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The simplest way to convey a fluid, in a contained system from Point A to Point B, is by means of a conduit or pipe (Fig. 1).
Piping design
The minimum basic parameters that are required to design the piping system include, but are not limited to, the following.
The distance between Point A and Point B (or length the fluid must travel) and equivalent length (pressure losses)
introduced by valves and fittings.
These basic parameters are needed to design a piping system. Assuming steady-state flow, there are a number of
equations, which are based upon the general energy equation, that can be employed to design the piping system. The
variables associated with the fluid (i.e., liquid, gas, or multiphase) affect the flow. This leads to the derivation and
development of equations that are applicable to a particular fluid. Although piping systems and pipeline design can get
complex, the vast majority of the design problems encountered by the engineer can be solved by the standard flow
equations.
Bernoulli equation
The basic equation developed to represent steady-state fluid flow is the Bernoulli equation which assumes that total
mechanical energy is conserved for steady, incompressible, inviscid, isothermal flow with no heat transfer or work done.
These restrictive conditions can actually be representative of many physical systems.
(Eq. 1)
where
P = pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
V = velocity, ft/sec,
and
(Eq. 2)
and
(Eq. 3)
where
V = velocity, ft/sec,
and
(Eq. 4)
where
= density, lbm/ft3,
and
= viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
(Eq. 5)
where
= viscosity, cp,
and
V = velocity, ft/sec.
(Eq. 6)
where
= viscosity, cp,
S = specific gravity of gas at standard conditions relative to air (molecular weight divided by 29),
and
The Moody friction factor, f, expressed in the previous equations, is a function of the Reynolds number and the roughness of
the internal surface of the pipe and is given by Fig. 3. The Moody friction factor is impacted by the characteristic of the flow
in the pipe. For laminar flow, where Re is < 2,000, there is little mixing of the flowing fluid, and the flow velocity is parabolic;
the Moody friction factor is expressed as f = 64/Re. For turbulent flow, where Re > 4,000, there is complete mixing of the
flow, and the flow velocity has a uniform profile; f depends on Re and the relative roughness (/D). The relative roughness is
the ratio of absolute roughness, , a measure of surface imperfections to the pipe internal diameter, D. Table 9.1 lists the
absolute roughness for several types of pipe materials.
If the viscosity of the liquid is unknown, Fig. 4 can be used for the viscosity of crude oil, Fig. 5 for effective viscosity of crude-
oil/water mixtures, and Fig. 6 for the viscosity of natural gas. In using some of these figures, the relationship between
viscosity in centistokes and viscosity in centipoise must be used
(Eq. 7)
where
= kinematic viscosity, centistokes,
and
SG = specific gravity.
Fig. 5Effective viscosity of an oil/water mixture (courtesy of AMEC Paragon).
Fig. 6Hydrocarbon-gas viscosity vs. temperature (courtesy Western Supply Co.).
General equation
Eq. 3 can be expressed in terms of pipe inside diameter (ID) as stated next.
(Eq. 8)
where
and
(Eq. 9)
where
and
Table 2
(Eq. 10)
Pressure drop for gas flow
General equation
The general equation for calculating gas flow is stated as
(Eq. 11)
where
L = length, ft,
and
Assumptions: no work performed, steady-state flow, and f = constant as a function of the length.
Simplified equation
For practical pipeline purposes, Eq. 11 can be simplified to
(Eq. 12)
where
P1 = upstream pressure, psia,
T = flowing temperature, R,
and
L = length, ft.
Three simplified derivative equations can be used to calculate gas flow in pipelines:
All three are effective, but the accuracy and applicability of each equation falls within certain ranges of flow and pipe
diameter. The equations are stated next.
Weymouth equation
This equation is used for high-Reynolds-number flows where the Moody friction factor is merely a function of relative
roughness.
(Eq. 13)
where
L = length, ft,
and
Panhandle equation
This equation is used for moderate-Reynolds-number flows where the Moody friction factor is independent of relative
roughness and is a function of Reynolds number to a negative power.
