Air Vs Water Cooled Chillers

Air-Cooled Chillers : Myths & Facts - Issue Oct-Dec 2003 Page 1 of 15
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Issue : October-December 2003
Air-Cooled Chillers : Myths & Facts

It is commonly assumed that Air-Cooled Chillers are ineffecient and not suitable for the
hot climate prevailing in north India. The factual situation is very different, as
explained in this article.
By Nirmal C. Gupta
Gupta Consultants
New Delhi.
Nirmal C. Gupta is a mechanical engineer from Oklahoma State University, USA. He
returned to India in 1957, worked 14 years for Blue Star Ltd. and then started his
consultancy business where he continues to remain the principal consultant. He is currently
chairman of ASHRAE India Trust.
Air-cooled chillers have been used in the USA for a long time with great effectiveness,
due to their simplicity of design and operation. In view of scarcity of water in the Middle
East, major manufacturers in the West, have modified the chiller design, so that they can
work satisfactorily even in the hot and humid climates prevailing there. Thus, their use has
become quite extensive in the Middle East, with great success, and for a variety of
applications.
Their use in India has been slow, because of the general perception that these chillers
consume too much power and hence are not suitable for Indian conditions. The experience
gained by their use in the Middle East, has been useful in deciding to use aircooled chillers in
India. It has been found that these units can withstand both high and low temperatures and
monsoon rain without affecting their performance.
http://www.ishrae.in/journals/2003oct/article01.html 07-06-2013
Further, detailed analysis which was carried out on some installations has thrown up
some interesting facts and has established their overall efficiency and suitability, regardless
of climate conditions. It is also a fact that the use of these chillers, results in conserving water
resources, which are becoming scarce in many places, and which does not have the required
quality, hence, requiring extensive treatment.
The operation of these chillers is simple, because there are fewer parts to operate.
Maintenance costs are also lower due to fewer components and saving in the water treatment
plant.
Power consumption (air-cooled system)

The main assumption against aircooled chillers is that they consume too much power
and hence are very inefficient. It is true that at an ambient temperature of 44C their power
consumption is quite high and is in the range of 1.3 to 1.5 ikW/ton, depending on the type of
compressors being used.
The lower figure of 1.3 ikW applies to reciprocating and scroll compressors and the
higher figure applies to screw compressors, which are otherwise efficient in watercooled
applications. However, the fact to be noted is that in an aircooled system the output of the
chiller increases and power consumption falls as the ambient temperature reduces.
Thus, the power required at 29C (85F) is as low as 0.94 ikW/ton. Overall, the power
required varies between 0.94 to 1.5 ikW/ ton. The power consumption at 35C is quite
favorable as compared to watercooled units.
This brings about two interesting facts :
The maximum temperature in north India varies from a low of 30C in March to a
maximum of 44C in May/June and again reduces to 27C in November, during which
month air conditioning is still required. It also varies from a minimum of 18C in March to
31C in May/June and further drops down to 15C in November.
In the central plains of India, while the maximum temperature is similar to the North,
the minimum temperature is generally much lower. Also, in these places (such as Nagpur,
Pune, Indore, Hyderabad, Bhopal etc.) the maximum and minimum temperature reduce
considerably once the rains start.
Hence, it is clear that the power consumption will vary not only from month to month,
but also from day to day, as well as from morning to evening, everyday, and in all parts of the
country.
Table 1: Sample hourly calculation
City : New Delhi Days per Months 25

Operating Time : 8AM to 6PM
Hours per Day :10 Days per months 25
F Max Min. Daily Hours of use upto given temprature limits

