B737 Autothrottle (A/T) - Normal and Non-Normal Operations

SEPTEMBER 2, 2014 AT 9:18

The AutoThrottle (A/T) is part of the Automatic Flight System (AFS)

comprising the Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) and the
Autothrottle (A/T). The A/T can provide automatic thrust control
through all phases of flight.

LEFT: Mode Control Panel (MCP) showing A/T on/off solenoid switch
and speed window. The MCP shown is the Pro model manufactured
by CP Flight in Italy (click image to enlarge).

The A/T functionality is designed to operate in unison with the

Autopilot (A/P), Nevertheless, a flight crew will not always adhere
to this use, some crews preferring to fly manually or partially
select either the A/P or A/T.

A search on aviation forums will uncover a plethora of comments

concerning the use of the A/T which, combined with A/P use and
non-normal procedures (conditions), can be easily be
misconstrued. An interesting discussion can be read here.

This post will examine, in addition to normal A/T operation, some of

the non-normal conditions and there advantages and possible
drawbacks. Single engine operation will not be addressed as this
is a separate subject.

For those interested in revising the AFDS system in detail, I

recommend perusing the Boeing B737 Automatic Systems Review.

When to Engage / Disengage the Autothrottle (A/T)

The A/T is engaged whenever the A/T toggle is armed and the
speed annunciator is illuminated on the Mode Control Panel (MCP).
Either of these two functions can be selected together or
singularly. Likewise, during the takeoff roll the A/T can be engaged
(usually after reaching 80 knots ground speed) by pressing the
TO/GA buttons located under the thrust lever handles. This will
engage the A/T in the TO/GA command mode. The main reason that
TO/GA command mode is engaged to control the A/T during takeoff
and climb is that it simplifies thrust procedures during a busy
segment of the flight.

Once engaged, the TO/GA command mode will control all thrust
outputs to the engines until the mode is exited, either at the
designated altitude set on the MCP, or by activating another
automaton mode such as Level Change (LVL CHG). When TO/GA is
engaged, the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) will announce TO/GA
providing a visual cue.

ABOVE: FMA Captain-side PFD showing TO/GA annunciated during

takeoff roll.

A question commonly asked is: When is the A/T disengaged and in

what circumstances? Seemingly, like many aspects of flying the
Boeing aircraft, there are several answers depending on who you
speak to.

Ultimately, A/T use is at the discretion of the pilot flying, however,

airline company policy often dictates when the crew can engage
and disengage the A/T. The Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM)
states:
A/T use is recommended during takeoff and climb in either
automatic or manual flight, and during all other phases of flight.

In the FCTM, Boeing recommends the A/T is only used when the A/P
is engaged (the A/T and A/P are coupled).

In general, a flight crew should disengage the A/T system at the

same time as the A/P. This enables complete manual input to the
flight controls and follows the method recommended by Boeing.

My preference during a non-precision approach is to disconnect the

A/T and A/P no later than between 1500 and 1000 feet, or for
precision approaches at whatever height is stipulated on the
approach chart. It is not uncommon that a flight crew will
manually fly an aircraft from 10,000 feet to landing using the ILS,
VNAV and LNAV cues for guidance and situational awareness.
Many pilots enjoy hand-flying the aircraft during the approach
phase.

When hand flying the aircraft with the A/T not engaged, it is very
important to monitor the airspeed. This is especially so when
during the final approach as thrust can easily decay to a speed
very close to stall speed.

The Autothrottle is Designed to be used in Unison with the

Autopilot

The A/T is a sophisticated automated system that will continually

update thrust based on minor pitch and attitude changes, and
operates exceptionally well when coupled with the A/P. But, when
the A/P is disengaged and the A/T retained, its reliability can be
questionable.
Some crews believe that if a landing is carried out with the A/P off
and the A/T engaged, and a fall in airspeed occurs, such as during
the flare, then the A/T will engage to apply thrust causing the
potential for a tail strike. Likewise, if during the approach there
are excessive wind gusts, pitch coupling (discussed below) may
occur.

The advantages of using the A/T and A/P together are:

Speed is stabilized
Speed floor protection is maintained
Task loading is reduced
Flight crews can concentrate on visual manoeuvring and not
have to be overly concerned with wind additives

The disadvantages of using the A/T without the A/P engaged are:

Additional crew workload and possible loss of situational

awareness
Potential excessive and unexpected throttle movement caused
by pith and attitude changes
Potential excessive airspeed when landing in windy conditions
with gusts
The potential for pitch coupling to occur (discussed below)
A loss of thrust awareness (out of the loop)
Boeing 737 Design

The design of the Boeing 737 is prone to pitch coupling because of

its under wing mounted engines. This causes the thrust vector to
pitch up with increasing thrust, and pitch down with a reduction in
thrust.

LEFT: B737 NG style thrust levers.

The A/T is designed to operate in conjunction with the A/P, to

produce a consistent aircraft pitch under normal flight conditions.
If the A/P is disengaged but the A/T remains engaged, pitch
coupling may develop.

Pitch Coupling

Pitch coupling is when the A/T system actively attempts to

maintain thrust based on the pitch/attitude of the aircraft. It occurs
when the A/P is not engaged and manual inputs (pitch and roll) are
used to control the aircraft.

If the pitch inputs are excessive, the A/T will advance or retard
thrust in an attempt to maintain the selected MCP speed. This
coupling of pitch to thrust can be potentially hazardous when
manually flying an approach, and more so in windy conditions.

Scenario - pitch coupling

For example, imagine you are in level flight with A/T on, A/P off,
and a brief wind change causes a reduction in airspeed. The A/T
will slightly advance the throttles to maintain commanded speed.
This in turn will cause the aircraft to pitch slightly upwards,
triggering the A/T to respond to the subsequent speed loss by
increasing thrust, resulting in further upward pitch. The pilot will
then correct this by pushing forward on the control column
decreasing pitch. As airspeed increases, the A/T will decrease
thrust causing the aircraft to decrease more in pitch.

The outcome is that a coupling between pitch and thrust will occur
causing a roll-a-coaster type ride as the aircraft increases and then
decreases pitch, based on pilot input and A/T thrust control.

Non-Normal Operations of the Autothrottle (speed button not

engaged)

The primary function that the A/T ARM mode is to provide minimum
speed protection. A crew can ARM the throttle but not have it
linked to a speed. To configure the A/T in ARM mode, the solenoid
A/T toggle is set to ARM, but the SPEED button located on the MCP
is not selected (the annunciator is not illuminated).

LEFT: A/T ARM solenoid, N1 and speed button. The N1 and speed
button illuminate when either is in active mode. In the image, the
A/T is armed; however, the speed option not selected allowing
thrust to be controlled manually.

Scenario - speed button not engaged during TO/GA

To facilitate a TO/GA, some flight crews arm the A/T but do not
engage the speed option (speed button on MCP). This allows a
TO/GA to be accomplished more expediently and with less workload
during a non-precision approach (the pilot flying only has to push
the TO/GA button and the A/T will automatically become
operational).
If a Go-Around is not necessitated during the approach, the A/T
solenoid switch is disengaged prior to landing, either by manually
'throwing' the toggle or pressing the A/T buttons located on the
thrust levers. Although favoured by some flight crews, this
practice is not authorized by all airlines, with some company
policies expressly forbidding the ARM A/T technique.

The recommendation by Boeing in the B737 Flight Crew Training

Manual (FCTM) states:

The A/T ARM mode is not normally recommended because its

function can be confusing. The primary feature the A/T ARM mode
provides is minimum speed protection in the event the airplane
slows to minimum manoeuvring speed. Other features normally
associated with the A/T, such as gust protection, are not provided.
(When the A/T is armed and the speed button option not selected).

A/T Speed Protection and Vref in Windy, Gusty and Turbulent

Conditions

When using the A/T during an approach in windy conditions, to

provide sufficient wind and gust protection, the command speed
should be set to Vref +5 knots. Variances above or below
command speed will cause the A/T to either increase speed (if
command speed falls) or conversely decrease speed. The Vref +5
knots will provide a safety buffer to protect against these
variances. During turbulence, the A/T will maintain a thrust that is
higher than necessary (an average) to maintain command speed
(Vref).

