f l a m e c o r e cooling of the r e a c t i o n zone, caused by the t r a n s f e r of heat to the wall, b e c o m e s v e r y significant.

The width of the calculated f l a m e c o r e n e a r the t h e r m o i n s u l a t e d wall is l e s s than the width of the c o r r e s p o n d -
ing f l a m e c o r e n e a r the adiabatic wall (see Fig. 5), as the density of the fuel f o r Tw = 0.5 is g r e a t e r than the
density in the a b s e n c e of heat t r a n s f e r . F i g u r e 6 also shows the dependence of the local Nusselt n u m b e r on x

Nu x Z.O-~j~=0 (16)
n---~= ? ~ - r~"
In conclusion, we note that the p r o c e d u r e explained allows the calculation to be p e r f o r m e d for grazing
f l a m e c o r e s f o r m e d by the flow of a j e t of oxidant into a s p a c e filled with fuel and i n e r t components.

LITERATURE CITED
1. K. E. Dzhaugashtin and A. L. Yarin, I n z h . - F i z . Zh., 32, 666 (1977).
2. K. E. Dzhaugashtin and A. L. Yarin, Fiz. Goreniya Vzryva, 14.__,No. 3, 62 (1978).
3. Ya. B. Zel'dovich, Zh. Tekh. Fiz., 11, 1199 (1949).
4. K. E. Dzhaugashtin and A. L. Yarin, Fiz. G o r e n i y a Vzryva, 15_, No. 1, 109 (1979).

PHOTOPYROMETRIC DETERMINATION OF

TEMPERATURE FIELDS IN A HYDROCARBON

FLAME

A. N. Bazhaikin

D e t e r m i n a t i o n of t e m p e r a t u r e s in h y d r o c a r b o n f l a m e s is quite a complex p r o c e s s . P r a c t i c a l l y all hy-

d r o c a r b o n f l a m e s have scintillation capability, due b a s i c a l l y to t h e r m a l r a d i a t i o n of soot p a r t i c l e s contained
within the flame. The soot, being a solid, p r o d u c e s a continuous s p e c t r u m in the visible region [ 1]. The p r e s -
ence of this intense continuous s p e c t r u m , which o v e r w h e l m s the band s p e c t r a of compounds with known r a d i a -
tion lines, m a k e s it i m p o s s i b l e to u s e s p e c t r a l methods b a s e d on r e c o r d i n g of intensities of e m i s s i o n ( a b s o r p -
tion) bands of v a r i o u s a t o m s and m o l e c u l e s . T h e r e f o r e , the optical p y r o m e t r y method is p r e f e r a b l e , and has
long been used, although it has a n u m b e r of s h o r t c o m i n g s .
As is well tcaown, optical p y r o m e t e r s m e a s u r e the s o - c a l l e d b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e , i.e., the t e m p e r a -
ture of a blackbody, the b r i g h t n e s s of which o v e r a given wavelength i n t e r v a l is identical to the b r i g h t n e s s of
the object under study. The b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e m a y differ g r e a t l y (by hundreds of degrees) f r o m the true
t e m p e r a t u r e , depending on the e m i s s i v i t y of the object u n d e r study. M o r e o v e r , with i n d i r e c t m e a s u r e m e n t s ,
it is difficult to d e t e r m i n e the spatial distribution of the t e m p e r a t u r e within the flame, and if the combustion
p r o c e s s is a rapid one (as is true in the combustion c h a m b e r s of v a r i o u s engines o r h i g h - e n e r g y d e v i c e s ) , the
p r a c t i c a l value of the method d e c r e a s e s significantly.
The technique to be d e s c r i b e d h e r e i n is a r e f i n e m e n t of the p y r o m e t r i c method f o r d e t e r m i n a t i o n of
t e m p e r a t u r e of a radiating flame. It avoids the s h o r t c o m i n g s of the optical p y r o m e t r y technique noted above
and is suitable f o r studying t e m p e r a t u r e fields using the t h e r m a l radiation of the flame. The e s s e n c e of the
method c o n s i s t s of making s i m u l t a n e o u s photographs of the f l a m e and a b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e - c a l i b r a t e d
light s o u r c e at a definite wavelength, followed by a p p r o p r i a t e p r o c e s s i n g of the photographic i n f o r m a t i o n to
detect a r e a s of the f i l m with identical d e n s i t i e s (equidensities), c o r r e s p o n d i n g to specified b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r -
atures.