C Temp Temp Range 85 90 95 100 105 110
Months 29 32 35 38 41 44 Total
Hours
March 90 65 25 75 175 -- -- -- -- 250
32 18 14
April 100 70 30 25 50 175 -- -- -- 250
38 21 17
May 110 80 30 -- -- 25 50 50 125 250
44 26 18
June 110 80 30 -- -- 25 50 50 125 250
44 26 18
July 95 75 20 -- 25 175 50 -- -- 250
35 24 11
August 95 75 20 -- 25 175 50 -- -- 250
35 24 11
September 90 78 12 25 225 -- -- -- -- 250
32 25 7
October 90 72 18 75 175 -- -- -- -- 250
32 22 10
November 85 70 15 250 -- -- -- -- -- 250
29 21 8
A) Sub X X X 450 675 575 200 100 250 2250
Total
Hours
B) Power X X X 0.94 1.00 1.10 1.20 1.3 1.4 Total
ikW/ton ikW/ton
C) sub-Total A X B 423 675 632 240 130 350 2450
ikW/ton
Mean C(Total)A(Total) 24502250 1.09
annual
ikW/ton
Water If cooling pads are fitted NA NA NA
Required on chillers) X X X
[top]
In an office application, the air conditioning system operates for 250 to 300 days in a
year, depending on the location of the city. Thus, the annual operating hours for offices
working 10 hours a day, are between 2,500 to 3,000 out of a total of 8,760 hours in a
year. An hourly chart in Table 1 indicates the number of hours for which a system operates
annually at different ambient temperatures in north India.
What emerges is that, the hours of operation in excess of 35C ambient are only between
500 to 600 or 20% of the total operating time. The system, therefore, operates between 27C
to 35C for 80% of the time and the power consumption at these points is quite favorable.
The average power consumption thus varies between 1.0 to 1.1 ikW/ton and not 1.3 to 1.5 as
it would appear at first glance.
In cases where a system operates for 12 or 24 hours per day, the percentage of hours
above 35C will be much less than 20%. This will result in an even lower average ikW/ ton.
This is quite favourable as compared to the water-cooled system as can be seen later in this
article.
As the demand reduces the ikW of the chiller compressor reduces and also the power
used by condenser fans, reduces proportionally because some of the fans shut down on
reduced demand and also at lower ambient temperatures. Thus, the ikW remains nearly
constant even at part loads conditions.
Added benefit
There is another advantage of aircooled chillers in night application. During night, while
the building load falls by 20 to 30%, the output of the chiller increases by 20 to 25%. Thus,
while one air-cooled unit may meet the night requirement, it may be necessary to run 1
water-cooled units for the same load.
Cooling pads on condenser

Another method which can be adopted to improve the efficiency of the air-cooled units,
is to provide cooling pads over the condenser. This method has not been tried out
sufficiently, but there is no reason for any apprehension or doubt about the unit performance
with pads. The water flow on the cooling pad could be activated, only when the ambient
temperature crosses 35C (95F).
The result would be that the maximum ikW/ton will not exceed the ikW obtained at 35C
and in fact will reduce further. This will reduce the Mean ikW/ton by an additional 5% to
1.04.
The water required for 500 to 600 hours on the pads, is approximately 10% of the water
required for a water-cooled system. The increase in generator capacity will only be 5%
instead of 20% and this can make the air-cooled systems more attractive than water-cooled
systems in certain cases.
Power consumption (watercooled systems)

The power consumption of a water-cooled system is given here for the purpose of
comparison. The power consumption in a watercooled system is dependent on the ambient
wet bulb temperature and not the dry bulb temperature. The daily and monthly variation in
wet bulb temperature is much less than the dry bulb temperature.
Further, the variation in water temperature leaving the cooling tower is even lower than
the variation in wet bulb temperature. Hence, the output and power consumption (ikW) of a
watercooled chiller does not change appreciably in different ambient conditions, throughout
the year.
The total ikW of a water-cooled system also has to include the power consumed by the
condenser water pumps and the cooling towers. Therefore, the result is that while the ikW of
the chiller itself reduces proportionately to the reduction in the requirement, the kW of
pump and cooling tower remains constant. This results in a higher overall ikW for the system
at part loads.
Normally an air conditioning system does not operate at full load conditions for more
then 10% of the operating hours. The system loading usually varies between 40% to 90% of
the full load for most of the operating time. It is obvious, that the overall ikW of the water-
cooled system is higher than the ikW of the compressor. In view of the above, the net ikW of
the two types of system are close and not very different, as is generally assumed.
[top]
Hourly calculation chart