If the A/T is disengaged or the speed option not engaged, minimum

speed protection will be lost.

Refer to Crosswind Landings Part 2 for additional information on

Vref.
 Manual Override - Engaging the
Clutch Assembly

Occasionally, for any number of reasons, the flight crew may need
to override the A/T automation.

LEFT: A/T disengage button on throttle thrust lever. This is an

OEM throttle from a B737-300 series. The button is identical to
that used in the NG with the exception that the handles are white
and not grey. Depressing this button will disengage the A/T and
disconnect the A/T solenoid switch on the MCP.

The Boeing A/T is fitted with a clutch assembly that allows the
flight crew to either advance or retard the thrust levers whilst the
A/T is engaged. Moving the thrust levers during automation will
engage the clutch allowing the thrust to be controlled manually.

Whilst this style of flying is usually not recommended, the clutch is

there to allow the A/T to be manually overridden, such as in an
emergency or for immediate thrust control.

Most flight crews, will not use this override facility, preferring to
dial into the speed window of the MCP an altered speed.

Currently ProSim737 does not support manual A/T override.

Simulation Nuances
This discussion relates to the flight dynamics of a real aircraft.
Whether these traits present in a simulation depends on how well
the flight controls are calibrated, the finesse of the avionics
package used, and the accuracy of the aircraft flight model.

For example, depending on which avionics suite is used, the A/T

may not maintain the speed selected in the MCP. This is especially
prevalent during extended turns such as during a procedure turn in
windy conditions. To counter against incorrect airspeed you must
either, change the speed in the MCP speed window, disengage the
A/T and manually alter thrust, or press the speed annunciator on
the MCP. Pressing the speed annunciator will cause the throttle
automation to be turned off; however, the A/T remains in the arm
mode.

The last option is a good way to overcome this shortfall of not

having manual override. By disconnecting the speed option, the
thrust levers can be jiggled forward or aft to adjust the airspeed.
When the turn has been completed with manual input to maintain
the correct airspeed, the automation (A/T) can be engaged again
by depressing the speed annunciation button.

It is important if the A/T is not engaged, or is in the ARM only

mode, that the crew maintains vigilance on the airspeed of the
aircraft. There have been several incidents in the real world
whereby crews have failed to observe airspeed changes.

Manual Flying (no automation engaged)

The benefit of flying with the A/T and A/P not engaged is the ease
that the aircraft manoeuvres. The crew sets the appropriate %N1
that produces the correct amount of thrust to maintain whatever
airspeed is desired; gone are the thrust surges as the A/T attempts
to maintain airspeed.
Granted, it does take considerable time and patience to become
competent at flying manually in a variety of conditions, but the
overall enjoyment increases three-fold.

Company Policies

Airline company policies often dictate how a flight crew will fly an
aircraft, and while some policies are expedient, more often they
relate to cost savings for the company in question.

Policies vary concerning A/T use. For example, Ryanair has a policy
to disconnect the A/T and A/P simultaneously, as does Kenya
Airways. Air New Zealand and QANTAS have policies that
encourage a crew to disengage the A/T and A/P by a certain
altitude for non-precision approaches.

Confusion and Second Guessing - Vref with A/T Engaged or

Disengaged

There is considerable confusion and second guessing when it

comes to determining the Vref to select dependent on whether the
A/T is engaged or disconnected at landing. To simplify,

If the A/T is going to be disconnected before touchdown, the

command speed should be adjusted to take into account winds and
gusts (as discussed above and in Crosswind Landings Part 2). It is
vital that a flight crew monitor airspeed when the A/T is not
engaged as during the approach the speed can decay close to stall
speed.

If the A/T is to remain engaged during the landing (as in an

autoland precision approach), the command speed should be set to
Vref +5. This provides speed protection by keeping the engine
thrust at a level that is commensurate with the Vref command
speed.
Final Call

There is little argument that the use of the A/T is a major benefit to
reduce task loading; however, as with other automated systems,
the benefit can come at a cost, which has lead several airlines to
introduce company policies prohibiting the use of A/T without the
use of the A/P; pitch coupling, excessive vertical speed, and
incorrect thrust can lead to hard landings and possible nose wheel
collapse, unwanted ground effect, or a crash into terrain.

Ultimately, the decision to use or not use the A/T and A/P as a
coupled system is at the discretion of the pilot in command, and
depends upon the experience of the crew flying the aircraft, the
environmental conditions, and airline company policy. However, as
mentioned earlier, the recommendation made by Boeing preclude
A/T use without the A/P being engaged.

Disclaimer

The content in this post has been proof read for accuracy; however,
explaining procedures that are convolved and subjective can be
challenging. Errors on occasion present themselves. If you observe
an error, please contact me so it can be rectified.

Acronyms and Glossary

A/P Autopilot (CMD A CMD B)
A/T Autothrottle
AFDS Autopilot Flight Director System
Command Speed - In relation to the Autothrottle, Command Speed
is Vref +5 knots.
FCTM Flight Crew Training Manual (Boeing Corporation)
FMA Flight Mode Annunciator
Manual Flight Full manual flying. A/T and A/P not engaged
MCP Mode Control Panel
Minimal Speed Protection Function of the A/T when engaged. The
A/T has a reversion mode which will activate according to the
condition causing the reversion (placard limit). (For example, flaps,
gear, etc.)
Pitch Coupling The coupling of A/T thrust to the pitch of the
aircraft. A/T thrust increases/decreases as aircraft pitch and
attitude changes. Pitch coupling occurs when the A/P is not
engaged, but the A/T is enabled
Selected/Designated Speed The speed that is set in the speed
window of the MCP
Take Off/Go Around (TO/GA) Takeoff Go-around command mode.
This mode is engaged during takeoff roll by depressing one of two
buttons beneath the throttle levers
Vref Landing reference speed

Boeing 737-800 Takeoff Procedures (simplified)

AUGUST 4, 2014 AT 22:25

One aspect many virtual pilots find difficult to

grasp is the correct method of flying the aircraft, especially the takeoff and transition to climb
and cruise.
LEFT: Captain-side B737 trim tabs with backlighting turned on (OEM throttle quadrant).

The sheer volume of information available on the Internet often results in information overload
and it is understandable that many become bewildered to the correct way of completing a task.
The boundaries between fact and fiction quickly become blurred. Add to this that many articles
on the Internet have not been peer reviewed and you have a recipe set for disaster!

New Flyers

This post is to cater towards the new flyer rather than the advanced flyer. I will not discuss
before and after takeoff checklists, how to determine aircraft weights, use of the Control Display
Unit (CDU) or how to configure the overhead, but rather instruct on the basic procedures used to
takeoff, climb and transition to cruise.

Variability Allowed

The first aspect to take on board is that there is no absolute correct method for takeoff and
climb. Certainly, there are specific tasks that need to be completed; however, there is an
envelope of variability allowed. This variability may relate to how a particular flight crew flies the
aircraft, environmental considerations (ice, rain, wind, noise abatement, obstacles, etc.), flight
training, or a specific airline policy.

Whenever variability is injected into a subject you will find those who work in absolutes having
difficulty. If youre the kind of person who likes to know exactly what to do at a particular time,
then Id suggest you find a technique that fits with your liking and personality.

Table 1 is a ready reckoner that explains much of what occurs during the takeoff roll, climb out
and transition to altitude. Like anything there are some specific terms that you need to
remember and more importantly understand.

Peer Review

The information in the below chart has been peer reviewed by B737 Captain. He agreed with the
content; however, reiterated the variability allowed by flight crews when flying the B737.

TABLE 1: Condensed points that need to be addressed during a takeoff and climb. The
procedures are outlined in more detail below the table. The table does not reflect any particular
airline operation. The below table can be downloaded here Takeoff Procedure Table
Procedure
The following procedures assume other essential elements of pre-flight set-up have been
completed.