Thus, the p r o p o s e d method c o m b i n e s two well-known and developed techniques: p y r o m e t r i c d e t e r m i n a -

tion of t r u e t e m p e r a t u r e s [ 2-4] and d e t e r m i n a t i o n of i m a g e equidensities on the p h o t o m a t e r i a l [5].
Method. To r e l a t e the f l a m e t e m p e r a t u r e to the r e f e r e n c e light s o u r c e a f i l a m e n t l a m p is used, with the
s p i r a l f f l a m e n t r e p l a c e d by a thin tungsten ribbon, the b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e of which depends on the strength
of the e i e c t r i c c u r r e n t supplied to the l a m p . If an optical wedge which attenuates the radiation f r o m the ribbon

Novosibirsk. T r a n s l a t e d f r o m Fizika G o r e n i y a i Vzryva, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 57-62, May-June, 1981_
Original a r t i c t e s u b m i t t e d J u n e 24, 1980.

0010-5082/81/1703-0289507.50 9 1981 Plenum Publishing C o r p o r a t i o n 289

b y a known law is installed ahead of the lamp, and an optical p y r o m e t e r is u s e d to m e a s u r e b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r -
a t u r e s by the radiation behind the wedge, a s e t of c o r r e s p o n d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s m a y be attained, i.e., the s y s -
t e m m a y be c a l i b r a t e d .
In an e x p e r i m e n t the p y r o m e t e r is f i r s t used to m e a s u r e the f l a m e b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e Sf in the
region of i n t e r e s t , whereupon the l a m p is turned on, and adjusted so that the b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e a f t e r the
optical wedge S 1 is 200-300~ h i g h e r t h a n Sf. Thenthe b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e of the ribbon with wedge is
m e a s u r e d through the f l a m e under study, this value being t e r m e d Sff. It should be noted that Sf and Slf can be
m e a s u r e d in this m a n n e r f o r s t a t i o n a r y f l a m e s . F o r rapidly o c c u r r i n g combustion p r o c e s s e s these values can
be d e t e r m i n e d by photographing the f l a m e with the c a l i b r a t e d light s o u r c e and subsequent p h o t o m e t r i c p r o c e s -
sing of the film. The b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e values obtained p e r m i t d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the t r u e t e m p e r a t u r e of
the f l a m e Tf, and the f l a m e e m i s s i v i t y of.
The f o r m u l a s n e c e s s a r y f o r these calculations m a y be obtained as follows. Let Bf be the f l a m e b r i g h t -
n e s s and K, the light wavelength at which the b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e s a r e d e t e r m i n e d . Then, on the b a s i s of
P l a n c k ' s law, we m a y write
Bf = c)~-5 exp (-cf/~Sf) = ef c~-~ exp (-c~/~,Tf), (1)

w h e r e c and c 2 a r e c o r r e s p o n d i n g constants. Then we find

exp (-co/~Srf) ~ ef c}~-5exp (-cJ)~Tf) -t- erc(t - ef))~-~exp (-c2/)~Tr).. (2)

H e r e B r is the ribbon b r i g h t n e s s ; B r f is the b r i g h t n e s s of the ribbon as viewed through the flame.