An hourly calculation chart has been devised and prepared, to be able to analyze and
calculate the Mean ikW/ton for an air-cooled chiller. A sample calculation has been carried
out for the Delhi climate to arrive at the Mean annual ikW per ton. Similar calculations
can be carried out for any other city using the weather data and daily variation chart.
It will be seen that the maximum and minimum temperatures have been worked out for
each month based on ISHRAE weather data for monthly variations and the daily range each
month, based on the Carrier Handbook.
The daily range is then used in conjunction with the Carrier Handbook chart to arrive at
the number of hours for which the system is likely to operate upto a given ambient
temperature which represents the air entering temperature to the chillers. A copy of Carrier
Chart is given in Table 2.
Table 2 : Daily temperature variation Ref.: Handbook of Air Conditioning System Design by
Carrier Air Conditioning Corp., USA.
Daily Range of Dry or Wet- SUN TIME
Temperature Bulb AM+ PM
(F)*
8 10 12 2 3 4 6 8 10 12
10 Dry-Bulb -9 -7 -5 -1 0 -1 -2 -5 -8 -9
Wet-Bulb -2 -2 -1 0 0 0 -1 -1 -2 -2
15 Dry-Bulb -12 -9 -5 -1 0 -1 -2 -6 -10 -14
Wet-Bulb -3 -2 -1 0 0 0 -1 -1 -3 -4
20 Dry-Bulb -14 -10 -5 -1 0 -1 -3 -7 -11 -16
Wet-Bulb -4 -3 -1 0 0 0 -1 -2 -3 -4
25 Dry-Bulb -16 -10 -5 -1 0 -1 -3 -8 -13 -18
Wet-Bulb -4 -3 -1 0 0 0 -1 -2 -3 -5
30 Dry-Bulb -18 -12 -6 -1 0 -1 -4 -10 -15 -21
Wet-Bulb -5 -3 -1 0 0 0 -1 -3 -4 -6
35 Dry-Bulb -21 -14 -7 -1 0 -1 -6 -12 -18 -24
Wet-Bulb -4 -4 -2 0 0 0 -1 -3 -5 -7
40 Dry-Bulb -24 -16 -8 -1 0 -1 -7 -14 -21 -28
Wet-Bulb -7 -4 -2 0 0 0 -2 -4 -6 -9
45 Dry-Bulb -26 -17 -8 -2 0 -2 -8 -16 -24 -31
Wet-Bulb -7 -5 -2 0 0 0 -2 -4 -8 -10
* The daily range of dry-bulb temperature is the difference between the highest and
lowest dry-bulb temperature during a 24 hour period on a typical design day.
Equation : Outside Design temperature at any time = Standard Outside Design
temperature + correction from above table.
The power consumption and output at different air entering temperatures are available
from chiller manufacturers. The ikW/ton and hours at each condition have been multiplied
to arrive at the total ikW/hours at each temperature. This data has been used to work out the
Mean ikW/ton for the whole year.
It will thus be seen that the average ikW/ton is only 1.09 which is not very high. In the
case of a water- cooled system, the net ikW/ ton even at full load works out to 0.95 for
reciprocating, scroll and small size screw compressor and at part load this figure increases to
1.0 ikW.
Design of air-cooled chillers

Air-cooled chillers usually contain more then one compressor, except in units of very
small capacity. This is true for all units with different types of compressors i.e. scroll,
reciprocating and screw. The compressors are either connected to separate chillers or a
single chiller with upto three independent circuits.
Thus, the units operate as multiple separate circuits, in which case the problem or failure
in one circuit does not affect the performance of the other circuit or circuits. This provides
for built-in redundancy and in many cases, in small installations a single unit can provide a
certain margin of safety.
The condenser coils are also divided in the same number of circuits as the compressor to
provide total separation. There are multiple propeller/axial fans for removing condenser
heat.
The whole system is operated by either a microprocessor or advanced electro/mechanical
control system. This cycles the operation of fans in proportion to the demand and helps in
maintaining the lowest possible discharge pressure in relation to the prevailing ambient dry
bulb temperatures. This process saves on condenser fan power and also tries to achieve
optimum ikW/ton based on the prevailing ambient conditions.
All the components are mounted on a sturdy composite steel frame work. The weight of
the components is distributed evenly for nearly equal loading on the structure. The frame
work is large enough, so that the overall loading of the unit does not exceed 500 kg/m2. This
loading suits all standard RCC construction.
All the electrical components are encased in a weather-proof housing. In addition, all
components, frame work etc. are treated with protective processes to be able to withstand all
types of extreme weather conditions including heat, dust, sea breeze, rain etc. All the
operational components are connected to an electro-mechanical control system or a
microprocessor- based control system.
The function of the control system is many fold as given below :
z Pre-start check up of all components and system.

