs
0.10197
9.806 65
32.17405
Velocity
To convertfiom
To
Multiply by
0.3048
1.097 8
0.681 f 2
308
metersper second
APPENDIX
zo 84
2.236 94
kilometersper hour
metersper second
feet per second
miles per hour
0.27778
0.911 34
0.62147
1.60934
0.447 04
1.46667
9.665 14 x 10-6
centimetersper second
3.505x
104
Force
To convertfrom
To
Multiply by
pounds
newtons (N)
4.4482
kilograms
newtons
pounds(lb)
9.806 65
2.2046
newtons
dynes
0.224 8 1
newtons
1.0 x
10-5
Mass
To convertfrom
grams
To
~ograms (kg)
ounces(avdp)
Multiply by
1.0 x lo-3
0.035 27
ounces(avdp)
grams(g)
kilograms
pounds(avdp)
28.34952
0.028 35
0.0625
pounds(avdp)
kilograms
ounces(avdp)
0.453 59
16.00
kilograms
kilograms (force)secondsquaredper
meter (kgf&/m)
pounds(avdp)
slugs
0.101.97
2.204 62
0.068 52
APPENDIX
309
slugs
lcilograJns
14.5939
short tons
kilograms
metric tons (t)
pounds(avdp)
kilograms
pounds(avdp)
short tons
907.1847
0.907.18
2000.0
1.0 x 103
2.20462 x 103
1.10231
kilograms
metric tons
pounds(avdp)
short tons
1016.047
1.01605
2240.0
1.120
metric tons
(tonne or megagram)
long tons
To
Multiply by
28.316 85
0.028 32
0.631 x 10-4
0.0631
5.451 x 103
2.228 x 10-3
acre-feetper day
0.014 28
1.23348
0.504 17
cubic dekameters
per &Y
0.01157
0.40874
0.81071
gallonsper minute
2.446 57
448.831 17
1.98347
60.0
4.4192x
10-3
310
APPENDIX
Viscosity
To convert from
centipoise
To
pascal-second(pa0.s)
poise
pound per foot-hour
(lb/ft.h)
poundper foot-second
(lb/ft.s)
slug per foot-second
(slug/ft.s)
Multiply by
1.0 x
10-3
0.01
2.419 09
6.719 69 x lo-4
2.08854 x 10-s
pascal-second
centipoise
pound per foot-hour
poundper foot-second
slug per foot-second
1000.0
2.419 09 x 103
0.671 97
20.8854x 10-3
poundper foot-hour
pascal-second
poundper foot-second
centipoise
4.133 79 x lo-4
2.777 78 x 10-4
0.413 38
poundsper footsecond
pas&second
slug per foot-second
centipoise
1.488 16
31.0809x 10-3
1.48816 x 103
centistokes
squaremetersper second
(m2/s)
squarefeet per second
Ws)
stokes
1.0 x 104
0.01
squarefeet per
second
squaremetersper second
centistokes
9.2903x 10-Z
9.2903x 104
stokes
squaremetersper second
1.0 x 104
rhe
1 per pascal-second
( l/h4
10.0
10.76391 x 10-6
APPENDIX
311
poundsper squareinch
To
Multiply by
kilopascals(kpa)
meters-head
hm of Hg
lfeet of water
poundsper squarefoot
(lb/f@)
std. atmospheres
6.894 76
0.703 09
51.7151
2.3067
144.0
poundsper squarefoot
kilopascals
meters-head
km of Hg
tfeet of water
poundsper squareinch
std. atmospheres
0.047 88
4.8826 x 10-3
0.359 13
16.0189x 10
6.9444x 10-3
0.472 54 x 10-3
kilopascals
poundsper squareinch
(lb/S)
95.76052
13.88889
meters-head
kilopascals
2mm of Hg
lfeet of water
poundsper squareinch
poundsper squarefoot
9.806 36
73.554
3.280 84
1.42229
204.81
tfeet of water
kilopascals
meters-head
hm of Hg
2inchesof Hg
poundsper squareinch
poundsper squarefoot
2.998 98
0.3048
22.4193
0.882 65
0.433 5 1
62.4261
kilopascals
newtonsper squaremeter
(N/m2)
hm of Hg
meters-head
2inchesof Hg
poundsper squarefoot
poundsper squareinch
std. atmospheres
1.0 x
68.046 x 10-s
10-3
7.500 64
0.101 97
0.2953
20.8854
0.145 04
9.8692 x lo-3
312
APPENDIX
kilopascals
hm of Hg
poundsper squareinch
9.806 65 x 10-s
