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Without a constant and stable source of food there can be no location specific (non-itinerary)
civilization. In order to even begin to talk about an economy we have to establish its base, and the
primary source of nutrition is just that. This source had to be commonly available, highly nutritious
and provide satiation. Wheat bread ticked all of those boxes for most of central European
civilization since the dawn of agriculture. For colder climates (i.e. Northern Europe) oats, rye and
barley replaced wheat, because of their ability to withstand lower temperatures.
The price of bread is a constant for the economy; as a dietary staple it becomes a measure of the
cost of living. In many medieval kingdoms bread price remained the same, even if in times of war
or drought the size of a loaf became smaller. It is easier to keep your constant as simple as possible
in matters of price and, since the most commonly used coin is the silver coin, the constant can be set
to be that:
Local market selling price
1 silver piece = 1 8 oz. loaf of white wheat bread (1750 Kcal)
OR
1 silver piece = 1 lb loaf of brown barley bread (1500 Kcal)
Keep in mind that the price of bread as the most basic product also defines the average
wealth of the kingdom. Simply put, a wealthy kingdoms price of bread would be higher
than a poorer one.
Nutritional requirements
If there was a single factor, that determined the expected wage of anyone that would have been the
cost of food, and it is indeed, an exceedingly important one.
We know that an average, middle-aged man requires 2,500 kilocalories per day to sustain their
weight. This calculation considers the modern style of life which, in most cases evolves
significantly, less manual labour, and it assumes adequately insulated, warm and dry housing.
During middle ages, this was true for some but not for the biggest part of the population. For most
peasants, the conditions were harsh, and the work was hard and tiring. It required significant
amounts of energy in order to sustain their body mass. A peasants work was significantly less
energy-demanding than the work that a miner or a lumberjack conducted. The average town-
dwelling craftsman had, in average, the same nutrition requirements we also encounter nowadays.
By reverse engineering from sources 5- 8 we can extrapolate that the average dietary requirements
daily in a fantasy world would look like this:
Days of work
The above represent the wage that someone would expect if he was in the employment of someone
else. The yearly profits of each worker are subject to how many days per year they would be
employed, or capable of exercising this profession.
For example, in reality the profits of a knight (Noble, Manor) are dependent on the productivity of
his personal endeavours within his manorial property. Having said that, and knowing that a
knights fee equals 40 days of service per year. We can assume that a King, initially, should
provide a knight with land that can produce for him at least, the expected wage, times forty (in this
case 210.53 * 40 = 8,421 silver pieces). This meant, that in times of war, the profits could rise
tenfold within a year.
In order to calculate the profits of someone working for themselves, we should consider taxation,
fees and other overheads. These in average come to about a thirty-five percent (35%) increase in the
listed values. We will elaborate on this in a later article.
Labor demand and other modifiers
Prices can be modified depend on the socioeconomic and political situation of the kingdom. Events
like an embargo, a war, the discovery of a rich deposit of silver, or droughts, can bring some of the
wages down, and some of them, as we already discussed up.
Weather conditions like adverse winters, or shower-less summers can also have a profound effect on
the cost of labor. Work conducted during winter in the open, like logging, might drive the days of
employment down, which in turn would raise demand for wood and thus the cost of labor. Times of
drought would mean that the stores of grain wont be restored and that there wont be enough food
to feed the animals; raising the price of flour and thus, making the size of the average loaf smaller.
In most cases, other than those which might cause kingdom-wide starvation, the required wage
cannot be modified lower than the cost of food per day. At the same way, the additional income
modifier should not exceed twice its standard value.
Results
I have created a first draft of the list of wages. This list will be expanded as we delve deeper into
this series.
Legend
Name: The name of the profession. Light to Very Heavy refers to how arduous the work is expected
to be.
Calories needed: The calories needed to keep a human being in the same weight, and in average
health
Nutrition quality modifier: The quality of food required, anything underneath 1 is considered left-
overs and below the average quality food. 1 denotes bread and pottage diet (villagers basic diet)
while anything above 1.5 assumes that some meat is common place.
Cost of food per day (in silver pieces): The cost of food based on the fact that 1lb of brown bread
costs one silver piece and provides the consumer with 1700kcal.