z Sequential start of condenser fans and compressors.
z To maintain design head pressure at varying ambient temperature.

z To maintain design chilled water temperature.
z Protect the components from damage due to high/low pressure, freeze up etc.
z The operation of the multiple condenser fans is decided by the ambient temperature
so that the head pressure of the system remains as low as possible at a given ambient
temperature and is consistent with the safety of the compressors.
z Generally, the head pressure is not allowed to fall below the pressure corresponding
to an ambient temperature of 28C.
z The control of head pressure is achieved by cycling the number of condenser fans.
z The operation of the number of these fans also allows the ikW to remain proportional
even at part load, unlike water-cooled units, where the power of condenser water
pumps and cooling towers remains constant even at part loads.
[top]
Heat pumps
The use of air cooled chillers offers another advantage in places where both cooling and
heating are required. These units can efficiently provide both cooling in extreme hot weather
and heating in extreme cold weather, when the machines are configured in a "Heat Pump"
mode.
In winter, the air-cooled condenser becomes the evaporator to extract heat from the
atmosphere. The unit chiller then acts as a shelland- tube condenser, to produce hot water,
which can be used for providing heating in the premises. The outlet temperature of the hot
water can be as high as 55C, but is usually designed for 50C to achieve a reasonable balance
between cooling efficiency and heating demand.
The advantage of the heat pump is that it produces the same amount of hot water as an
electric boiler by using less then approximately 40% of electricity as compared to an electric
boiler. This can reduce the overall cost of winter heating by 50% as compared to an electric
hot water system.
A further provision in the aircooled chiller or heat pump is that of a superheat (or
auxiliary) condenser to generate hot water. This auxiliary condenser removes the excess
superheat from the discharge gas, before it goes to the condenser without affecting the
performance of the refrigeration cycle. This heat from the discharge gas is available both in
cooling cycle and the heating cycle. The bonus hot water thus becomes available both in
summer and winter or for nearly 10 months in a whole year.
The hot water produced by this extra condenser can be used to meet the hot water
requirements of the kitchen and toilets without any additional operating cost. This bonus
heat improves the overall performance of the air-cooled system.
Heat pumps for winter

Heat Pumps are also available for providing maximum efficiency during the heating
cycle. These heat pumps represent an ideal solution for places which require heating only in
winter and where electricity is the main source of energy.
The addition of an auxiliary condenser can meet the other hot water requirements during
winter months.
As stated earlier, the use of heat pumps for winter heating would reduce energy
consumption by over 50% and thus pay back the extra cost within a short time.
Cost of air-cooled system

The cost of this system is generally quite favourable, for capacities of upto 1,000 ton.
This is evident from the fact that in an aircooled system, one single unit (the chiller) replaces
the following components of a water-cooled system:
z Induced draft cooling tower.

z Condenser water pump.
z Condenser water piping, valves and fittings.
z Electricals i.e. panel, cables etc. to connect the cooling tower and the condenser water
pump.
z Water treatment plant.
z Underground and overhead storage tanks for the treated water and its pumping
system.
Several comparative analysis have found that the cost of an air-cooled system varies
between 95% to 105% of a similar water-cooled system. The variation in the cost of the two
types of system depends on the size of the plant and whether indigenous or imported chillers
are selected.
There is however, an additional cost due to a bigger D.G. set capacity, but this is not
significant in the overall context.
Comparative chart
A chart showing the advantages and disadvantages of an air-cooled and water-cooled
system is given in Table 3.

Table 3 : Comparison of the Air-cooled and Water-cooled Chilling Units. (Based on 100 TR)
S. No. Description Water-Cooled Air-Cooled
1. Water Requirement Water consumption will be @ 12 Not Required
LPH / ton or 12,000 litres /
hour for 225 days in a year.
2. Power Consumption Lower power consumption at Slightly higher by approximately
full load capacity. However, the 9%
difference reduces at part load
as the pumps and cooling tower
consume constant power.
3. Installed Power capacity Less then air cooled by 20%. 20% higher capacity is required.
4. Covered space requirement Covered space is required for all Covered space is required only
equipments e.g. chiller, pumps, for pumps and Electrical panel
electrical panel etc. approximately 15 m2.
2.
approximately 150 m
5. Space for Cooling Tower on Space for cooling tower is No cooling tower is required.
2
ground or Terrace required, approximately 80 m . Space to accommodate chillers
will be 120 m2.
6. D.G. Set size D.G. set of lower capacity is D.G. set of higher capacity is
required. required as the power demand
of the system is higher at full
load.
7. Staff for Maintenance and More number of staff is required 50% less staff is required
Operation because of more number of because of less number of
equipments. equipments to operate and
maintain.
8. Descaling of condenser tube Descaling of condenser tube is Descaling of condenser is not
required twice a season. required.
9. Water Softening plant Water softening plant is Water softening plant is not
requirement required. required.
[top]
Water saving
The water-cooled system requires approximately 12 litres of water per hour per ton
capacity. This water has to be of a reasonably good quality as per factors given below:
z It should not be turbid or contain suspended impurities.