73.556x 10-3
1.4223x 10-3
millibars (mbar)
kilopascals
0.10
bars
kilopascals
100.0
kilopascals
of Hg
poundsper squareinch
lfeet of water
101.325
760.0
14.70
33.90
std. atmospheres
hm
poundsper gallon
To
Multiply by
16.01846
0.031 08
0.133 68
119.8264
0.2325
poundsper cubic
Yd
0.593 28
0.037 04
gramsper cubic
centimeter
1.0 x 103
1.6856x 103
ouncesper gallon
eJEF4
7.489 15
7.489 15
1.0x
10-3
1.0 x
10
62.4279x 10
8.3454 x 10-s
1.68556
313
APPENDIX
1328.939
ouncesper cubic
inch (oz/in3)
1729.994
slugsper cubic
foot
515.3788
gallonsper square
foot per day
To
Multiply by
0.3048
40.7458 x 10
0.6944x 10-s
304.8
7.480 52
304.8
25.4
0.5
40.7458
0.133 68
314
APPENDIX
gallonsper foot
per &Y
To
Multiply by
0.0929
7.480 52
92.903
0.012 42
0.133 68
INDEX
chutes, 200
Clay
dispersion of, 29
Clay pipe, 203
laying, 224
specifications, 205 *
Absorption, 205
Advanced Drainage Planning Program
(ADPP), 161,295
Aerial photographs, 14
Alignment (see Drains, grade, and alignment)
Antecedent moisture, 42
Area discharge, 174,.285
Artesian aquifer, 17
Artesian pressure (see Hydrostatic ptessum)
Auger-hole test for hydraulic conductivity,
61,247
calculations, 70
computation sheet, 69
equipment, 61
limitations, 72
procedure, 67
step test, 73
Available moisture, 46
strength,229
Backfilling, 199,225,229,235
puddling, 226
Barbour, Edmund, iv
Barker, D. A., iv
Bartier, 17.130.258
definition, 126
Bateman, K. G., iv
Batista, M.D.J., iv
Bedding classification, 229
Bell, W. C., iv
Benefit-cost ratio, 138
Berms, 194
Blaney-Griddle method, 50
Bmnskill, G. P., iii
CNSSilg
Campbell, Keith, iv
Canal
C.onstantlevelfloatvalve,83
constNction
by stages, 203
Consumptive use, 50
Convergence, 149
costs,203,206
estimating, 11,203
Cmp
moisture extraction patterns, 48
response to water table, 139
mot mne, 48
salt removal, 33
StNCtUIW,
200
capaciiycuwes,58
crossings, 200
lining,173
seepage, 173,176,257
Capillary fringe, 26
field studies, 28
measuring, 28
Carlson, E. J., iv
Channels
natural, 200
Christensen, C. L., iv
Christopher, J. N., iii, iv
315
316
DRAINAGE
Deflection
plastic pipe, 234
Depth of drains
open, 193
pipe. 205
Depth to barrier, 123, 126
Depth to water
measuring devices, 114
Design and construction, 147
Design capacity, 199,275 (see also Drain
accretions, Return flow, Drain
discharge, and Recharge)
Design
discharge,
173,238
Detailed studies, 14
Dewatering, 223 (see also Stage construction)
Discharge from spaced drains, 171
Donnan formula, 169
Drain(s)
above barrier, 16 1
accretions to, 132,171,173, 178,188, 193,
199,237,243
banks, 194
below acanal,
175
MANUAL
basic data, 13
benefits, 4, 137
by punu+,
246
cost, 137 (see also Economics)
deferred, 8
definition, 1
design under uncertainty, 296
environment, 7,135,140
factors in investigation, 121
for sprinkler irrigation 140
general introduction to, 1
history, 4
importance of, iii, 4
investigations, 121
maintenance of systems, 265
maps, 13
nomenclature, 8
on irrigated sloping land, 180
optimum plan, 13
outlet conditions, 132
prime objective of, 1
subsurface, 5,8
surface, 8
Drops, 200
Dumm, L. D., iii
Dynamic equilibrium, 148,271
Ecology, 7
Economics, 137
benefit-cost ratio, 138