Additional income modifier: Expected basics and luxuries like entertainment, education,
equipment, housing etc.
Expected wage/day (in silver pieces): the cost of food multiplied by the additional income
modifier
Days of employment per year: Days that which work can take place within the 365 days of a year.
Based on 65 to 70 days of enforced holidays (Sundays and festivals), constituted agreements
(Knights fee), work on field, weather conditions, etc
Yearly profit from employment: expected wage multiplied by days of employment
Daily profits: Yearly profit divided by 365 days (people eat and spend regardless of days of work)
Daily surplus: Difference between cost of food and daily benefits, denoting the actual living
conditions and the requirement for additional employment or business ownership or the actual daily
spending limit.
Butchering
Butchering animals during late winter was a necessary both to provide food for the family, and to
reduce the number of livestock requiring winter sustenance. During November and December, the
barley and hay put aside to feed the animals during winter time would begin to run low. In order to
ensure the survival of breeding stock and very young animals, the villager had to slaughter a
significant part of its flock, leaving only those that he couldnt afford to lose.
Digging
Who doesnt love a bit of digging? In the instance of the medieval serf, grabbing a shovel and
digging away was more a requirement than a favourite pastime. Digging trenches ensured that flood
water will not water-log fields, which greatly improved the chances of a good crop. In areas where
rainfall was low, irrigation ditches were dug in order to bring the water of nearby rivers closer to the
crops. In some locations, digging was also used to cover human excrement in order to dispose of it
in a sanitary way (normally it was just thrown in the same stream that villagers were also drinking
water from mmmm, delicious).
Fertilising
Contrary to popular opinion, most of the fields were not fertilised using manure. Fertilising a whole
field meant that you had enough animals to produce a significant amount of manure, which was
rarely the case. Another technique used was marling. For marling, farmers spread clay containing
lime carbonate onto their soil. Clay was not available everywhere, but where it was, enriching the
soil with it provided a great boost on the fertility of the field.
Manure was used mostly to fertilise the patches the farmers had around their house, which provided
the family with fresh fruit and vegetables throughout most of the farming year.
Fruit picking
Fruit picking, like strawberries, raspberries, cherries, apples, lemons and apricots, was done mostly
during late autumn and it was one of those jobs that the young members of the family could do
without supervision and enjoyed the most. Fruits and nuts could easily be preserved by creating
marmalade or by drying them out, which made them an excellent supplement to the diet of the
villager during the winter.
Harvesting
The time of harvest was a time of hard work and celebration. During harvest, twice a year, during
August and September, the whole of the family would take to the fields to gather the grains and
legumes that were seeded. It was important that the crop was harvested as quickly as possible to
prevent rain and cold damage. The villagers would work from the break of day to dawn every day,
in some cases even on Sundays. It was common that, if a family was struggling, the rest of the
villagers would help them out after they were done with their own fields without any pay thats
how important it was to have a good harvest. Though originally the sickle was the harvesting tool of
choice, it was quickly replaced following the introduction of the more time-efficient scythe.
When all this was done, it was time to celebrate. Even better was the fact that Harvest Home was
one of those rare celebrations which the Lord of the Manor would have funded in its entirety.
Milling
Did you know? The first record of a windmill in England is a mill in Yorkshire, dating from 1185.
Milling is the process of grinding down grains of wheat and barley in order to produce flour. Flour
was not white and powdery as we know it today. It was brown and coarse like wholegrain, but
included more particles of husks.
If the Lord of the manor owned a mill, all the milling of the village would have happened there and
would have been taxed with a portion of the flour milled. If there was no mill available, the
villagers would have used a hand-operated mill (quern) which was comprised of two stones one
above the other and a handle to grind the top stone over the bottom one. The top stone had a hole
in the middle, where the grain was poured slowly. As the stone moved in a circular motion, the
grain would slowly break down into flour; this process could have taken hours. It is calculated that,
in order to have enough flour for one loaf of bread, an adult had to spend around four hours milling
flour.
