PART 10

MICRO-ELECTRONICS DryCell

I. INTEGRATED CIRCUITS (IC)

A complete electronic circuit in which both the active and passive components
are fabricated on an extremely tiny single chip of a silicon
First developed by Jack S. Kilby in 1958
Has the advantage of extremely small physical size and very small weight with
low power consumption as compared to discrete components
Function only at low voltages
Quite delicate and cannot withstand rough handling or excessive heat

1. SCALE of INTEGRATION

a. Small Scale Integration (SSI)

The no. of circuits contained in an IC package is less than 30

b. Medium Scale Integration (MSI)

The no. of circuits per package is between 30-100

c. Large Scale Integration (LSI)

Circuit density is between 10-100 000

d. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI)

Circuit density is in excess of 100 000 10 000 000

e. Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI)

No. of circuits per package is between 10 million to 1 billion

f. Super Large Scale Integration (SLSI)

No. of circuits per package is in excess of 1 billion

2. CLASSIFICATION of ICs by STRUCTURE

a. Monolithic Integrated Circuits

Monolithic means single stone
All circuit components are fabricated inseparably within a single continuous
piece of Si crystalline material

b. Thick and Thin Film ICs

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-2 Micro-Electronics

Only passive components are formed through the thick and thin film
techniques on the insulating surface
Active elements are added externally
Thin Film ICs
Resistors and conductors are formed by varying the width and thickness of the
film and by using materials of different resistivity
Capacitors are produced by sandwiching an insulating oxide film between two
conducting films
Small inductors can be made by depositing a spiral formation of film
Thick Film ICs
Printed thin film circuits
Silk screen printing techniques are employed to create the desired circuit
pattern on the surface of a substrate

c. Hybrid or Multichip ICs

Are formed by either interconnecting a number of individual chips or by
combination of thin film or monolithic IC techniques

3. CLASSIFICATION of ICs by FUNCTIONS

a. Linear ICs
Analog ICs
Applications include op-amps, power, microwave amplifier, voltage
comparators, multiplexers, voltage regulators

b. Digital ICs
Used in switching circuits
Monolithic integration
Some applications includes logic gates, flip flops, counters, clock chips,
calculator chips, memory chips and microprocessors

4. MONOLITHIC ICs PREPARATION

a. Wafer Preparation
A P-type Si bar (ingot) is taken and cut into thin slices called wafers
Czochralski Method is one of the most popular process in ingot growth
Wafers are thin sliced of a semiconductor material either circular or rectangular
in shape in which a number of ICs are fabricated simultaneously
These wafers are being tapped and polished to mirror finish and serve as the
substrate for hundred of ICs

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 3

DryCell

b. Epitaxial Growth
An N-type Si layer is grown on the P-type substrate by the introduction of a gas
containing phosphorus at 1200C temperature

c. Oxidization
a thin layer of SiO2 is grown over the N type layer by exposing the wafer to an
oxygen atmosphere at 1000C temperature

d. Photolithographic Process
involves the selective etching of SiO2 with the help of photolithographic mask,
photo-resist and etching solution
Two Types of Etching
1. Wet Etching use of nitric (hydrofluoric acid)
2. Dry etching use of hot plasma gas

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-4 Micro-Electronics

e. Isolation Diffusion
wafer is subjected to a P-type diffusion process by which N-type layer is
isolated into islands on which components are fabricated

f. Base and Emitter Diffusion

P-type base is diffused into the N-type layer which itself acts as a collector

g. Pre-Ohmic Etch
For good metal contact with diffused layers, N+ regions are diffused into the
structure

h. Metallization
Process involve in making interconnections and providing bonding pads around
the circumference of the chip

i. Circuit probing
Each IC on the wafer is checked electrically for proper performance by placing
probes on the bonding pads

j. Scribing and Separating into Chips

Wafers are first scribed with a diamond tipped tool
Wafer is broken down into individual chips containing the integrated circuits

k. Mounting and Packing

ICs are cemented or soldered to a gold-plated header through which leads
have already been connected

l. Encapsulation

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 5

A cap is placed over the circuit and sealing is done in an inert atmosphere
II. OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIERS (OP-AMPS)