z The PH value must be between 6.5 and 7.5 to prevent salt deposition when it is
alkaline or corrosion when PH value is acidic.
z The total permanent, CaCo3 hardness should be below 120 PPM, otherwise the
scaling on condenser tubes will require very frequent cleaning.
Since most available water has impurities and high hardness level, the water has to be
filtered and softened, with a water softener for the make-up water system. If the water is not
softened, it will cause deposition of salts on the tubes of the water-cooled condenser, which
reduces heat transfer and raises the ikW of the chiller.
As the air-cooled system does not use water, all the above processes of descaling etc.
become unnecessary and irrelevant. In addition, there is a saving of water of nearly 120 litres
per day per ton or 12,000 litres per day for a small 100 ton system.
Simple operating system

The high side equipment in an air-cooled system consists of only two main components
i.e the air-cooled chillers and chilled water pumps. This is, in contrast to the high side
equipment of the water-cooled system which not only requires water-cooled chillers and
chilled water pumps, but also requires:
z Condenser water pumps

z Cooling towers
z Additional condenser water piping
z Additional electrical equipment
z Water storage for cooling towers
z Water treatment plant
z Pumping system for make up water
It is obvious that the additional equipment requires more steps to put the plant in
operation. It also requires greater effort to make sure that there is adequate quantity of
suitable quality of water in the cooling tower at all times and that the water treatment system
is always functional.
If there is a shortage of water, the system may stop in mid-operation, and poor water
quality will lead to scaling in the pipes, condenser etc.
It is clear that to operate the aircooled system, no such care is required. The system can
simply be put in operation in just two steps of starting the water pumps and the chiller at any
time. The conclusion of simplicity of operation is obvious.
Ease of maintenance
Air-cooled systems are also simple to maintain, as there are fewer components, in view of
the fact, that the condenser water pumps and cooling towers are not required.
The cooling towers require periodic cleaning to remove the sludge which accumulates in
the sump. It is necessary to make sure that there is sufficient quantity of water in the cooling
tower at all times to ensure proper functioning of the system.
The water treatment plant requires constant attention, so that the makeup water is
always below the required hardness. There is also a need for regular descaling of the
condenser tubes, so that the condenser efficiency is maintained near its peak.
In comparison, the air-cooled condenser does not scale and therefore, it only requires
annual cleaning with hot water to function properly. It is quite clear that there are very few
components or functions which need to be checked in an aircooled system.
Therefore, fewer number of staff are required for the operation and maintenance of the
air-cooled system.
Space saving
The air-cooled chiller has to be installed in an open space without any roof cover on top.
Therefore, these units are installed either on the roof of a building or in an open space,
outside the building. The space required for them is 50% to 80% more than the space
normally required for installing cooling towers of the water-cooled systems.
This means that these plants do not require a covered plant room either within the
building or adjacent to the building, thereby saving usable space and the cost of constructing
such spaces. A small pump room is however required for the air-cooled system, which is built
near the place where the air-cooled chillers are installed. The size of pump room requires
approximately 10 to 15% of the size of a regular plant room.
Thus, the total space required is much less and usually does not represent prime usable
space.
[top]
Case studies
A few case studies are given to illustrate various applications. These are :
1. Videocon Plaza, New Delhi. The largest air-cooled installation in north India.(950
tons)
2. Apartment Building, Laburnum, Gurgaon. A system providing summer cooling,
winter heating and hot water throughout the year. (120 tons)
3. Tala Hydel Authorities Gedu, Bhutan. Winter heating only for offices and club
house building. (6,75,000 Kcal/hr.)
Videocon Plaza, New Delhi-(capacity-950 tons)