Effective drain radius
definition 155
Rfferts, R. J., iv
Electric analogs, 144
Electrical conductivity, 30
J?nvelopematerial, 36, 136,212,218
hydraulic conductivity of, 214,219
Environment, 7, 140
Ephemeral stream, 200
Equivalent depth, 154 (see also Conv
Excavation table, 215
Exchangeable sodium, 36
Farm efficiency, 53,254
Farm losses
from sprinkler irrigation, 143
Farm waste, 53,199
Fences, 266,268
Field and laboratoty procedures, 61
Field capacity, 46
Field reconnaissance, 122
Filters, 87, 103
Flap gates, 227,265
Floodflow,
200
Rood runoff, 39
I NDEX
Flow depth, 154
Flow paths, 296
Ftogge, R. R., iv
Fuller, J. E., iv
Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 123,
132
Geology, 15
influence of, 126
Glover, R. E., iv
Gradation analysis, 20
Grade (see Drains, grade, and alignment)
Gravel envelope (see Envelope material)
Ground water, 108
buildup, 158
mound, 177
profiles, 123
studies, 128
Hand augers, 63, 118
Haniman, H. T., iv
Haskew, H. C., 61
Hayward, H. E., 28
Headwalls, 199
High pressure jets, 267
Highways (see Crossing structures)
Hole scratcher, 64
Hooghoudts convergence correction, 154,
164
Humid areas, 167
Hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability), 18,86,61, 123, 175
auger hole test for, 61
conversion factors, 17
definition, 18, 153
disturbed soil samples, 108
envelope material, 214
laboratoty tests for, 107
lateral (horimntal), 19,73, 108
piezometer test for, 75
pomona well point method, 78
precision, 20
projection of data, 123
relationship to soil properties, 18
relative, 120
ring pemreameter test for, 95
shallow well pumpin test for, 83
single well drawdown test for, 81
step tests in layered soils for, 73
test pit method for, 103
undisturbed soil samples, 107
units of, 18
vertical, 19.95.108
weighted average, 19
well pumping method, 61
317
318
DRAINAGE
Lidster, W. A.,iv
Logs, 123
Lunde, R. 0.. iv
Luthin, J. N., 78
Maasland, M., 61
Maierhofer, C. R., iv
Maki, C. R., iv
Maletic, J. T., iv
Manholes, 226,266
Manning formula, 188
Mannings n, 188, 199,237, (see also Coefficient of roughness)
Mantei, C. L., 219
Maps
contour, 14, 123
depth-to-barrier, 130
depth-to-ground water, 130
drainage, 14
features on, 14
ground water, 120
scale of, 13
sources of, 14
symbols for, 16
topographic, 13
Marston formula, 229,234
Mathison, A. E., iv
McMath formula, 38
Metric conversion tables, 302
Mineral deposits, 205
Mohr, R. D., iv
Moisture extraction pattern, 46
Moisture-holding capacity, 46,233
Monitoring wells (see Wells)
Montieth, John, III, iv
Moody, W. T., iv, 219,295
Munsell color chips, 22
Myers, P. M., iv
Natural channels, 200
Neff, G. E., iv
Nelson, H. R.,iv
Neumann, C. A., iv
Noy s, N. E., iv
Numerical models, 144
Finite-difference method, 144
Finiteelement method, 144
Observation holes, 108, 128.254.269
also wells, observation)
casing, 110
installation, 109
location, 108
numbering, 112
plugged, 117
(see
MANUAL
reconls, 112
Open channel flow, 188
Open drains, 188
banks, 194
cross section, 193
cross-sectional area and hydraulic radius,
tables, 191, 192
depth, 193
&sign capacities, 199
gradient, 190
hydraulic radius, 190
Mannings II, 188