A very high gain differential amplifier that has very high input impedance and
very low output impedance
The name Operational Amplifier is derived from one of its original purposes that
is to perform mathematical operations
The very first op-amp was developed by Fairchild Co.
Ideal operational amplifier has infinite input impedance, zero output impedance
and infinite gain

The terminal marked (-) is called the inverting input. Whatever signal polarity is
applied to the inverting will cause opposite polarity on the output terminal
The terminal marked (+) is the non-inverting input. Whatever polarity is applied
will cause same polarity in the output terminal
Virtual Ground Principle sates that the differential input voltage is zero
meaning V+ = V-. Simply shows that two inputs are shorted but actually not.

Pin Assignments
1 offset null
2 inverting input
3 non inverting input
4 negative supply
5 offset null
6 output
7 positive supply
8 no connection DryCell

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-6 Micro-Electronics

1. OP- AMP SPECIFICATIONS

a. Input Offset Voltage

It is the difference in the DC voltages that must be applied to the input terminals
to obtain equal quiescent operating voltage at the output terminals

b. Input Offset Current

The difference in the current at the 2 input terminals

c. Common Mode Voltage Gain(Ac)

The ratio of the signal voltages developed at either of the two output terminals
to the common signal voltage applied to 2 input terminals

d. Differential Voltage Gain (Ad)

Ratio of the change in output voltage at either output terminal with respect to
the ground to the difference in the input voltages

e. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR)

The ratio of the full differential voltage gain to the common mode voltage gain

Ad
CMRR = 20 log
Ac
f. Slew Rate
Device parameter indicating how fast the output voltage changes with time

g. Drift
Term describing the change in output voltage resulting from change in
temperature

h. Roll-Off
It is the reduction of op-amps gain due to increasing operating frequency

i. Rise time, Rt
An alternate parameter used to specify the bandwidth

350
BW (MHz) =
Rt ns

j. Gain Bandwidth Product

A constant parameter which is always equal to the frequency at which the op-
amps open loop gain is unity

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 7

2. OP AMP CIRCUITS

a. Constant Gain Inverting Amplifier

Rf

Rin
- Rf
Av = -
Eout Rin
Ein +

b. Non-Inverting Amplifier
Rf

Rin Rf
-
Av = 1 +
Rin
Eout
+

Ein

Review Question:
Calculate the output voltage of a non-inverting constant agin multiplier for value
of Vin = 2 Volts, Rf = 500 K and Rin = 100K.
Solution:
Vo 500K
1
Vin 100K
Vo 6 x 2 12Volts

c. Unity Follower
Provides a gain of 1 with no polarity reversal

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-8 Micro-Electronics

d. Summing Amplifier

Rf Rf Rf
Vo = - ( Ein1 Ein2 Ein3)
Rin1 Rin2 Rin3

e. Integrator
Feedback component is a capacitor
The output is the integral of the input with an inversion and scale multiplies of
1/RC

f. Differentiator
The output is proportional to the time derivative of the input
The magnitude of the output increases linearly with increasing frequency and
has high gain and high frequencies

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 9

g. Differential Amplifier
Marriage of both the inverting and non-inverting amplifiers
The output is the result of the difference between the two inputs

h. Comparator
Used as a limit, level detector or switch
Convert a ramp circuit to a pulse and the pulse to reset the ramp
As long as the voltage applied to the inverting terminal is more than the
reference voltage, the output will remain maximum negative. The output will flip
back to plus saturation when the voltage is being compared to the reference
becomes smaller

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-10 Micro-Electronics

3. OP-AMP APPLICATION TIMER CIRCUIT

Used in generation of pulse signals that are triggered by an input signals

Generation of a clock signal that operates at a frequency set by external
resistor and capacitor

555 Timer
Made of combination of linear comparators and digital flipflops
The entire circuit is housed in an 8-pin DIP package

