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Vectors, Tensors,
Strains, Stresses
A1
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A2
P(xi ) i = 1, 2, 3. (A.1)
where xi means x1 , x2 , x3 .
A linear algebraic equation involving the Cartesian coordinates (x1 , x2 , x3 ) is ordinarily written
using the summation operator as
3
ai j x j = bi i = 1, 2, 3, (A.2)
j=1
3
i =1: a 1 j x x = b1 , or a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a3 x3 = b1 ,
j=1
3
i =2: a 2 j x x = b2 , or a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 = b2 , (A.3)
j=1
3
i =3: a 3 j x j = b3 , or a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 = b3 .
in which the summation symbol has been suppressed. This is the summation convention: an index
repeated in an expression is understood to be summed over the implied range. In three-dimensional
continuum mechanics, the range is 1 to 3.
A2
A3 A.1 NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS
P(x1 , x2 , x3 )
tor
ec
x3 o nv
siti
po
x1 x2
EXAMPLE A.1
The expression
aj j (A.5)
means
a11 + a22 + a33 (A.6)
REMARK A.1
In an expression such as
ai j x j (A.7)
i is said to be the free index which can take any of the values 1,2,3, whereas j is said to be the dummy index
which must take the values 1,2,3. In other words, the dummy index is the one that must be summed over the
entire range.
Replacing the dummy index by another symbol (one that does not clash with a free index) changes nothing:
ai j x j = aik xk . (A.8)
A scalar function f (P) of a point P(xi ) is written using the index notation is
f (xi ). (A.9)
Some important functions of f (xi ) are the linear, bilinear (quadratic) and differential forms.
A3
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A4
3
f (xi ) = a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 = ai xi = ai xi . (A.10)
i=1
REMARK A.2
The coefficients ai j can be collected in a 3 3 matrix A = [ai j ], which written in full is
a11 a12 a13
A = [ai j ] = a21 a22 a23 . (A.12)
a31 a32 a33
represents the distance squared between two neighboring points in a general curvilinear coordinate
system. In a RCC system, the square of the distance is
ds 2 = (d x1 )2 + (d x2 )2 + (d x3 )2
3 (A.14)
= d xi d xi = d xi d xi .
i=1
REMARK A.3
The coefficients ai j for the RCC are then 1 if i = j else 0, a relation that may be represented compactly with
the Kronecker delta symbol introduced below. The corresponding matrix A is the identity matrix.
A4
A5 A.1 NOTATIONAL CONVENTIONS
f f f f
df = d x1 + d x2 + + d x3 = d xi . (A.15)
x1 x2 x3 xi
Introducing another notational convention:
f
= f ,i . (A.16)
xi
That is, a comma denotes partial differentiation with respect to the coordinate that follows. Then
we can write the total differential as
d f = f ,i d xi = d xi f ,i . (A.17)
EXAMPLE A.2
Examples involving second derivatives:
2 f
f ,i j = , (A.18)
xi x j
2 f 2 f 2 f 2 f
f ,ii = = + + = 2 f (Laplacian of f). (A.19)
xi xi x1 x1 x2 x2 x3 x3
f f x1 f x2 f x3 f xi
= + + = . (A.20)
xj x1 x j x2 x j x3 x j xi x j
Let f = xk . Then the previous rule gives
xk xk xi 1 if j =k
= = . (A.21)
x j xi x j 0 if j = k
jk = 1 if j =k else 0, (A.22)
then we can express the previous relation compactly as
A5
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A6
xk xi
= jk . (A.23)
xi x j
EXAMPLE A.3
Evaluate ii . Applying the summation convention:
ii = 11 + 22 + 33 = 3. (A.25)
Similarly, i j i j = 3.