1. On the Mode Control Panel (MCP) dial into the altitude window an appropriate target altitude,
for example 13,000 feet.

2. In the MCP speed window dial in the V2 speed. The V2 speed is the speed that is followed
until acceleration height is reached and flap retraction begins. To V2 is added either 15 or 20
KIAS (V2+15 or V2+20). V speeds are defined by the CDU based on aircraft weight. A crew will
alter the + figure to lower/increase pitch during takeoff depending on the weight of the aircraft
and other environmental variables. It is often a company policy whether +15 or +20 is used.

3. Turn on the Flight Director (FD) switches (pilot flying side first).

4. Set flaps 5 and trim the aircraft using the electric trim on the yoke to the correct trim figure
for takeoff. This figure is shown on the CDU (for example, 5.5 degrees) and is calculated
dependent upon aircraft weight with passengers and fuel. It is usual for the trim figure to place
the trim tabs somewhere within the green band.

5. Arm the A/T toggle (the airline Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) may indicate different
timings for this procedure).

6. Release the parking brake and advance the throttle levers manually to around %40 N1
(some FCOMS differ to the %N1 recommended. For example %60 N1). Wait for thrust to stablize
(roughly 2-3 seconds).

7. Once the throttles are stabilized (look at the thrust arcs on the EICAS screen to ensure both
arcs are stable) depress one or both TOGA buttons. The thrust levers will now be automatically
advanced by the A/T to the correct %N1 output calculated by the Flight Management System.

Do not push the thrust levers forward of the target %N1 - let the A/T do it (otherwise you
will not know if there is a problem with the A/T). See point 10 RE: hand placement.

8. Maintain slight forward pressure on the control column to aid in tyre adhesion. Focus on the
runway approximately three-quarters in front of the aircraft. This will assist you to maintain
visual awareness and keep the aircraft centered on the centerline.

9. During initial takeoff roll, the pilot flying should place their hand on the throttle levers in
readiness for a rejected takeoff (RTO). The pilot not flying should place his hand behind the
throttle levers. Hand placement facilitates the least physical movement should an RTO be
required.

10. The pilot not flying will call out 80 Knots. Pilot flying should slowly release the pressure on
the control column so that it is in the neutral position. This will soon be followed by V1 indicated
on the speed tape of the Primary Flight Display (PFD). Takeoff is mandatory at V1 and Rejected
Takeoff (RTO) is now not possible. The flight crew, to reaffirm this decision, should remove their
hands from the throttles; thereby, reinforcing the must fly commitment in that the speed is
beyond the limits for a safe RTO.

11. At Vr (rotation), pilot not flying calls Rotate. Pilot flying slowly and purposely initiates a
smooth continuous rotation at a rate of no more than 2 to 3 degrees per second to an initial
target pitch attitude of 8-10 degrees. Rotation can begin ~5 KIAS before Vr speed is reached.

Normal lift-off attitude for the B737-800 is between 8 and 10 degrees providing 20 inches of tail
clearance at flaps 1 and 5. Tail contact will occur at 11 degrees of pitch if still on or near the
ground.

12. After lift-off, continue to raise the nose smoothly at a rate of no more than 2 to 3 degrees
per second toward 15 degrees of pitch attitude. The Flight Director (FD) cues will probably
indicate around 15 degrees.

Be aware that the cues provided by the flight director may on occasion be spurious; therefore,
learn to see through the cures to the actual aircraft horizon line.

13. You will also need to trim the aircraft to maintain minimum back pressure (neutral stick) on
the control column. The B737 is usually trimmed to enable flight with no pressure on the control
column. It is normal following rotation to trim down a tad to achieve neutral loading on the
control column.

14. When positive rate has been achieved, and double checked against the speed and vertical
speed tape in the PFD, the pilot flying will call Gear Up and pilot not flying will raise the gear to
minimize drag and allow air speed to increase.

15. The Flight Director will command a pitch to maintain an airspeed of V2 +15/20. Follow the
Flight Director (FD) cues, or target a specific vertical speed. The vertical speed will differ widely
when following the FD cues as it depends on weight, fuel, derates, etc. If not using the FD cues,
try to maintain a target vertical speed (V/S) of -2500 feet per minute.

If the FD cues appear to be incorrect, or the pitch appears to be too great, ignore the FD
and follow vertical speed guidance.

Bear in mind that vertical speed has a direct relationship to aircraft weight - if aircraft
weight is moderate use reduced takeoff thrust (derates) to achieve recommended vertical
speed.

V2+15/20 is the optimum climb speed with takeoff flaps. It results in maximum altitude gain in
the shortest distance from takeoff.

16. Fly the Flight Director (FD) pitch bars maintaining airspeed of V2 +15/20. Maintain an air
speed of Vr +15/20 until you reach a predefined altitude called the Acceleration Height (AH). AH
is defined by company policy and is usually 1000 feet or 1500 feet altitude.

17. At Acceleration Height, push the control column forward, increasing air speed and lowering
vertical speed. A rough estimate to target is half the takeoff vertical speed. Press N1 on the MCP
(if wanted) and follow FD cues to flaps UP speed.

When N1 is selected the autothrottle will control the speed of the aircraft to the N1 limit
set by the Flight Management System (FMS). Selecting N1 ensures the aircraft has
maximum power (thrust) in case of a single engine failure.
 This mode does not control aircraft speed. The autothrottle will set maximum N1 power.
Speed is controlled by aircraft pitch attitude.

Selecting N1 on the MCP does not provide any form of speed protection.

18. Dial into the MCP speed window the climb speed or constraint speed. Observe the PFD and
retract flaps on schedule following the flaps retraction bugs located on the speed tape.

Do not retract flaps unless the aircraft is accelerating and the airpeed is at, or greater than
V2+15/20 - this ensures the speed is within the manoeuvre margin to allow for over-bank
protection. Do not retract flaps below 1000 feet AGL.

Some airline FCOMs state that at Acceleration Height (usually 1000 feet RA) or at Thrust
Reduction Height (usually 1500 feet RA), the flaps should be retracted on schedule, and
automation engaged (VNAV. LVL CHG, etc) when the flaps are in the UP position.

A common prompt (memory jogger) is speed, N1, flaps (see point 17).

19. At flaps UP (marked UP on the PFD speed tape), either manually fly (pitch and roll control)
to altitude or engage automation (Level Change, VNAV, LNAV, V/S, CWS, CMD A/B engaged).
Remember that unless you select another mode, TOGA command mode will be engaged from
takeoff until you each the assigned altitude on the MCP. Selecting N1 does not change the TOGA
mode.

Some flight crews when reaching acceleration height (AH) call 'Level Change, Set Top
Bug'. This ensures that TOGA speed is cancelled and causes the Flight Director (FD) cues
to lower; thereby, increasing speed as Level Change increases thrust.

Other flight crews may engage Control Wheel Steering (CWS) following flaps UP and fly in
this mode to 10,000 feet before engaging the autopilot (CMD A/B). Whatever the method,
it is at the discretion of the pilot in command and the method is often stipulated by
company policy.

If using automation, VNAV can be engaged no lower than 400 feet RA (company policy
may indicate otherwise). Note that selecting VNAV does not provide flaps overspeed
protection.

Engaging VNAV will automatically blank out the MCP speed window and increase the speed
of the aircraft to that defined in the CDU (usually 250 KIAS). The speed can be observed in
the PFD. Follow the Flight Director (FD) cues.

20. The aircraft is usually flown at a speed no faster than 250 KIAS to 10,000 feet. At 10,000
feet, climb speed is automatically populated if automation (VNAV) was engaged at a lower
altitude. The same will occur for cruise speed.

If the aircraft is being flown by hand (manually), then the appropriate climb and cruise
speeds will need to be dialed into the MCP. At 10,000 feet, dial 270 KIAS into the MCP
speed window and then at 12,000 feet dial in 290 KIAS. Follow the Flight Director (FD)
cues or maintain roughly 2000-2500 fpm vertical speed. At cruise altitude, transition to
level flight and select on the MCP speed window 290-310 KIAS or whatever the optimum
speed is (see CDU).
 Guidelines Only (FCOMs Differ)

The above guidelines are general. Specific airline policy for a particular airline may indicate
otherwise. Likewise, there is considerable variation in how to actually fly the B737, and when
and what type of automation to engage.