Applications:
1. Astable Multivibrator or Clock Circuit
Also term as free-running
It has no stable state and has 2 quasi-stable states
Its period To = 1.38RC

2. Bistable Multivibrator

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 11

Basically the Flipflop

Eccles Jordan Circuit
Has two stable states and no quasi-stable state

3. Mono-Stable Multivibrator
One shot
Has one stable state and 1 quasi-stable state
Its period To = 0.69 RC

TEST YOURSELF 10
Review Questions

1. It is a layer of photosensitive material that is first coated in a wafer during photolithographic

process.
a. mask
b. photoresist
c. photomaterial
d. silicon dioxide

Answer b. photoresist

2. It is a combination of film and monolithic IC techniques that is being applied to variety of

multichip integrated circuits.
a. mixture
b. hybrid
c. combined
d. fusion

Answer b. hybrid

3. Thick film employs silk screen techniques in the formation of passive components, what is then
the process involve for thin film circuits for the same purpose?
a. cathode sputtering technique
b. anode sputtering technique
c. isolation diffusion
d. metallization

Answer a. cathode sputtering technique

4. In IC production, it is the introduction of controlled small quantities of a material into the crystal
structure for modification of its electrical characteristics
a. Etching
b. Doping
c. Epitaxial growth
d. Diffusion

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-12 Micro-Electronics

Answer d. Diffusion

5. What is the process that is being defined when the metal is bombarded by high velocity inert gas
atoms causing some atoms of the metal to be dislodge
a. evaporation
b. bombardment
c. sputtering
d. diffusion

Answer c. sputtering

6. An integrated circuit op-amps has___________.

a. two inputs and two outputs
b. two inputs and one output
c. one input and two outputs
d. multiple inputs and one output

Answer b. two inputs and one output

7. In the differential mode,

a. opposite polarity signals are applied to the inputs
b. the gain is 1
c. the outputs are differential amplitudes
d. only one supply voltage is used

Answer a. opposite polarity signals are applied to the inputs

8. The output of a particular op-amp increases 8V in 12s. The slew rate is______.
a. 96 V/ s
b. 0.67 V/ s
c. 1.5 V/ s
d. 96 V- s

Answer b. 0.67 V/ s
Solution
8
Slew Rate = = 0.67 V / s
12

9. The purpose of offset nulling on operational amplifier is to_______.

a. reduce the gain
b. equalize the input signal
c. zero the output error voltage
d. both b and c

Answer c. zero the output error voltage

10. A voltage follower________.

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 13

a. has a gain of 1
b. has no feedback resistor
c. is non-inverting
d. all of these

Answer d. all of these

11. The midrange open loop gain of an op-amp

a. extends from the low critical to the upper critical frequency
b. extends from 0 Hz to the upper critical frequency
c. rolls off at 20 dB/decade beginning at 0 Hz
d. answers b and c

Answer b. extends from 0 Hz to the upper critical frequency

12. The frequency at which the open loop gain is equal to 1 is called
a. upper critical frequency
b. cut-off frequency
c. notch frequency
d. the unity gain frequency

Answer d. the unity gain frequency

13. Phase shift in an op-amp is caused by:

a. the internal RC circuits
b. the external RC circuits
c. the gain roll off
d. the negative feedback

Answer a. the internal RC circuits

14. Each RC circuit in op-amp

a. causes the gain to roll off at -6 dB/octave
b. causes the gain to roll off at -20 dB/decade
c. reduces the midrange gain by 3 dB
d. both a and b

Answer d. both a and b

15. When a negative feedback is applied to an op amp, what will happen to the gain-bandwidth
product?
a. increases
b. decreases
c. stays the same
d. fluctuate

Answer c. stays the same

16. If a certain op-map has a mid-range open loop gain of 200 000 and a unity gain frequency of 5
MHz, what is the gain-bandwidth product?
a. 200 000 Hz

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-14 Micro-Electronics

b. 100 000 000 Hz

c. 5 000 000 Hz
d. 25 Hz

Answer c. 5 000 000 Hz

Explanation:
Gain-bandwidth product = Unity gain frequency

17. In a zero-level detector, the output changes state when the input
a. is positive
b. crosses zero
c. is negative
d. has a zero rate of change