We denote the base unit vectors in a rectangular Cartesian coordinate (RCC) system by i1 , i2 , i3 ,
(see Figure B.1). Any vector a can be represented as
a = a1 i1 + a2 i2 + a3 i3 = ak ik (A.26)
a
3
i3
a
+
i2
x3 a 2
+
1
i1
a
i3 a=
i1
i2
x1
x2
A6
A7 A.3 VECTOR OPERATIONS
ab
in
b
a
a a = |a|2 =
a
(A.28)
The base vector dot products satisfy ii i j = i j , thus
a b = (a1 i1 + a2 i2 + a3 i3 )(b1 i1 + b2 i2 + b3 i3 )
(A.29)
= (ak ik ) (b j i j ) = ak b j ik i j = ak b j k j = ak bk .
where in is the unit normal vector to a and b forming a right-handed system (see Figure B.2) and
is the angle between a and b.
A7
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A8
It follows that
a b = b a (A.31)
The geometric interpretation is that |a b| is the area of the parallelogram formed by a and b.
Obviously a a = 0, the null vector. The cross product of the unit vectors satisfy
i1 i1 = 0, i1 i2 = i3 , i2 i1 = i3 ,
i2 i2 = 0, i2 i3 = i1 , i3 i2 = i1 , (A.32)
i3 i3 = 0, i3 i1 = i2 , i1 i3 = i2 .
In condensed form,
i j ik = e jk i (A.33)
where ei jk , the permutation symbol or commutator sysmbol, is defined as
0 if all indices are not distinct,
ei jk = +1 if all indices are distinct and form a positive cyclic permutation, (A.34)
1 if all indices are distinct and form a negative cyclic permutation.
a b = (a j i j ) (bk ik ) = a j bk (i j i ) = a j bk e jk i . (A.35)
[a, b, c] = a b c = im am i (b j ck e jk )
(A.36)
= m am b j ck e jk = a b j ck e jk = ai b j ck ei jk
f f f
grad f = f = i1 + i2 + i3 = f ik ik = ik f ,k (A.37)
x1 x2 x3
= i1 + i2 + i3 = ik = ik (),k . (A.38)
x1 x2 x3 xk
A8
A9 A.5 NOTATION AND SUMMATION CONVENTION
curl a = a. (A.41)
A.4 TENSORS
This section is an introduction to tensor analysis and tensor notation.
3
ci xi = p, (A.43)
i=1
To further compact this equation we shall introduce the summation convention and write (A.43) in
the simpler form
ci xi = p, (A.44)
A9
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A10
where the summation sign has been omitted. This convention, attributed to Einstein, is as follows:
The repetition of an index in a term implies summation over that index over its range. The range
of an index i is the set of n integer values 1 to n that the index may assume. A lower index i, as in
xi is called a subscript whereas an upper index i as in y i is called a superscript. An index that is
summed over is called a dummy index. One that is not summed over is called a free index.
Because a dummy index only indicates summation, the symbol used is immaterial. Thus ai xi may
be replaced by a j yj or ak xk as long as these indices have the same range. This is analogous to the
dymmy variable in an integral:
b b
f (x) d x = f (y) dy. (A.45)
a a
x j = jk xk , (A.46)
which has [ jk ] as transformation matrix. In the case of two co-original RCC systems each entry
of this matrix has an immediate physical meaning: jk is the director cosine of the angle formed
by x j and xk .
A10
A11 A.6 CARTESIAN TENSORS
xj x
= j = j k = jk . (A.47)
xk xk
xk = jk x j (A.48)
xk
= jk (A.49)
xj
x j xk
= jk k (A.50)
xk x
jk k = j (A.51)
EXAMPLE A.4
If j = = 1,
11
2
+ 22
2
+ 33
2
=1
If j = 1, = 2
11 21 + 12 21 + 13 23 = 0
REMARK A.4
A11
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A12
Let a and b be two vectors in the RCC system xi . Consider the transformation to RCC system x j :
ak = jk a j , bn = n b . (A.52)
Thus
Let Ckn = ak bn and C j = a j b ; then
Ckn = jk n C j . (A.54)
This is the definition of a second order tensor or a tensor of order 2 (it has two free indices).