LEFT: Qantas Airways departs Queenstown, New Zealand.

There are also, located within the CDU, several parameters which if altered before takeoff can
have a marked effect on aircraft performance.

Confusion

It is very easy to become confused during the takeoff phase - especially in relation to
automation, V speeds and how and when to change from TOGA to MCP speed. The takeoff phase
occurs quickly and there is a lot to do and quite a bit to remember - there is little time to consult
a manual or cheat sheet.

One way to gain a little extra time during the takeoff transition, is to select an
appropriate derate. Apart from being standard practice in the real-world for many takeoffs, a
derate will also help control over-pitching and high vertical speeds which are common when the
aircraft is light due to minimal fuel loads and cargo.

% N1

During the initial takeoff, thrust (%N1) is automatically selected when you engage the TOGA
buttons. N1 (%N1) is a measurement in percent of the maximum rpm, where maximum rpm is
certified at the rated power output for the engine (most simple explanation). Therefore, 100%N1
is maximum thrust while 0%N1 is no thrust.

At 80 knots the automated system will engage thrust to N1 at a percentage commensurate with
the settings set in the CDU (aircraft weights, climb etc.). N1 (TOGA command mode during
takeoff) always controls the speed of the aircraft with pitch. To determine what is controlling the
thrust of the aircraft, always refer to the Flight Mode Annunciations (FMA) in the PFD.

To enable a quick overview of annunciations during the takeoff refer to Table 2.

After acceleration height has been reached, the nose lowered to increase speed, and flaps
retracted; it is at the discretion of the pilot flying (or company policy) to what mode of
automation is selected. It is common place to either use Level Change (LVL CHG) or Vertical
Navigation (VNAV) and Lateral navigation (LNAV).
Theoretically, a crew can fly the F/D cues at V2+15/20 to the altitude set in the MCP; however,
there will be no speed protection available. If the pitch recommendation (Flight Director cues)
are not followed, then airspeed may be either above or below the optimal setting.

Unless an alternative mode is selected, the aircraft will remain in TOGA command mode and be
controlled by N1 until the altitude set in the MCP is reached. Other modes which will exit the
TOGA mode are LVL CHG, VNAV and Vertical Speed (V/S), or you can engage Altitude Hold (ALT
HOLD). Engaging the A/P will also disengage TOGA command mode.

It is important to understand what controls which command mode. For example, LVL CHG is
controlled by N1 and pitch and in this mode the A/T will use full thrust while the speed will be
controlled by pitch.

TABLE 2: PFD and FMA annunciations observed during takeoff and climb.

Speed Protection

Various modes provide speed protection with or without flaps extended.

When you select LVL CHG the speed window will open allowing you enter a desired speed. LVL
CHG is speed protected meaning that the speed should not precede past your MCP entered
speed. The mode, which is controlled by N1, will adjust the pitch of the aircraft to match the
desired speed.

VNAV also has speed protection but not with flaps extended. The speed in VNAV is defined by
the value (speed) set in the CDU. In contrast, Vertical Speed (V/S) provides no speed protection
as it holds a set vertical speed. In V/S, if you are not vigilant, you can easily encounter an over
speed or under speed situation. Selecting N1 only on the MCP without any other mode engaged
does not provide speed protection and only ensures maximum thrust (as set in the FMS).

It is imperative that you carefully scrutinise the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) to ensure you are
flying in the correct mode.
 Think Ahead

The takeoff can be very fast, especially if you have an aircraft which is light in weight (cargo,
passengers and fuel).

LEFT: B737 CDU showing Takeoff page. A takeoff can occur without the completion of data;
however, some automation features such as VNAV and LNAV will not be available, and V1, V2
and Vr will not be propagated on the speed tape (click to enlarge).

Soon after rotation (Vr), the aircraft will be at acceleration height and beyond Its important to
remain on top of what is happening and try to think one step ahead of the automated system
that is flying the aircraft.

Flight crews typically fly manually at least until all the flaps are retracted and the aircraft is in
clean configuration. A command mode is then selected to continue the climb.

If the aircraft is light, flight crews often limit the takeoff thrust by one of several means.
Typically, it is by using a thrust derate and selecting either CLB 1 or CLB 2, or entering an
assumed temperature thrust reduction - both done in the CDU. Selecting either option will cause
a longer takeoff roll, delay the rotation point (Vr) and cause a less aggressive high pitch climb
than observed if these variables were not altered.

Final Call

Reiterating, the above guidelines are generalist only. Flight crews use varying methods to fly the
airliner and often the method used, will be chosen based on company policy, crew experience,
aircraft weight and other environmental factors, such as runway length, weather and winds.

Additional information concerning takeoff - mainly in relation to acceleration height, thrust

reduction height and derated thrust can read on this page.

The two tables in this post can be downloaded in PDF format:

Takeoff Proceedure Table

PFD and FMA Annunciations

Disclaimer

The content in this post has been proof read for accuracy; however, explaining procedures that
are convolved and subjective can be challenging. Errors on occasion present themselves. if you
observe an error (not a particular airline policy), please contact me so it can rectified.
Acronyms and Glossary

AFDS Autopilot Flight Director System

AH - Acceleration Height. The altitude above sea level that aircrafts nose is lowered to gain
speed for flap retraction. AH is usually 1000 or 1500 feet and is defined by company policy. In
the US acceleration height is usually 800 feet RA.
CDU / FMC Control Display Unit / Flight Management Computer (term used interchangeably on
this website). The visual part of the Flight Management System (FMS)
CLB 1/2 Climb power
Command Mode The mode of automation that controls thrust
EICAS Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System
F/D Flight Director (Flight Director cues/crosshairs)
FMA Flight Mode Annunciation located upper portion of Primary Flight Display (PFD)
KIAS Knots Indicated Air Speed
LNAV Lateral Navigation
LVL CHG Level Change Command Mode
MCP Mode Control Panel
RTO Rejected Take Off
T/O Power Takeoff power
Throttle On & Off-Line Indicates whether the throttle is being controlled by the A/T system.
TOGA To Go Around Command Mode
TRA - Thrust Reduction Altitude. The altitude that the engines reduce in power to increase
engine longevity. The height is usually 1500 feet; however, the altitude can be altered in CDU
V/S Vertical Speed Command Mode
V1 is the Go/No go speed. You must fly after reaching V1 as a rejected take off (RTO) will not
stop the aircraft before the runway ends
V2 Takeoff safety speed. The speed at which the aircraft can safely takeoff with one engine
inoperative (Engine Out safe climb speed)
VNAV Vertical Navigation
Vr Rotation Speed. This is the speed at which the pilot should begin pulling back on the control
column to achieve a nose up pitch rate
Vr+15/20 Rotation speed plus additional knots (defined by company policy)

Crosswind Landing Techniques Part Two - Calculations

JULY 1, 2014 AT 17:37

Determining Correct Landing Speed (Vref)

Vref is defined as landing speed or the threshold crossing speed, while Vapp is defined as the
approach speed with wind/gust additives.

LEFT: Final Approach: Finals using 'crab approach' (Airbus A320)

When landing with a headwind, crosswind, or tailwind the Vref and Vapp must be adjusted
accordingly to obtain the optimal speed at the time of touchdown. Failure to do this may result
in the aircraft landing at an non-optimal speed causing runway overshoot, stall, or floating
(ground affect).

Mathematical calculations can be used to determine Vref and Vapp based on wind speed,
direction, and gusts.

Normal Conditions:

When using the autothrottle, position command speed to VREF + 5 knots.

If the autothrottle is disengaged or is planned to be disengaged prior to landing, the

recommended method of approach speed correction to obtain Vapp, is to add one half of the
reported steady headwind component plus the full gust increment above the steady wind to the
reference speed.