F r o m Eqs. (1), (2) it follows that
1/Tf = t/Sf + ~./c2 9In ~f, (3)

sf = t -~ exp -
~~ [__i
[sf - - exp ;~ [srf sr (4)

w h e r e Tf is the true f l a m e t e m p e r a t u r e .
Thus, knowing the b r i g h t u e s s t e m p e r a t u r e v a l u e s , the f l a m e e m i s s i v i t y ef can b e d e t e r m i n e d f r o m Eq.
(4), and the t r u e f l a m e t e m p e r a t u r e Tf f r o m Eq. (3). Photography of the f l a m e t o g e t h e r with the c a l i b r a t e d
r a d i a t i o n s o u r c e p r o d u c e s i n f o r m a t i o n on t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s o v e r the f l a m e as a whole, and is suitable for
both slow and rapid c o m b u s t i o n p r o c e s s e s , e x p o s u r e t i m e limitations being d e t e r m i n e d by the film sensitivity.
The i n f o r m a t i o n thus obtained can be decoded by the technique of d e t e r m i n i n g s e g m e n t s with equal d e n s i -
ties by s p e c i a l p r o c e s s i n g of the film, d e s c r i b e d in [5], the e s s e n c e of which c o n s i s t s of the following. Sev-
e r a l h i g h - c o n t r a s t copies a r e contact printed on film f r o m the original, with different e x p o s u r e t i m e s . The
n u m b e r of copies will d e t e r m i n e the n u m b e r of equidensities obtained. F r o m each p r i m a r y copy the i m a g e is
t r a n s f e r r e d to a n o t h e r film by contact printing. This second film is then developed, but a f t e r 30-60 sec, d e -
veloping is t e r m i n a t e d and the f i l m is washed in water. Thus, only the s u r f a c e l a y e r of the e m u l s i o n is de-
veloped, a thin l a y e r of s i l v e r thus being f o r m e d therein, c o v e r i n g the underlying e m u l s i o n l a y e r s . The film
is then fogged b y diffuse light, and a final d e v e l o p m e n t and fixing a r e c a r r i e d out. In the final d e v e l o p m e n t the
fogged portions blacken, while those c o v e r e d with s i l v e r r e m a i n light, f o r m i n g the equidensities.
If photographs of the f l a m e and c a l i b r a t e d radiation s o u r c e a r e p r o c e s s e d in this m a n n e r , in the final
p r i n t t h e r e will r e m a i n a portion of the f l a m e and a portion of the radiation s o u r c e , the t e m p e r a t u r e of which
is known beforehand. Thus, the t e m p e r a t u r e of the f l a m e region can be d e t e r m i n e d . Repeating these s t e p s
with o t h e r p r i m a r y copies of the photograph, we obtain o t h e r equidensites c o r r e s p o n d i n g to o t h e r t e m p e r a -
t u r e s . If all the films obtained a r e mounted in one holder, a family of equidensites can be obtained in one
photograph. In this m a n n e r , any object photographed, in p a r t i c u l a r , a flame, can be shown in skeletal f o r m
with each portion having unique p r o p e r t i e s .
E x p e r i m e n t a l Results. The object of study was a p l a n a r diffusion f l a m e of diesel fuel, ~3 c m in height,
1.5 c m in width, and 2-3 m m thick, produced b y a w i c k - t y p e b u r n e r . The r e f e r e n c e light s o u r c e was an SI-8
light m e a s u r e m e n t bulb with tungsten ribbon filament, p e r m i t t i n g t e m p e r a t u r e c a l i b r a t i o n to 3000~K. A nine-
step optical wedge was installed ahead of the l a m p , consisting of a s e t of n e u t r a l f i l t e r s of v a r i o u s density.
The tungsten l a m p radiation p a s s e d through the wedge and was o b s e r v e d by a type O P P I R - 0 1 7 optical p y r o -
m e t e r (vanishing f i l a m e n t type) to d e t e r m i n e the b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e s c o r r e s p o n d i n g to each of the nine
f i l t e r s . The e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t applied to the SI-8 l a m p was chosen so that the r a n g e of ribbon b r i g h t n e s s e s

290
 Fig. 1. P h o t o g r a p h s of wick b u r n e r f l a m e
and c a l i b r a t i o n l e v e l s , taken o v e r e n t i r e
v i s i b l e s p e c t r u m (a) and a t X = 630 nm (b).