Planting
If the fields were used for grain, barley and legumes, the gardens, also known as tofts, of the
villagers house were used to grow vegetables and fruit. Planting took place during late winter and
early spring and, for some vegetables like lettuce, continued throughout summer and autumn. The
vegetables planted provided the family with their daily pottage (stew).
Another part of the planting process was the harvest of seeds from plants that were gone to seed
intentionally left in the ground since the last year in order to provide seed for the next year.
Ploughing
From all the tasks of the medieval farming year, ploughing was, without argument, the most
arduous of them all. Ploughing was the process of preparing the fields by breaking, aerating and
turning over the top soil, revealing the more fertile undersoil for planting. In order to achieve this
the farmer would use (preferably) a heavy plough dragged by oxen or, in the worst case, a shovel
and hours of unending, back-breaking labour. Ploughs were heavy, intricate and expensive, and
oxen needed a large amount of food; in many cases, villages would own communal ploughs and
oxen and take turns in using them during ploughing seasons in February and July.
Pruning
Pruning was the process of preparing the trees to fruit; cutting away old growth promoted new
vigour, and was also a chance to remove diseased branches. Pruning also included propping up and
supporting branches which were extending further from the trunk, and which would otherwise put
strain on the tree and reduce its yield. All this was done to ensure that trees produced the maximum
amount of fruit or nuts. It was a task normally carried out by women and children, who were taught
at an early age. Young trees would be pruned in April/May, whilst established trees are pruned in the
winter when dormant.
Repairing
Medieval houses were homemade, and frequent repairs were necessary to repair damage from high
winds, humidity, extreme weather and even the passage of time. Re-thatching, replacing wattle and
daub, or providing additional support for preexisting structures, were all necessary jobs. Repairs
were frequently postponed until the winter, simply because there were fewer chores than in the rest
of the medieval farming year, and inclement weather house maintenance less unpleasant than
outdoor work.
Rope making
Rope-making was possible only when there were the appropriate materials flax or hemp grown
locally. The process including separating the fibres of the plant, and weaving them together. Ropes
would also sometimes be waxed for additional strength. This would also happen during the cold
winter, when the whole family would stay inside to help.
A 15th century image of a woman combing wool look at the large, iron teeth on those combs!
Villagers clothes were largely made of wool (probably un-dyed), since it was cheap and readily
available. Wool was shorn from the sheep using shears, and this was often a task for the women.
The quality and quantity of wool depended on the health of the sheep, which was directly related to
the amount of food they were supplied with. Wool would then have to be washed to remove some of
the greasy lanolin and muck. It was combed using vicious-looking iron-toothed combs. Wool would
then be spun and woven, or otherwise felted to give fabric for clothing.
Skinning
No part of the animal was wasted, and after butchering the animals, the skin would be carefully
removed. It would either be sold to a skinner, or if the villager had the knowledge and equipment
himself, he could treat it. Animal skins require curing to make fur and pelts; skins could otherwise
be tanned to produce leather.
Sowing
Seed sowing took place after the ploughing, and was done by hand. A harrow (or rake, for small
areas) would then be used to cover up the seeds with aerated soil.
Tool making and Maintenance
During the winter time, tools would have been thoroughly cleaned to prevent rust. Any broken tools
would have been repaired, and extra nails would have been added to fix tool-heads onto hafts. In
addition, new tools would be created as required these requirements might change as children
matured to working age.
Tying
This refers to tying the bushels of wheat and hay together. It was part of the harvest process and
would have been done primarily by women. Tying made transportation and storage easier.
Weaving
Basket weaving ensured that there would be proper storage for food, and also create receptacles to
carry things in. It was a time-consuming process and, again, mostly carried out by women.
Materials used included willow and rushes or reeds. Weaving techniques were also necessary to
create wattle-and-daub structures, fences, and supports for climbing plants.
Wool weaving was another way to create fabric for clothing, in addition to felting and, in the late
medieval era, knitting. Before the invention of the spinning wheel in the 15th century, knitting
would have been done with a simple drop spindle.
Weeding
Throughout the year before ploughing, during the growing season, and just before harvest
weeding was a necessary task. other plants completed for the same nutrients, light and space as the
crop, and had to be removed. This would have been done by hand, and by the whole family; it was a
tedious and back-breaking task.