One half of the reported steady headwind component can be estimated by using 50% for a direct
headwind, 35% for a 45-degree crosswind, zero for a direct crosswind, or interpolation between.

When making adjustments for wind additives, the maximum command speed should not exceed
VREF + 20 knots or landing flap placard speed minus 5 knots, whichever is lower.

The minimum command speed setting with autothrottle disconnected is VREF + 5 knots. The
gust correction should be maintained to touchdown while the steady headwind correction should
be bled off as the airplane approaches touchdown.

It is important to note that Vref + 5 knots is the speed that is desired when crossing the
threshold of the runway - it is NOT the approach speed. The approach speed (Vapp) is
determined by headwind with/without gusts. If the wind is calm, Vref + 5 knots will equal Vapp.

When landing in a tailwind, do not apply wind corrections. Set command speed at VREF + 5 knots
(autothrottle engaged or not engaged).

Non-Normal Conditions:

When VREF has been adjusted by the non-normal procedure, the new VREF is called the adjusted
VREF and is used for the landing. To this speed is added the wind component (if necessary).

For example, if a non-normal checklist specifies 'Use flaps 15 and VREF 15 + 10 for landing', the
flight crew would select flaps 15 and look up the VREF 15 speed (in FMC or QRH) and add 10
knots to that speed. The adjusted VREF does not include wind corrections.

If the autothrottle is disengaged, or is planned to be disengaged prior to landing, appropriate

wind corrections must be added to the adjusted VREF to arrive at command speed. Command
speed is the safest speed used to fly the approach (Vapp).

For example, if the checklist states 'use VREF 40 + 30 knots', command speed should be
positioned to adjusted VREF (VREF 40 + 30) + Wind Correction (5 knots minimum, 20 knots
maximum).

An interesting publication (powerpoint presentation) concerning the use of the autothrottle

during Vref can be read here. Search for Auto Throttle Useage - Training Alert.
Guideline (an easy way to remember the above - cheat sheet)

This information assumes the autothrottle will be disengaged prior to landing.

Headwind less than 10 knots: Vref +5

Headwind greater than 10 knots: Vref + headwind / 2 (half your headwind) - This is your
Vref

If Vref is > 20 knots, then: Vref +20 (as per placard guide)

With Gusts

Formula (Wind < 10 knots): Vref + 5 + gust headwind

Formula (Wind > 10 knots): Vref + headwind/2 (half your headwind) + gust headwind

Calculating Directional Wind

A wind component will not always be at 90 Degrees or straight on to your landing direction. The
following calculation is often used to determine the directional component. One half of the
reported steady headwind component can be estimated by using 50% for a direct headwind,
35% for 45 degree crosswind, zero for a direct crosswind and interpolation in between.

Using the CDU

The CDU if configured correctly can provideainformation concerning wind components. Press the
key on the CDU named 'PROG' followed by'PREV PAGE'. This page provides an overview of the
wind component including head, tail and crosswind.

Tail Winds

Tail winds are very challenging for conducting a stabilized approach. Because of the increased
ground speed caused by a tail wind, Boeing does not publish Vref correction factors for tail
winds.

Typically, to maintain the proper approach speed and rate of descent while maintaining
glideslope, thrust must be decreased which minimizes the available safety envelope should a go-
around be required. If a go-around is required, precious seconds might be lost as the engines
accelerate; the aircraft would continue to descend and might touch down on the runway before
the engines produce enough thrust to enable a climb.

The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) recommends that the tail wind component
must not exceed 5 knots plus gusts on a designated runway; however, adherence to this
recommendation varies among members. Several airlines have been certified for operation with
a 15 knot tailwind.

In the United States, Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) sets the tail wind component limit for
runways that are clear and dry at 5 knots, and in some circumstances 7 knots, however FAA
allows no tail wind component when runways are not clear and dry.

Variance
Crosswind components can be variable dependent upon flight crew discretion and airline policy;
therefore, the above is to be used as a 'guide' only.

Entries in Flight Training (29)

Control Wheel Steering (CWS) Explained

NOVEMBER 6, 2015 AT 9:30

CWS is the acumen for Control Wheel Steering.

Broadly speaking, it is a sub-set of the autopilot (A/P) system which can used on either System A
or B. When engaged, CWS maneuvers the aircraft in response to control pressures applied to the
control wheel or column.

LEFT: B737 Mode Control Panel (MCP) showing location of CWS buttons on Collins unit . The
CMD and CWS buttons are located on the First Officer side of the MCP. Each of the four press to
engage buttons has a green annunciator which illuminates when the mode is engaged.

The control pressure is similar to that required for manual flight. When control pressure is
released, the autopilot holds the existing attitude until CWS is disengaged, or the autopilot is
engaged.

The Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) states:

Control Wheel Steering (CWS) may be used to reduce pilot workload. Follow the manually flown
procedure but instead of disengaging the autopilot, engage CWS.

CWS is a similar system to the Fly By Wire system utilized by Airbus.

CWS Benefits

The obvious advantage in using CWS is that you do not have to continually apply positive
pressure on the yoke and control column to maintain a set pitch or roll. The control pressures on
the flight controls are in the order of 37 pounds push/pull value +- 3 pounds and continually
applying this pressure for a protracted period of time can be tiring.

Additionally, CWS enables you to fly the aircraft using the flight controls, rather than turning the
heading knob on the Mode Control Panel (MCP) or configuring other automated processes such
as Level Change, Vertical Speed, VNAV, etc. Being able to feel the control surfaces through the
yoke and column has obvious benefits that flying using the MCP cannot convey.
CWS is also advantageous when flying in turbulent conditions (additional information below) as it
results in smoother transitions than when the autopilot is used. CWS also allows for greater
control of the aircraft when performing touch and goes and circuits at lower altitudes.

Practical Example

CWS is often used during the climb to altitude, with the A/P being engaged at 10,000 feet.

LEFT: PFD with CWS engaged during climb following flaps retraction. FMA displays CWS R &
CWS P, vertical speed is 2650 and pitch mode is V/S after changing from TOGA thrust following
climb out. Pitch and roll follows the FD bars and speed is 240 with altitude set to flight level
20900. If CWS remains engaged, the aircraft will continue at this attitude. Of importance is that
the airspeed is NOT protected in certain modes. In other words, if the attitude is altered, the
airs[peed may increase or decrease accordingly without autothrottle intervention.

Following rotation, the Flight Director (FD) bars will be followed maintaining V2+15/20 until
Acceleration Height (AH) is reached. At AH, the MCP speed will be increased to climb speed, or
to a constraint if required by Air Traffic Control. As airspeed increases the flaps will be retracted.
When the flaps are retracted, the control column will be placed in a position that correlates to the
Flight Director bars and CWS A or B will be engaged the attitude of the aircraft will now be
fixed.

The aircraft, in TOGA thrust, will maintain the established pitch as it ascends to the altitude set
on the MCP. TOGA thrust is speed protected; therefore, as long as the FD bars are followed there
will not be a speed incursion. If a roll mode is selected, the navigational data provided by this
mode is also supplied to the Flight Director. Once the desired altitude has been reached, LNAV /
VNAV is engaged.

Whether a flight crew used CWS is personal preference and some flight crews use it regularly
while others have never used it.

Turbulence (autopilot or CWS)

The Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) states:

That during times of turbulence the A/P system (CMD A/B) should be disengaged.

The reason that CWS is beneficial when flying in turbulence is that the A/P (unless it was
engaged in CWS) is attempting to maintain an attitude (pitch) that is based upon a predefined
barometric pocket of air that is at your altitude or flight level. In severe turbulence, this pocket
of air may not be stable which will result in the autopilot seeking to change altitude or, at its
worse disconnecting.

In turbulence, this is exactly what you want to try and avoid and is the reason engaging CWS is
important. If CWS is engaged, it will maintain an attitude rather than the A/P attempting to
match the attitude to the possible changing barometric pressure.