Fig. 2. I s o t h e r m s d e t e c t e d by p h o t o g r a p h y of f l a m e :
a) 1410~ b) 1370~ e) 1140~

a f t e r p a s s a g e through the f i l t e r would e n c o m p a s s the p r e d e t e r m i n e d f l a m e b r i g h t n e s s r a n g e . The l a m p c u r -

r e n t was m a i n t a i n e d c o n s t a n t d u r i n g p h o t o g r a p h y of both the f l a m e and s o u r c e to p r o d u c e c o n s t a n t r i b b o n
brightness.
The wick b u r n e r was i n s t a l l e d in the plane of the o p t i c a l f i l t e r and p h o t o g r a p h y was p e r f o r m e d with a
K i e v - 1 5 c a m e r a with an i n t e r f e r e n c e f i l t e r on the l e n s , p e r m i t t i n g p a s s a g e of light at a wavelength of X =
630 9 10 nm. F i g u r e l a shows the f l a m e and f i l t e r c a l i b r a t i o n s t e p s as p h o t o g r a p h e d without the i n t e r f e r e n c e
f i l t e r (i.e., o v e r the e n t i r e v i s i b l e s p e c t r u m ) with an e x p o s u r e t i m e of 1 m s e c . F i g u r e lb is the s a m e e x p o -
s u r e at wavelength X = 630 rim. Here s o m e d e t a i l s of f l a m e s t r u c t u r e a r e a l r e a d y evident, as is the c h a r a c t e r
of a t t e n u a t i o n by the f i l t e r , each s t e p of which c o r r e s p o n d s to a unique known b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e .
A f t e r the p h o t o g r a p h y a p y r o m e t e r i n s t a l l e d at the s a m e point as the c a m e r a was used to d e t e r m i n e the
b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e s Sf and S / f i n v a r i o u s p o r t i o n s of the flame. Equation {4) was then u s e d to c a l c u l a t e
the e m i s s i v i t y ef of t h e s e r e g i o n s . The m e a s u r e m e n t s and c a l c u l a t i o n s gave a m e a n e m i s s i v i t y value of
0.56 J= 10% f o r the d i e s e l fuel f l a m e , which value was then used to r e c a l c u l a t e b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e s to t r u e
t e m p e r a t u r e s with Eq. (3).
The p h o t o g r a p h i c i m a g e of the f l a m e and light s o u r c e (Fig. lb) was then u s e d for f u r t h e r photo p r o c e s -
sing by the technique d e s c r i b e d above, to p r o d u c e e q u i d e n s i t y i s o t h e r m s . P r o c e s s i n g was done with type F T -
101 h i g h - c o n t r a s t f i l m with c o n t r a s t c o e f f i c i e n t ~/ > 10. Fogging and d e v e l o p m e n t t i m e s w e r e d e t e r m i n e d e x -
p e r i m e n t a l l y and i n d i v i d u a l l y f o r e a c h e q u i d e n s i t e .
F i g u r e 2 shows e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s i l l u s t r a t i n g i s o t h e r m s of the f l a m e studied, in the s a m e s c a l e as
Fig. 1. If a l l the i s o t h e r m s obtained a r e s u p e r i m p o s e d a p a t t e r n of the f l a m e r e s u l t s , as can be s e e n f r o m
Fig. 3. The p l a n a r f l a m e is p r o d u c e d by b u r n e r I, which is a conventional alcohol l a m p with p l a n a r wick II.
F r o m F i g s . 1 and 3 it is evident that the glowing b o u n d a r y of the f l a m e III is r a i s e d 3-5 m m above the wick,
w h e r e e v a p o r a t i o n and i n i t i a l heating of the liquid fuel v a p o r o c c u r s .
Within the l i m i t s of the b r i g h t f l a m e a r e two d a r k z o n e s : IV, the s o - c a l l e d i n n e r cone, where f u r t h e r
heating of the fuet v a p o r and p r e p a r a t i o n f o r c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n o c c u r ; and V, w h e r e the l u m i n o s i t y g r a d u a l l y
d e c r e a s e s due to cooling of the p r o d u c t s and f o r m a t i o n of b l a c k soot. It is a l s o evident f r o m F i g . 3 that the
m a x i m u m t e m p e r a t u r e zone p r a c t i c a l l y c o i n c i d e s with the p a r t of the e x t e r i o r f l a m e b o u n d a r y a t which the d i f -