natural channels, 200
open channel flow, 188
operation and maintenance, 267
stage construction, 203
StNCtUlIX,
199
surface waterinlets, 194
ttansition sections, 194
tributaty dram intersections, 194
velocities, 190
Operation and maintenance, 265
buried pipe, 265
manholes, 266
observation wells, 269
open drains, 267
pipe drain outlets, 265
pipe drains, 266
policy and basic requirements, 269
wastewater and disposal ponds, 268
Pehrson, P. J., iv
Perennial stream, 200
Permeability (see Hydraulic conductivity)
Peters, W. B., iv
Piezometea, 108, 111,128, 130 (see also
Piezometer test for hydraulic conductivity)
installation, 111
profiles, 130
Piezometer test for hydraulic conductivity,
61,75,251
calculations, 76
equipment, 75
limitations, 78
procedure, 75
Piezometric profiles, 130
Pipe drams, 203
backfilling trench for, 225
capacity, 238
collector drams for, 205
corrugated plastic, 204,205,267
cost analysis, 206
depth of, 205
drainage sump and pumping plant for, 238
envelope material for, 212
I NDEX
gap width, 218
grade and alignment, 212
inspecting and testing, 225
laying, 224
length of sections, 219
manholes, 226
Mannings n, 231
mineral deposits, 205
operation and maintenance, 265,266
outlet structures, 227, 265
pipe for, 203
puddling of backfill, 226
repair, 267
rodent screens, 227,265
size, 231
specifications, 204
stability of bed, 223
strength, 229
surface inlets, 227
test plug, 225
Pipe size, 237
Pipe specifications, 204
Plant roots, 5
Plastic pipe, 203,224,237,247
backfill loadings, 234
deflection, 234
laying, 224
specifications, 205
strength, 234
Pomona well point method, 78
Ponding, 199
Precipitation, 37, 127
infiltrated, 46, 159
Pressure transducer, 62,70
Puddling, 36
of backfill, 226
Pugsley, J. A.,iv
Pumping plants, 192,238
Pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity (see
Shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic
conductivity)
Pumps (see Pumping plants)
Railroads (see Crossing structures)
Rainfall, 159 (see also Precipitation)
infiltrated, 53, 160
intensity-frequency, 39
time of concentration, 39
Rate of installing drains, 206
Reharge, 130, 169
Recharge wells, (see Wells, inverted or redwe)
Reclamation Act, iii
Reconnaissance
field, 122
319
study, 13
Relief wells, 245
Return flow (see Discharge from spaced
drams)
Return flow analysis, 27
Ribbens, R. W., iv
Ring permeameter test for hydraulic conductivity, 95
calculations, 100
equipment, 95
limitations, 100
procedure, 98
Risk analysis, 300
Roadways, 194,268
Rodent screen, 221,265
Root
distribution, 46
zone, iii, 1, 48, 139, 251
Ryan, W. F., iii
Salinity and alkalinity, 28, 138
Salt balance, 29.35
Salt tolerance, 3 1
Sand traps, 226, 266 (see also Manholes)
Sanders, G. D., iv
Schaack, J. M., iv
Schweem, H. A., iv
Screened well point, 81
Seepage, 127,173
from surface sources, 111
rate, 176
Settling basins, 269
Shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity, 83
calculations, 90
equipment, 83
limitations, 95
procedure, 85
Silt traps, 269
Single well drawdown test for hydraulic conductivity, 81
Sinkholes, 266
Slotted PVC casing, 67,85,110
Sodic soils
classification of saline and, 37