Answer b. crosses zero

18. The zero level detector is one application of a
a. comparator
b. summing amplifier
c. differentiator
d. diode

Answer a. comparator

19. Noise on the input of a comparator can cause the output to

a. hang up in one state
b. go to zero
c. change back and forth erratically between two states
d. produced the amplified noise signal

Answer c. change back and forth erratically between two states

20. A comparator with hysteresis

a. has one trgigger point
b. has two trigger points
c. has a variable trigger point
d. is like a magnetic circuit

Answer b. has two trigger points

21. In a comparator, what is the purpose of output bounding?

a. makes it faster
b. keeps the output positive
c. limits the output levels
d. stabilizes the output

Answer c. limits the output levels

22. If the voltage gain for each input of a summing amplifier with a 4.7 K feedback resistor is unity,
the input resistors must have the value of______.
a. 4.7 K
b. 4.7 K divided by the number of inputs

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 15

c. 4.7 K times the number of inputs

d. dependent on the number of inputs

Answer a. 4.7 K

23. An averaging amplifier has five inputs. The ratio of Rf/Ri must be
a. 5
b. 0.2
c. 1
d. 0

Answer b. 0.2
Solution
1
Rf/Ri = = 0.2
5
24. In a scaling adder, the input resistors are:
a. all the same value
b. all of different values
c. each proportional to the weight of its input
d. related by a factor of two

Answer c. each proportional to the weight of its input

25. In an integrator, the feedback element is a

a. resistor
b. capacitor
c. zener diode
d. voltage divider

Answer b. capacitor

26. For a step input, the output of the integrator is:

a. a pulse
b. a triangular waveform
c. a spike
d. a ramp

Answer d. a ramp

27. The rate of change of an integrators output voltage in response to a step input is set by:
a. RC time constant
b. amplitude of the step input
c. the current through the capacitor
d. all of these

Answer d. all of these

28. In a differentiator, what is the feedback element is a

a. resistor
b. inductor

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-16 Micro-Electronics

c. capacitor
d. diode

Answer a. resistor

29. The output of a differentiator is proportional to

a. the RC time constant
b. amplitude of the input
c. the rate at which the input is changing
d. both a and b

Answer d. both a and b

30. When you apply a triangular waveform to the input of a differentiator, the output is
a. a dc level
b. inverted triangular waveform
c. square waveform
d. first harmonic of the triangular waveform

Answer d. first harmonic of the triangular waveform

31. In order to make a basic instrumentation amplifier which is usually used in high noise
environment, it takes
a. one op-amp with certain feedback arrangements
b. two op-amps and seven resistor
c. three op-amps and seven resistor
d. three op-amps and seven capacitors

Answer c. three op-amps and seven resistor

32. Typically, an instrumentation amplifier has an external resistor used for:

a. establishing the input impedance
b. setting the voltage gain
c. setting the current gain
d. interfacing with an instrument

Answer b. setting the voltage gain

33. Operational Transconductance Amplifier (OTA) is basically a

a. voltage to current amplifier
b. current to voltage amplifier
c. current to current amplifier
d. voltage to voltage amplifier

Answer a. voltage to current amplifier

34. The operation of a logarithmic amplifier is based on

a. nonlinear operation of op-amp

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 17

b. logarithmic characteristics of pn junction

c. reverse breakdown characteristics of a pn junction
d. logarithmic charge and discharge of RC circuit

Answer b. logarithmic characteristics of pn junction

35. In op-amps functional block diagram, what follows the differential amplifier?
a. cascode amplifier
b. complementary amplifier
c. level shifter
d. high gain amplifier

Answer d. high gain amplifier

36. How does the input of the op-amp made high?

a. by using super beta transistor at the input differential stage
b. by using FETs at the input differential stage
c. by connecting a very high resistance in series with the input differential stage
d. both a and b