291
 !
--//---~--~

I
Fig. 3. Structure of wick b u r n e r flame.

fusion flame combustion reaction zone is located. With r e m o v a l f r o m the boundary to the center of the flame,
the t e m p e r a t u r e d e c r e a s e s monotonically to the minimum value r e s o l v a b l e by the given method.

An experimental verification of the r e s u l t s obtained using the s a m e flame and a thermoeouple produced
only qualitative a g r e e m e n t . The quantitative t e m p e r a t u r e values m e a s u r e d by various thermocouples proved
to be ~. 30% lower. This can be explained by deposition of soot l a y e r s on the thermoeouple junction, p e c u l i a r i -
ties of heat exchange between flame, junction, and conductors, flame oscillations, etc. T h e r e f o r e , further
verification of the technique was c a r r i e d out using a type P M T - 2 v a c u u m e t r i c lamp, whose glass envelope
contains an 0. I - r a m - d i a m e t e r platinum wire, to which is welded a C h r o m e l - A l u m e l thermocouple junction
(junction d i a m e t e r 0.1 m m ) . The wire is heated by an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t . When the lamp r e a c h e d its equili-
b r i u m t h e r m a l r e g i m e it was photographed together with the r e f e r e n c e lamp and optical wedge. The wire t e m -
p e r a t u r e values obtained by the p h o t o p y r o m e t r i c method and the thermocouple differed by 10-20 ~ (or an a v e r -
age of 1.5%) f o r v a r i o u s heating r e g i m e s (in the t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e 1000-1100~ which indicates the r e l i a b i l -
ity of the r e s u l t s obtained by the p h o t o p y r o m e t r i o method.
It should be noted that such flames have been studied previously. In [61, e.g., a candle flame was studied,
the t e m p e r a t u r e being m e a s u r e d by thermocouples with n e c e s s a r y m e a s u r e s for reduction in e r r o r being
taken. A c o m p a r i s o n of the t e m p e r a t u r e field obtained in [6] with that of Fig. 3 shows good a g r e e m e n t , both
qualitative and quantitative, of the two methods, and is an indication of the a c c u r a c y of the p h o t o p y r o m e t r i c
method.

The uncertainty in determination of true flame t e m p e r a t u r e s is composed of two components: i n s t r u -

mental, and that related to the flame e m i s s i o n p r o p e r t i e s . Instrumental e r r o r is connected with the a c c u r a c y
of the p y r o m e t e r b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e m e a s u r e m e n t s , and also with the e r r o r involved in averaging the
flame e m i s s i v i t y o v e r the radiating region. We will p e r f o r m a quantitative estimate. F r o m Eq. (3) it follows
that
rf = i / ( l / ~ + ;,/c~. In ef),

from which, after differentiation and s e v e r a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s , we obtain the e x p r e s s i o n f o r the relative e r r o r

in the definition of the true t e m p e r a t u r e (omitting p) ;

(5)

A caIeulation was p e r f o r m e d for the following conditions: dS -- 20% u n c e r t a i n t y in brightness t e m p e r a t u r e

m e a s u r e m e n t o v e r range 1000-1400~ S = 1000~ lowest b r i g h t n e s s t e m p e r a t u r e (to m a x i m i z e e r r o r ) ; e =
0.56, mean e m i s s i v i t y ; de = 0.056, e r r o r f r o m averaging e m i s s i v i t y o v e r flame; X = 630- 10-~ m; c z = 1.438 9
10.2 m / d e g . F r o m Eq. (5) we obtain dT/T = 2.2" 10-2. Thus, the absolute instrumental uneertainty c o m p r i s e s
24 in the given t e m p e r a t u r e range.
The e r r o r s connected with peculiarities in flame radiation a r e difficult to e s t i m a t e quantitatively, and
we can only offer r e c o m m e n d a t i o n s for their reduction. The brightness of the volume s o u r c e is seen by the
devices is the r e s u l t of not only superposition of radiation, but also absorption of radiation by various p o r -
tions of the s o u r c e along the optical path to the device. T h e r e f o r e , for volume s o u r c e s it is n e c e s s a r y to con-