construction in, 36
Soil characteristics, 18
capillary fringe, 26
color, 22
hydraulic conductivity, 18
specific yield, 25
stnlctum, 22
texture, 20
Soil profile, 48
Soil structure 22,29
320
DRAINAGE
class, 23
fragment, 24
grade, 23
pd. 24
type* 22
soils, 15
alkaline, 29
ahvial, 15
dmacteristics (see Soil characteristics)
color, 22
definition, 1
eolian, 17
glacial till, 15
gradation analysis, 20
lacustrine, 15
loess, 17
moisture-holding capacity, 46
oxygen content, 1
particle size classification, 20
residual, 15
saline, 28,37
saturated, 5
sodic, 29, 36, 37
stability, 29,200,223
StNCtUE,
22
temperature, 5
Soil texture triangle, 21
S@cing of drains, 147
data required, 148
definition, 154
drain above bartier, 161
drain on barrier, 166
empirical methods, 147
steady-state method, 169
tmnsieut flow method, 147,271,296
using the data, 161
Special drain types, 245
inverted or recharge wells, 11,246
pumped wells, 11,246
relief wells, 11, 246
Specific yield, 25,153
definition, 25, 153
versus hydraulic conductivity, 27
Sprinkler irrigation, 140
deep percolation from, 141
Stability of soils, 29,200,223
Stabilizing gravel, 36
steam curing, 204
Step test for hydraulic conductivity
(see Auger- hole test for hydraulic
conductivity)
Stomflow, 38,199,203
basin coefficient, 38
estimating runoff, 39
intensity and duration, 39
MANUAL
McMath formula, 38
rainfall intensity map, 40
time of concentmtion, 41
time of flood concentration, 41.
StNCtureS,
199
crossings, 200
drops and chutes, 200
existing, 136
inlets, 199
manholes, 226
outlets, 227
Subsurface drainage, 5,8,193
Subsurface investigations, 123
Sumps, 238,243
Surface drainage, 8
Surface inlets, 194,227
surface runoff, 37
estimating, 42
precipitation, 37
stomdlow, 38
Surface water inlets (see Surface inlets)
Terminal seepage rate, 177
Test pit method for hydraulic conductivity,
103
Textural classes, 20
bw4v,
13
Total available moisture, 46
Total readily available moisture, 46, 159
Trace elements, 122
Tractive force, 190
Tmfficability, 5
Transducer (see Pressure transducer)
Transient flow method, 147,271,296 (see
also Spacing of drains)
background of, 148
data required for, 148
drain spacing, 147
for retum flow analysis, 271
Transition sections, 194
Tmshracks, 227,268
Tributary drains, 193
T-section, 226
Two-layer drainage, 295
Uncertainty, drainage design under, 296
Wadleigh, C. H., 28
Wastewaterponds, 268
wastewaters, 199
Water quality, 7
Water source studies, 127
Water supply tank, 83
Water table, 26,148,254
buildup, 154,158
I NDEX
fluctuation, 148,275
hydmgraphs, 130,148
parameters for drain spacing, 153
profiles, 130, 180
shape of, 183
Watson, W. O., iv
Weimer, R. H., iv
Well location, USGS method, 114
Well pemreameter test for hydraulic conductivity (see Shallow well pumpin
test for hydraulic conductivity)
Well points, 37
Well pumping method, 61
Wells
inverted or recharge, 245
monitoring wells
EPA Standards, 110
Statutory requirements, 110
observation, 254,269 (see also observation
holes)
pumped, 245
relief, 245
Wildlife habitats, 7
Williford, John, iv
Wilting point, 46
Winger, R .I., Jr., iii, iv
Yarger, W. H., iv
Y-section, 226
Zeigler, E. R., iv
321