Answer d. both a and b

37. What type of amplifier is commonly connected at the output stage of the op-amps?
a. differential amplifier
b. cascade am0plifier
c. complementary amplifier
d. darlington stage amplifier

Answer c. complementary amplifier

38. Why do most operational amplifier uses common collector configuration at the output stage?
a. to have a higher output power
b. to have a better frequency response
c. to have a low harmonic distortion
d. to have a very low output resistance

Answer d. to have a very low output resistance

39. An operational amplifier has a common-mode voltage gain of 20 and a differential-mode voltage
gain of 20 000, calculate the common mode rejection ratio (CMRR).
a. 20
b. 1 000
c. 10 000
d. 20 000

Answer b. 1 000
Solution
Ad 20000
CMRR = = = 1000
Ac 20

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-18 Micro-Electronics

40. The approximate value of the bias current compensating resistor in op-amp circuits is
a. equal to the feedback resistor
b. equal to the input resistor
c. equal to the series combination of the input and feedback resistors
d. equal to the parallel combination of the input and feedback resistors

Answer d. equal to the parallel combination of the input and feedback resistors

41. In op-amp analysis, the input offset voltage is represented by

a. battery
b. signal generator
c. Thevenins voltage source
d. Nortons current source

Answer a. battery
42. In most Ac amplifiers using op-amps, the feedback resistor is shunted with a very small
capacitance, what is its purpose?
a. to prevent oscillation
b. to improve stability
c. to minimize high frequency noise
d. to compensate for high frequency loss

Answer c. to minimize high frequency noise

43. 8-PIN pin and SMT are among the most popular op-amp packages. Which among the following
corresponds to TO-99?
a. metal can
b. SMT
c. 8-pin DIP
d. quadpack

Answer a. metal can

44. What is the package designation of Dual-In-Line package?

a. TO-99
b. TO-91
c. TO-116
d. TO-220

Answer c. TO-116

45. Which of the following is the unity gain frequency of a 741 op-amp?
a. 10 Hz
b. 20 KHz
c. 1 MHz
d. 15 MHz

Answer c. 1 MHz

46. Current cannot flow to the ground through

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 19

a. mechanical ground
b. an ac ground
c. a virtual ground
d. an ordinary ground

Answer c. a virtual ground

47. The temperature range of operational amplifiers for military use is:
a. -80C - 150C
b. -45C - 200C
c. 0C - 70C
d. -55C - 125C

Answer d. -55C - 125C

48. An astable multivibrtaor has

a. 1 stable state
b. 2 stable state
c. two quasi stable state
d. no stable state

Answer c. two quasi stable state

49. In bistable multivibrator, speed up or commutating capacitors are used to______.

a. to obtain time delay
b. to obtain constant output swing
c. to make multivibrator state more stable
d. to improve resolution time

Answer d. to improve resolution time

50. ______is used for counting of binary information.

a. clamper circuit
b. Schmitt trigger
c. bistable vibrator
d. monostable vibrator

Answer c. bistable vibrator

51. _______can be used to delay a circuit

a. clamper circuit
b. Schmitt trigger
c. bistable vibrator
d. monostable vibrator

Answer d. monostable vibrator

52. The maximum frequency of the output waveform of a bistable multivibrator ;

a. is constant for all multivibrator
b. depends upon the maximum frequency of the trigger signal

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX

10-20 Micro-Electronics

c. is infinity
d. is limited by the resolution time of the multivibrator

Answer d. is limited by the resolution time of the multivibrator

53. The frequency of the monostable vibrator is_______the frequency of the triggering pulses.
a. equal to
b. one half
c. twice
d. thrice

Answer a. equal to

54. What is the pin number designation of the output of a 555 timer?
a. 3
b. 4
c. 5
d. 6

Answer a. 3

55. Pin number 5 of the 555 timer is the _______.

a. supply voltage
b. control voltage
c. threshold
d.. ground

Answer b. control voltage

ElcrniX Macro Integrated Training and Review Center

Micro-Electronics 10- 21

Macro Integrated Training and Review Center ElcrniX