This is a 16-story office complex located in New Delhi near Karolbagh. It has a built up
area of 19,500 m2 and is air conditioned by nine, air-cooled chillers each of 106 tons capacity
at 44C.
The total plant capacity is 954 tons. All the chillers are installed on the terrace of the
building. The pumps and electric hot water boilers are also installed on the terrace in a room
of 50 m2.
This system has saved 1,20,000 litres of water per day and approximately 200 m2 of
space in the basement. The system requires a staff of only three people to operate.
Laburnum Apartments (capacity-120 tons) Gurgaon, Haryana

This building has 17 high end apartments varying in size from 1-bed studio to 5-bed room
set. It is located as part of a housing complex in Gurgaon, a satellite town of Delhi.
All apartments are centrally air conditioned . There is provision for equitable payment
through a Building Automation System, so that each user pays according to the quantum of
air conditioning that is used. The use of air-cooled heat pumps, with provision for hot water,
was chosen for the complex, since a simple, reliable, maintenance-free system was required.
Accordingly, two air-cooled units of 60 TR each cooling capacity (total 120 TR) were
installed. In winter, the total heat output is 500 kW which is three times the requirement.
The auxiliary condensers provide hot water for toilets and kitchens of all apartments.
Standby heaters are provided in the hot water calorifiers to heat the water during mild
season when neither heating or cooling is required.
The system is controlled by a BAS, so that start-up is instant and operation is automatic
with minimum operational problems.
Tala Hydel project - 750 kW heating output, Bhutan

This installation is located at Gedu, Bhutan at an elevation of 2,700 m above M.S.L.
Summers are comfortable and winters are long and cold (for nearly 5 to 6 months). Hence,
only a heating system is required.
The requirements called for central heating of an office complex measuring 7,000 m2 and
club house and auditorium facility measuring 3,000 m2 i.e. a total of 10,000 m2. Electricity
was the referred medium since these offices were meant for a new 1,000 mW hydel project
and Bhutan is surplus in electricity.
The requirement was assessed at 6,75,000 kcal/hr requiring electric hot water boilers of
750 kW or 780 kW including pumps, AHUs etc. The use of heat pumps was suggested as an
alternative, even through the initial cost increase was nearly 50% over a conventional system.
The advantage of the above system was that it reduced the electric demand from 780 kW
to 280 kW which meant a release of 0.5 mW electricity for better use else where.
The system is operated with five, air-cooled heat pumps each of 150 kW heat output
totaling 750 kW. All the units together require input electricity of 250 kW. The heat pumps
will give the design output of 50C at 5C ambient and are equipped with a defrost
arrangement for the evaporator.
The system is in its first year of operation and is functioning satisfactorily. This is the
first installation in this region, where pure heating is being done using heat pumps resulting
in considerable saving of electricity.
Conclusion
It will be seen that the air-cooled chillers represent a fairly efficient and cost effective
alternative to the watercooled system. These chillers can be used very effectively for
installations upto 1,000 tons.
In the milder climate of south India, there is no practical limit to the overall plant
capacity.
They are very useful for heating /cooling applications as well as pure heating
applications.
[top]

Air Vs Water Cooled Chillers

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Air-Cooled Chillers : Myths & Facts - Issue Oct-Dec 2003 Page 1 of 15

Theme: Select one

Issue : October-December 2003

Air-Cooled Chillers : Myths & Facts

Power consumption (air-cooled system)

City : New Delhi Days per Months 25

F Max Min. Daily Hours of use upto given temprature limits

Cooling pads on condenser

Power consumption (watercooled systems)

Hourly calculation chart

Design of air-cooled chillers

z Pre-start check up of all components and system.

z To maintain design head pressure at varying ambient temperature.

Heat pumps for winter

Cost of air-cooled system

z Induced draft cooling tower.

system is given in Table 3.

z It should not be turbid or contain suspended impurities.

scaling on condenser tubes will require very frequent cleaning.

Simple operating system

z Condenser water pumps

Videocon Plaza, New Delhi-(capacity-950 tons)

Laburnum Apartments (capacity-120 tons) Gurgaon, Haryana

Tala Hydel project - 750 kW heating output, Bhutan

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