(Eq. 14)
where
E = efficiency factor (new pipe: 1.0; good operating conditions: 0.95; average operating conditions: 0.85),
Lm = length, miles,
and
Spitzglass equation
(Eq. 15)
where
and
T = 520R,
P1 = 15 psia,
Z = 1.0,
and
P = < 10% of P 1 .
Weymouth equation
The Weymouth equation is recommended for smaller-diameter pipe (generally, 12 in. and less). It is also recommended for
shorter lengths of segments ( < 20 miles) within production batteries and for branch gathering lines, medium- to high-
pressure (+/100 psig to > 1,000 psig) applications, and a high Reynolds number.
Panhandle equation
This equation is recommended for larger-diameter pipe (12-in. diameter and greater). It is also recommended for long runs
of pipe ( > 20 miles) such as cross-country transmission pipelines and for moderate Reynolds numbers.
Spitzglass equation
The Spitzglass equation is recommended for low-pressure vent lines < 12 in. in diameter (P < 10% of P1).
The petroleum engineer will find that the general gas equation and the Weymouth equation are very useful. The Weymouth
equation is ideal for designing branch laterals and trunk lines in field gas-gathering systems.
Multiphase flow
Flow regimes
Fluid from the wellbore to the first piece of production equipment (separator) is generally two-phase liquid/gas flow.
The characteristics of horizontal, multiphase flow regimes are shown in Fig. 8. They can be described as follows:
Bubble: Occurs at very low gas/liquid ratios where the gas forms bubbles that rise to the top of the pipe.
Plug: Occurs at higher gas/liquid ratios where the gas bubbles form moderate-sized plugs.
Stratified: As the gas/liquid ratios increase, plugs become longer until the gas and liquid flow in separate layers.
Wavy: As the gas/liquid ratios increase further, the energy of the flowing gas stream causes waves in the flowing
liquid.
Slug: As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact
the top of the pipe, creating liquid slugs.
Spray: At extremely high gas/liquid ratios, the liquid is dispersed into the flowing-gas stream.
Fig. 9[1] shows the various flow regimes that could be expected in horizontal flow as a function of the superficial velocities of
gas and liquid flow. Superficial velocity is the velocity that would exist if the other phase was not present.
Fig. 9Horizontal multiphase-flow map (after Griffith).[1]
The multiphase flow in vertical and inclined pipe behaves somewhat differently from multiphase flow in horizontal pipe. The
characteristics of the vertical flow regimes are shown in Fig. 10 and are described next.
Fig. 10Two-phase-flow patterns in vertical flow (courtesy of AMEC Paragon).
Bubble
Where the gas/liquid ratios are small, the gas is present in the liquid in small, variable-diameter, randomly distributed
bubbles. The liquid moves at a fairly uniform velocity while the bubbles move up through the liquid at differing velocities,
which are dictated by the size of the bubbles. Except for the total composite-fluid density, the bubbles have little effect on the
pressure gradient.
Slug flow
As the gas/liquid ratios continue to increase, the wave heights of the liquid increase until the crests contact the top of the
pipe, creating liquid slugs.
Transition flow
The fluid changes from a continuous liquid phase to a continuous gas phase. The liquid slugs virtually disappear and are
entrained in the gas phase. The effects of the liquid are still significant, but the effects of the gas phase are predominant.
Annular mist flow
The gas phase is continuous, and the bulk of the liquid is entrained within the gas. The liquid wets the pipe wall, but the
effects of the liquid are minimal as the gas phase becomes the controlling factor. Fig. 11[2] shows the various flow regimes
that could be expected in vertical flow as a function of the superficial velocities of gas and liquid flow.
Table 3
(Eq. 16)
where
L = length, ft,
(Eq. 17)
where
and
(Eq. 18)
where
T = operating temperature, R,
and
In downhill lines, flow becomes stratified as liquid flows faster than gas.