In particular: a vector is a tensor of order 1, and a scalar is a tensor of order 0.
A fourth order tensor would be defined as
Ci jk = mi n j pk q Cmnpq . (A.55)
A.7 STRAINS
Let u i (x j ) denote the components of the displacement vector field u(x j ). Then the infinitesimal
strains are given by
ei j = 12 (u i, j + u j,i ) (A.57)
These are the components of the strain tensor [ei j ] = e, which written in full is
A12
A13 A.7 STRAINS
u 1
e11 = u 1,1 =
x1
u 2
e22 = u 2,2 =
x2
u 3
e33 = u 3,3 =
x3
(A.58)
u 1 u 2
e12 = 1
(u
2 1,2
+ u 2,1 ) = 1
+
2
x2 x1
1 u 2 u 3
e23 = 2 (u 2,3 + u 3,2 ) = 2
1
+
x3 x2
1 u 3 u 1
e31 = 2 (u 3,1 + u 1,3 ) = 2
1
+
x1 x3
xi = ai j x j (A.60)
the strain components become
A13
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A14
u x
ex x = e11 =
x
u y
e yy = e22 =
y
u z
ezz = e33 =
z
(A.62)
u x u y
x y = 2e12 = +
y x
u y u z
yz = 2e23 = +
z y
u z u x
zx = 2e31 = +
x z
The linear strain tensor in terms of engineering strains is
ex x 1
2 xy
1
2 xz
[e] = e yy 1
2 yz
(A.63)
symm ezz
2 ex x 2 e yy 2 x y
+ = (A.66)
y2 x2 x y
A14
A15 A.10 THE STRESS TENSOR
;;
t
;;
m
;;
P
e
an
pl
ng
tti
cu
Figure A.1. Plane cut through a body for defining the interior force resultants at point P.
A.9 STRESSES
Consider a continuum body and an interior point P(xi ). Make a cut through P with a plane with
exterior normal n, as illustrated in Figure E.1.
t
tn = lim , (A.67)
A0 A
where A is a differential area surrounding P on the cutting plane (see Figure E.1).
m
mn = lim . (A.68)
A0 A
It is optional to include mn in the theory of stress. Doing so leads to the so-called polar material
models. In classical continuum mechanics it is generally assumed that mn = 0, which corresponds
to non-polar materials. Polar material models are generally considered only when continua are
subjected to strong electromagnetic fields.
A15
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A16
ti = i j n j , (A.69)
where ti is the component of t in the xi direction, and n j are the components of n. The nine values
i j are the components of the Cauchy stress tensor
11 12 13
= [i j ] = 21 22 23 . (A.70)
31 32 33
For non-polar materials this tensor is symmetric. That is, i j = ji .
To transform the surface integral to a volume integral we use Gauss divergence theorem. For any
vector field a:
a.n d S = div.a d V. (A.73)
S V
or in component form
a j
aj n j d S = d V. (A.74)
S V xj
Consequently the equilibrium integral (A.71) may be reduced to
[i j, j + bi ai ] d V = 0, (A.75)
V
A16
A17 A.11 EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
i j, j + bi ai = 0. (A.76)
These are the three differential equations of dynamic equilibrium, which are obtained by setting
the free index i to 1, 2 and 3. These are also called the internal equilibrium equations, or balance
equations. If the medium is at rest or moving uniformly with respect to an inertial frame, the
accelerations vanish and we obtain the equations of static equilibrium
i j, j + bi = 0. (A.77)
EXAMPLE A.5
If i = 1 the first static equilibrium equation along axis x1 is
1 j, j + b1 = 0 (A.78)
x x x y x z
+ + + bx = 0. (A.80)
x y z
A17
Appendix A: VECTORS, TENSORS, STRAINS, STRESSES A18
EXERCISE A.1
i ji j = 3. (EA.1)
i jk jki = 6 (EA.2)
i jk A j Ak = 0 (EA.3)
A18