Flight Crew Training Manuals differ in their content as each manual has been written with a
particular airline in mind. Many virtual flyers duplicate the procedures followed by Ryanair.
Documentation for Ryanair is relatively easy to find and the policy of this airline is reasonably
conservative. As such, I have transcribed from the Ryanair FCTM the segment on the use of CWS
during turbulence.

The Ryanair FCTM states:

Flight through severe turbulence should be avoided, if possible. When flying at 30,000 feet or
higher, it is not advisable to avoid a turbulent area by climbing over it unless it is obvious that it
can be overflown well in the clear. For turbulence of the same intensity, greater buffet margins
are achieved by flying the recommended speeds at reduced altitudes. Selection of the autopilot
Control Wheel Steering (CWS) is recommended for operation in severe turbulence.

The recommended Ryanair procedures for flight in severe turbulence are:

Do not use Altitude Hold (ALT HLD) mode.

Airspeed - Target airspeed should be approximately 280 KIAS or 0.76 MACH, whichever is
lower.

Severe turbulence will cause large and often rapid variations in indicated airspeed. Do not
chase the airspeed.

Yaw Damper Engaged.

Autopilot - Optional - If the autopilot is engaged, use CWS position, do not use ALT HLD mode.

Autothrottle Disengage.

Attitude - Maintain wings level and the desired pitch attitude. Use the attitude indicator as
the primary instrument. In extreme drafts, large attitude changes may occur. Do not use sudden
large control inputs. After establishing the trim setting for penetration speed, do not change the
stabilizer trim.

Technical Data (general)

The Mode Control Panel (MCP) has two CWS buttons located on the First Officer side of the MCP
beside the CMD A and CMD B buttons. Like the autopilot, CWS has a redundancy system (system
A or system B). By default CWS A and CWS B buttons are off and must be depressed to engage
either system.
When engaged the annunciator will illuminate green and the Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) on
the Primary Flight Display (PFD) will annunciate CWS P and CWS R.

CWS can only be engaged when there is no pressure on the flight controls. Therefore; the
method to engage the system is to depress one of the two CWS buttons and then position the
flight controls where you want them. The system will then maintain the pitch/roll attitude until
either the flight controls are moved, the autopilot is engaged (CMD A or CMD B), or CWS is
disengaged by depressing the CWS button.

CWS cannot be engaged when any of the following conditions are met:

Below 400 feet.

Below 150 feet RA with the landing gear in the down position.
After VOR capture with TAS 250 kt or less.
After LOC capture in the APP mode.

The Flight Crew Training Manual states:

After autopilot engagement, the airplane may be manoeuvred using the control wheel steering
(CWS) pitch mode, roll mode, or both using the control wheel and column. Manual inputs by the
pilot using CWS are the same as those required for manual flight. Climbs and descents may be
made using CWS pitch while the roll mode is in HDG SEL, LNAV or VOR/LOC. Autopilot system
feel control is designed to simulate control input resistance similar to manual flight.'

Methods of Operation

There are three main methods of operation; however, the detail can blend and easily become
confusing. The following information has been edited from documentation acquired from Smart
Cockpit Airline Training.

1: CWS A/B Engaged or CWS A/B Annunciator Illuminated.

Depressing the CWS A/B button on the MCP engages the A/P pitch and roll axes in the CWS
mode and displays CWS P and CWS R on the FMA on both the Captain and First officer Primary
Flight Displays (PFD).

With CWS engaged, the A/P maneuvers the aircraft in response to control pressures applied
to the control wheel or column. The control pressure is similar to that required for manual flight.
When control pressure is released, the A/P holds existing attitude.
Smartcockpit.com BOEING 737 SYSTEMS REVIEW Page 4
If column pressure is released with bank angle 6 degrees or less, the A/P rolls the wings level
and holds existing heading. This feature is inhibited when any of the following conditions are
met:

1. Below 150 ft RA with the landing gear down.

2. After F/D VOR capture with TAS 250 kt or less.
3. After F/D LOC capture in the APP mode.

2: CWS Pitch on FMA in CMD A/B or CMD A/B Annunciator Illuminated.

The pitch axis engages in CWS while the roll axis is in CMD when:
 A/P pitch has been manually overridden with control column force. The force required for
override is greater than normal CWS control column force. This manual pitch override is inhibited
in the APP mode with both A/Ps engaged.

A command pitch mode has not been selected or was deselected.

Command pitch modes can then be selected and CWS P is annunciated on the Flight Mode
Annunciators while this mode is engaged.

When approaching a selected altitude in CWS P with the A/P in CMD, CWS P changes to ALT
ACQ and, when at the selected altitude, ALT HOLD engages.

If pitch is manually overridden while in ALT HOLD at the selected altitude, ALT HOLD changes
to CWS R If control force is released within 250 ft of the selected altitude, CWS P changes to ALT
ACQ and the A/P returns to the selected altitude and ALT HOLD engages. If the elevator force is
held until more than 250 ft from the selected altitude, pitch remains in CWS PITCH.

3: CWS Roll on FMA in CMD A/B or CMD A/B Annunciator Illuminated.

The roll axis engages in CWS while the pitch axis is in CMD when:

A/P pitch has been manually overridden with control column force. The force required for
override is greater than normal CWS control column force.
A command roll mode has not been selected or was deselected.

Command roll modes can then be selected and CWS R is annunciated on the Flight Mode
Annunciators while this mode is engaged.

CWS R with an A/P engaged in CMD can be used to capture a selected radio course while the
VOR/LOC or APP mode is armed. Upon intercepting the radial or localizer, the F/D and A/P
annunciation changes from CWS R to VOR/LOC engaged and the A/P tracks the selected course.

Final Call

The use of CWS is very much underused and underappreciated. Although surface control loading
in a simulator rarely matches that of a real aircraft, the use of CWS in a simulator environment
can still have positive benefits equating to better aircraft handling, especially when flying circuits
and flying in turbulence.

FLAPS 2 APPROACH | Comments Off | 1 Reference | Share Article

tagged B737 Flight Simulator, B737-800 Flight Simulator, CWS, Control Wheel Steering in Flight
Training

10 Mile ARC to VOR 30 Approach - Hobart, Tasmania Australia (YMHB)

AUGUST 27, 2015 AT 21:31

 Recently, I flew from Brisbane to Hobart and the pilot flying
made a different style of approach to what normally is made at this airport. After landing, I
approached the pilots and queried the approach. The Captain stated that he had decided to fly a
semi-automated VOR approach along an arc to land at runway 30.

The reason being, that Air Traffic Control (ATC) had warned them of turbulent conditions near the
airport. He commented that in such conditions, he felt more confident using the older style arc
approach using LNAV/VNAV with Speed Intervention (SPD INTV) engaged, with a transition to
Vertical Speed and VOR once on final.

LEFT: Approach chart depicting VOR 30 Approach to YMHB. Important points to note are: initial
approach courses to intercept the arc (295 & 334), the D10 HB arc, the altitude increments of
4000, 3000 and at 7 miles, 2400, and the Initial Approach Fix (IAF) and speed of 210 kias (click to
enlarge).

The First Officer stated that this was the first time he had seen an arc being used to set-up for a
VOR approach. He said that usually they use ILS into RWY 12 or RNAV into RWY 30. He
commented that the only time he had made a VOR approach was during simulator training, and
then he would probably only use such an approach, if the ILS was inoperative or there was an
issue with RNAV.

The use of this approach is a prime example of the variation offered to pilots in relation to how
they fly and land the Boeing 737.

Screen Images

Several screen captures from the Instructor Station, CDU and Navigation Display (ND) which I
hope will make it easier to understand this post. The avionics suite used is ProSim737
distributed by ProSim-AR. Note that some of the mages are not sequential as I captured the
images over two simulator sessions.

How To Set-Up An Arc

To set-up an approach using an arc is very easy.

The following example is for Hobart, Tasmania Australia (YMHB). The instructions assume that
you are conversant with operating the CDU and have a basic understanding of its use.

Essentially, an arc is using a Place/Bearing/Waypoint to define an arc around a point at a set

distance. The distance between each of the generated waypoints along the arc, is at the
discretion of the flight crew.