292
sider and calculate the radial temperature distribution and to solve the Abel equation. In the given case
(planar flame) this is not necessary. E r r o r s can also be produced by the superposition upon carbon particle
radiation of radiation of other molecules at the operating wavelength. Therefore, to decrease this e r r o r it is
recommended that radiation be recorded at two or more wavelengths. In carbon-rich flames, especially those
of the heavy hydrocarbons (as in the p r e s e n t case) such superposition of other radiation has little effect on
measurement accuracy.
In conclusion, the author thanks A. P. Petrov for his many valuable r e m a r k s and advice.

LITERATURE CITED
A. Haydon, Flame Spectroscopy [Russian translation], IL, Moscow (1959).
2. A. I. Gordov, A. S. Arzhanov, et al., Methods of Temperature Determination in Industry [in Russian],
Metallurgizdat, Moscow (1952).
3. H. Hottel and F. Braughton, Ind. Eng. Chem., No. 4 (1932).
4. V. I. Blinov and G. N. Khudyakov, Diffusion Combustion of Liquids [in Russian], Izd. Akad. Nauk SSSR,
Moscow (1961).
5. V. Krug and G. G. Weide, Applications of Scientific Photography [Russian translation], Mir, Moscow
(1975).
6. A. G. Haydon and H. G. Wolfgard, The Flame, Its Structure, Radiation, and T em perat ure [Russian trans-
lation], Metallurgizdat, Moscow (1959).

PRINCIPLES OF SELF-PROPAGATING HIGH-

TEMPERATURE SYNTHESIS OF TITANIUM

COMPOUNDS WITH ELEMENTS OF THE IRON
GROUP

V. I. I t i n , A. D. B r a t c h i k o v ,
A. G. M e r z h a n o v , a n d V. M. M a s l o v

This study will examine the principles involves in self-propagating high-temperature synthesis of titan-
ium compounds with cobalt (TiCo), and in some cases with nickel (TiNi) and iron (TiFe). The effect of v a r i -
ous factors (porosity, initial temperature, degree of dilution of mixture by final product, amount of heat loss,
etc.) on the rate, temperature, and c h a r a c t e r of combustion, as well as the phase composition and structure
of the synthesis products will be determined.
The melting points of these end products are lower than those of the reagents. This case of combustion
has not been previously studied. The reaction products may be liquids, which leads to certain peculiarities in
the combustion process. The intermetallic compounds TiCo and TiNi possess form m e m o r y effects and other
useful properties. In connection with the use of self-propagating high-temperature synthesis to produce such
phases [ 1-3], it is desirable to describe in detail the principles of combustion of these mixtures.
The compositions and materials indicated in Table 1 were used for the studies, c a r r i e d out by the tech-
nique of [2]. All mixtures were weakly exothermic and ignited only after preliminary heating. Synthesis of
system 5 (TiFe stoichiometry) was achieved only aft er heating of the system to 900~ with the maximum
combustion tempe rature being 1150 ~C.
Figure 1 shows maximum temperature T mxa and combustion rate u as functions of initial temperature
T i. Two distinct regions of the function Tmax = f ( T i ) can be distinguished:
1) the combustion temperature exceeds the eutectic fusion point, but is below the fusion points of the
reagent and final product; temperature increasing with initial temperature;

Tomsk, Chernogolovka. Translated from Fizika Goreniya i Vzryva, Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 62-67, May-June,
1981. Original article submitted July 21, 1980.

0010-5082/81/1703-0293507.50 9 1981 Plenum Publishing Corporation 293