The depth of the liquid layer adjusts to the static pressure head and is equal to the friction pressure drop.
In low gas/liquid flow, the flow in uphill segments can be liquid "full" at low flow rates. Thus, at low flow rates, the
total pressure drop is the sum of the pressure drops for all of the uphill runs.
With increased gas flow, the total pressure drop may decrease as liquid is removed from uphill segments.
The pressure drop at low flow rates associated with an uphill elevation change may be approximated with Eq. 19.
(Eq. 19)
where
and
The total pressure drop can then be approximated by the sum of the pressure drops for each uphill segment.
(Eq. 20)
where
and
V = velocity, ft/sec.
The resistance coefficients Kr for individual valves and fittings are found in tabular form in a number of industry publications.
Most manufacturers publish tabular data for all sizes and configurations of their products. One of the best sources of data is
the Crane Flow of Fluids, technical paper No. 410. [3] The Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn. (NGPSA) Engineering
Data Book[4] and Ingersoll-Rands Cameron Hydraulic Data Book[5] are also good sources of references for the information.
Some examples of resistance coefficients are listed in Tables 4 and 5.
Table 4
Table 5
Table 5 (contd)
Table 5 Contd
Flow coefficients
The flow coefficient for liquids, CV, is determined experimentally for each valve or fitting as the flow of water, in gal/min at
60F for a pressure drop of 1 psi through the fitting. The relationship between flow and resistance coefficients can be
expressed as
(Eq. 21)
In any fitting or valve with a known CV, the pressure drop can be calculated for different conditions of flow and liquid
properties with Eq. 22.
(Eq. 22)
where
and
Again, the CV is published for most valves and fittings and can be found in Crane Flow of Fluids, [3] Engineering Data Book,
[4]
Cameron Hydraulic Data Book,[5] as well as the manufacturers technical data.
Equivalent lengths
The head loss associated with valves and fittings can also be calculated by considering equivalent "lengths" of pipe
segments for each valve and fitting. In other words, the calculated head loss caused by fluid passing through a gate valve is
expressed as an additional length of pipe that is added to the actual length of pipe in calculating pressure drop.
All of the equivalent lengths caused by the valves and fittings within a pipe segment would be added together to compute
the pressure drop for the pipe segment. The equivalent length, Le, can be determined from the resistance coefficient, Kr, and
the flow coefficient, CV, using the formulas given next.
(Eq. 23)
(Eq. 24)
and
(Eq. 25)
where
and
Table 6 shows equivalent lengths of pipe for a variety of valves and fittings for a number of standard pipe sizes.
Nomenclature
Z = elevation head, ft,
P = pressure, psi,
= density, lbm/ft3,
V = velocity, ft/sec,
= viscosity, lbm/ft-sec.
S = specific gravity of gas at standard conditions relative to air (molecular weight divided by 29),
= absolute viscosity, cp
T = operating temperature, R,
References
1. Jump up to:1.0 1.1 Griffith, P. 1984. Multiphase Flow in Pipes. J Pet Technol 36 (3): 361-
367. SPE-12895-PA. http://dx.doi.org/10.2118/12895-PA.
2. Jump up to:2.0 2.1 Taitel, Y., Bornea, D., and Dukler, A.E. 1980. Modelling flow pattern
transitions for steady upward gas-liquid flow in vertical tubes. AIChE J. 26 (3):
345-354. http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/aic.690260304.
3. Jump up to:3.0 3.1 Crane Flow of Fluids, Technical Paper No. 410. 1976. New York City:
Crane Manufacturing Co.
4. Jump up to:4.0 4.1 Engineering Data Book, ninth edition. 1972. Tulsa, Oklahoma:
Natural Gas Processors Suppliers Assn.
5. Jump up to:5.0 5.1 Westway, C.R. and Loomis,A.W. ed. 1979. Cameron Hydraulic Data
Book, sixteenth edition. Woodcliff Lake, New Jersey: Ingersoll-Rand.