Approach Charts

To determine the correct distance to create the arc, the approach chart for the airport should be
consulted. The chart, in addition to providing this information, will also aid you in decided where
to place the final waypoint (if wanted) along the approach course.

In this example, the YMHB VOR 30 approach states that the aircraft must fly an arc 10 miles from
the airport between an altitude of 4000 and 3000 feet before descending to be at 2400 feet 7
miles from the runway threshold.

The approach chart depicted is provided by Lufthansa Systems (LIDO/FMS) distributed

by Navigraph.

Navigraph Charts Review.

CDU Instructions

(i) Open the FIX page and type in the scratchpad the airport code (YMHB). After uploading,
type the distance (/10 miles). This will create a green-dotted citcle around YMHB with a radius of
10 miles.

(ii) Open the LEGS page and type into the scratchpad the airport code (YMHB). Immediately
following YMHB, type the required radial 1 (in degrees) from the airport that you wish the initial
waypoint to be generated. Follow this with a slash and type in the distance from the airport
(YMHB340/10).

This will generate a waypoint 10 miles from YMHB on the 340 radial. This is the waypoint from
which you will begin to build your arc.

Obviously, the radial you use to define the location of your first waypoint will depend upon the
bearing that you are flying toward the airport.

(iii) To Generate the ARC you must repeat the above process (ii) changing the radial by 10
degrees (or whatever you believe is needed) to generate the required waypoints around the arc
at 10 miles from the airport. As an example: YMHB320/10, YMHB340/10, YMHB000/10 and so
forth until the arc is built.

As you upload each of the radials you will note that the name for the waypoint is changed to a
sequential number specific to each waypoint. As an example; the above waypoints will each be
named YMH01, YMH02 and YMH03.

If you make a mistake, you can delete a waypoint and start again; however, realize that the
sequential numbers will not be in order. This is not an issue (it is only a number) but it is
something be aware of.
In our example, the VOR approach is for runway 30. Therefore; your final waypoint on the arc
will be YMHB121/10. Prior to reaching this waypoint, if flying manually, begin the right hand turn
to intercept the approach on the 121 radial (bearing 300 degrees).

A Note About /-+

The more observant will note that the distances in the example above do not utilise the /+ key
before the distance (YMHB340/+10). When entering the distance it can be with or without the +
key.

Variation

Before going further, there are many ways to fly the B737. The method selected is at the
discretion of the pilot in command and is dependent upon airline preferences, environmental
conditions, and pilot experience. This statement was stressed to me when I spoke with the
Captain of the aircraft.

Often an approach will incorporate a number of automated systems including VNAV, LNAV,
Vertical Speed, Level Change, VOR Localizer and old fashioned manual VFR flying. In most cases
the particular approach will be programmed into the CDU, at the very least for situational
awareness. However, the CDU does not have to be used and often a step down approach is a
good way to maintain flying skills and airmanship.

Handy Hints

The following hints will assist with situational awareness and in allowing the aircraft to be guided
by the autopilot to a point to which manual flight can commence.

If you carefully study the approach chart for YMHB VOR 30, you will note that the altitude the
aircraft should be at when at 7 miles from the threshold should be 2000 feet. The chart also
depicts the letter D at this point meaning that a continuous descent can be made this point.

Hint One - visual descent point (VDP)

To make the transition from the arc to the approach easier, create a waypoint at the 7 mile point
from the airport along the radial used for the approach (YMHB121/7). Using a waypoint allows
the aircrafts Lateral Navigation (LNAV) to be used. This type of waypoint is usually refered to as
a Visual Descent Point (VDP).

When the waypoint at 7 miles from the threshold is reached, a transition to manual flying can
commence, or Vertical Speed can be used to maintain a 3 degree glidepath (GP) while following
the VOR. Remember to change the EFIS from MAP to VOR so you can use the VOR indicator
during the approach.

Hint Two - extend runway line

Assuming you have not inserted an approach into the CDU, an aid to increase situational
awareness is to select the correct runway from the CDU and enter a distance that the
runway line is to be extended from the threshold.

To do this, select runway 30 from the ARRIVALS (ARR) page in the CDU (RWY30) and type the
numeral 7 (or whatever distance you require) into the scratchpad and upload. This will extend
the green line from the runway threshold to the previously generated waypoint at 7 miles.
Ensure you clean up any discontinuity (if observed) in the LEGS page.

This enables three things:

1. The generation of a 3 degree glidepath (GP) from the distance entered (example is 7
miles) to the runway threshold.

2. It enables LNAV (even if the autopilot is not engaged) to continue to provide the Flight
Director (FD) with heading information during the approach, and

3. It enables the Navigation Performance Scales (NPL) on the Pilots Flight Display (PFD) to
provide glidepath (GP) guidance (assuming that the correct runway or approach is
selected in the CDU and NPL is enabled within the ProSim737 avionics suite).

UPPER LEFT: Screen capture from the instructor

station PFD and ND for the approach into YMHB. The aircraft, after turning right from the 10 mile
arc, is aligned with the 121 radial approaching the waypoint YMH07 (the WP entered at the 7
mile point). LNAV is engaged and the aircraft is being controlled by the autopilot. As RWY 30
was inserted into the route, the Navigation Performance Scales (NPS) show Glidepath (GP) data
in the Primary Flight Display (PFD). Note that the EFIS is still on MAP and is yet to be turned to
VOR. In real life, VOR would have been selected earlier (click to enlarge).

LOWER LEFT: The transition from LNAV to VOR has occurred and the autopilot and autothrottle
are not controlling the aircraft. The aircraft is on short final with gear down, flaps 30 and the
airspeed is slowly decaying to VREF+5. The EFIS has been changed from MAP to VOR to allow
manual tracking using the VOR needle. The NPS show good vertical alignment with a lateral left
offset; the VOR indicator confirms this. The Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) displays LNAV
(although the autopilot is disengaged) and the Flight Director (FD) and NPS show glidepath (GP)
data. The Flight Path Vector (FPV) symbol shows a continuous descent at roughly 3 degrees. The
altitude window and heading on the MCP has been set to the appropriate missed approach
(4200/300). Click image to enlarge.
Do Not Alter Constraints

As alluded earlier, there are many ways to accomplish the same task. However, DO NOT alter
any constraints indicated in the CDU if an approach is selected and executed. CDU generated
approaches have been standardised for a reason.

Finding the Correct Radial/Bearing to Build Your Arc

Finding the correct bearing to use on the arc can be challenging for those less mathematically
inclined. An easy method is to use one of the two MCP course selector knobs.

Rotate the knob until the green dotted line on he Navigation Display (ND) lies over the area of
the arc that you wish the waypoint to be created. Consult the MCP course selector window - this
is the figure you place in the CDU. Next, rotate the knob a set number of degrees and repeat the
process. You can also consult the data displayed along the course indicator line on the
Navigation Display (ND).

When you build the arc, ensure you have set the EFIS to PLN (plan). PLN provides more real
estate to visualize the approach on the Navigation Display (ND). You can use STEP in the LEGS
page to cycle through the waypoints to ensure you have an appropriate view of the surrounding
area.

Important Points

Always double check the Place/Bearing/Waypoint entries in the CDU and in the ND (PLN)
before executing. It is amazing how easy discrepancies can occur.

Always check the approach plate for the approach type you are intending to make. Once
again, mistakes are easy to make.

If using VNAV, double check all speed and altitude constraints to ensure compliance with
the approach chart and situation (some airlines promote the use of the speed intervention
button (SPD INTV) to ensure that appropiate speeds are maintained).

If need be, select the approach (ARR) in the CDU to provide added situational awareness.

Final Call

I rarely use automated systems during landing, unless environmental conditions otherwise
dictate. I prefer to hand fly the aircraft where possible during the approach phase, and often
disengage the autopilot at 5000 feet. If flying a STAR and when VNAV/LNAV is used, I always
disengage the autopilot no later than 1500 feet. This enables a safe envelope in which to
transition from automated flight to manual flight.

Using an arc to fly a VOR approach is enjoyable, with the added advantage that it provides a
good refresher for using the Place/Bearing/Waypoint functionality of the CDU.

Other posts that deal with similar subjects are:

Creating Waypoints on the Fly.

Direct to Routing, ABEAM PTS and INTC CRS Review and Procedures.

Glossary
CDU Control Display Unit (aka Flight Management Computer (FMC).
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System.
LNAV Lateral navigation.
RADIAL/BEARING A radial radiates FROM a point such as a VOR, whilst a bearing is the
bearing in degrees TO a point. The bearing is the direction that the nose of the aircraft is
pointing.
VNAV Vertical Navigation.

Images

The following are screen captures from the instructor station CDU and Navigation Display (ND).
Ignore altitude and speed constraints as these were not set-up for the example.

LEFT: Circular FIX ring has been generated

around YMHB at 10 mile point. The arc waypoints will be constructed along this line (click to
enlarge).

LEFT: Various waypoints have been generated

along the 10 mile fix line creating an arc. The arc ends at the intersection with the 212 radial for
the VOR 30 approach into YMHB. The route is in plan (PLN) view and is yet to be executed (click
to enlarge).

LEFT: The constructed arc as seen in MAP view. From this view it is easy to establish that the
aircraft is approaching TTR and once reaching the 10 mile limit defined by the 10 mile FIX
(green-coloured dotted circle), the aircraft will turn to the left to follow the arc waypoints until it
intersects with the 121 radial (click to enlarge).

LEFT: This image depicts the waypoint generated at 7 mile from the threshold (YMHB121/7).
This waypoint marks the point at which the aircraft should be on the 121 radial to VOR 30 and at
2400 feet altitude (according to the VOR 30 approach plate (click to enlarge).
 LEFT: In the example, RWY 30 has been selected
from the arrivals (ARR) page. In addition to situational awareness, the selection of the runway in
the CDU provides glidepath (GP) assistance.

The result of this is that the runway line is extended from the threshold to 7 miles out; the same
distance out from the threshold that the final waypoint was generated.

The course line is coloured pink indicating that LNAV is enabled and the aircraft is following the
programmed route.

At the final waypoint (YM10) the autopilot (if used) will be disengaged and the aircraft will be
flown manually to the runways using the VOR approach instrumentation and visual flight rules
(VFR). The EFIS will be changed from MAP to VOR. LNAV will remain engaged on the MCP to
ensure that the NPL indications are shown on the PFD. The NDL indicators provide glidepath (GP)
guidance that is otherwise lacking on a VOR approach (click to enlarge).

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ARC Approach in Flight Training

Autobrake System - Review and Procedures

FEBRUARY 17, 2015 AT 12:00

 The autobrake, the components which are located
on center panel of the Main Instrument Panel (MIP), is designed as a deceleration aid to slow an
aircraft on landing. The system uses pressure, generated from the hydraulic system B, to
provide deceleration for preselected deceleration rates and for rejected takeoff (RTO). An earlier
post discussed Rejected Takeoff procedures. This post will discuss the autobrake system.

LEFT: Ryanair B737-800 - autobrake set, flaps 30, spoilers deployed, reverse thrust engaged
(photograph copyright Pierre Casters).

General

The autobrake selector knob (rotary switch) has four settings: RTO (rejected takeoff), 1, 2, 3 and
MAX (maximum). Settings 1, 2 and 3 and RTO can be armed by turning the selector; but, MAX
can only be set by simultaneously pulling the selector knob outwards and turning to the right;
this is a safety feature to eliminate the chance that the selector is set to MAX accidently.

When the selector knob is turned, the system will do an automatic self-test. If the test is not
successful and a problem is encountered, the auto brake disarm light will illuminate amber.

The autobrake can be disengaged by turning it to OFF, by activating the toe brakes, or by
advancing the throttles; which deactivation method used depends upon the circumstances and
pilot discretion. Furthermore, the deceleration level can be changed prior to, or after touchdown
by moving the autobrake selector knob to any setting other than OFF. During the landing, the
pressure applied to the brakes will alter depending upon other controls employed to assist in
deceleration, such as thrust reversers and spoilers.

The numerals 1, 2, 3 and MAX provide an indication to the severity of braking that will be applied
when the aircraft lands (assuming the autobrake is set).

In general, setting 1 and 2 are the norm with 3 being used for wet runways or very short
runways. MAX is very rarely used and when activated the braking potential is similar to that of a
rejected take off; passenger comfort is jeopardized and it is common for passenger items sitting
on the cabin floor to move forward during a MAX braking operation. If a runway is very long and
environmental conditions good, then a pilot may decide to not use autobrakes favouring manual
braking.

Often, but not always, the airline will have a policy to what level of braking can or cannot be
used; this is to either minimize aircraft wear and tear and/or to facilitate passenger comfort.

The pressure in PSI applied to the autobrake and the applicable deceleration is as follows:
 Autobrake setting 1 - 1250 PSI / 4 ft per second.
Autobrake setting 2 - 1500 PSI / 5 ft per second.
Autobrake setting 3 - 2000 PSI / 7.2 ft per second.
Autobrake setting MAX and RTO - 3000 PSI / 14 ft per second (above 80 knots) and 12 ft per
second (below 80 knots).

Conditions

To autobrake will engage upon landing, when the following conditions are met:

(i) The appropriate setting on the auto brake selector knob (1, 2, 3 or MAX) is set;
(ii) The throttle thrust levers are in the idle position immediately prior to touchdown; and,
(iii) The main wheels spin-up.

If the autobrake has not been selected before landing, it can still be engaged after touchdown,
providing the aircraft has not decelerated below 60 knots.

To disengage the autobrake system, any one of the following conditions must be met:

(i) The autobrake selector knob is turned to OFF (autobrake disarm annunciator will not
illuminate);
(ii) The speed brake lever is moved to the down detent position;
(iii) The thrust levers are advanced from idle to forward thrust (except during the first 3 seconds
of landing); or,
(iv) Either pilot applies manual braking.

The last three points (ii iii and iv) will cause the autobrake disarm annunciator to illuminate for 2
seconds before extinguishing.

Important Facet

It is important to grasp that the 737 NG does not use the maximum braking power for a
particular setting (maximum pressure), but rather the maximum programmed deceleration rate
(predetermined deceleration rate). Maximum pressure can only be achieved by fully depressing
the brake pedals or during an RTO operation. Therefore, each setting (other than full manual
braking and RTO) will produce a predetermined deceleration rate, independent of aircraft weight,
runway length, type, slope and environmental conditions.

Autobrake Disarm Annunciator

The autobrake disarm annunciator is coloured amber and illuminates momentarily when the
following conditions are met:

(i) Self-test when RTO is selected on the ground;

(ii) A malfunction of the system (annunciator remains illuminated - takeoff prohibited);
(iii) Disarming the system by manual braking;
(iv) Disarming the system by moving the speed brake lever from the UP position to the DOWN
detente position; and,
(v) If a landing is made with the selector knob set to RTO (not cycled through off after takeoff).
(If this occurs, the autobrakes are not armed and will not engage. The autobrake
annunciator remains illuminated amber).

The annunciator will extinguish in the following conditions:

(i) Autobrake logic is satisfied and autobrakes are in armed mode; and,
(ii) Thrust levers are advanced after the aircraft has landed, or during an RTO operation. (There
is a 3 second delay before the annunciator extinguishes after the aircraft has landed).

Preferences for Use of Autobrakes and Anti-skid

When conditions are less than ideal (shorter and wet runways, crosswinds), many flight crews
prefer to use the autobrake rather than use manual braking, and devote their attention to the
use of rudder for directional control. As one B737 pilot stated - The machine does the braking
and I maintain directional control.

Anti-skid automatically activates during all autobraking operations and is designed to give
maximum efficiency to the brakes, preventing brakes from stopping the rotation of the wheel,
thereby ensuring maximum braking efficiency. Anti-skid operates in a similar fashion to the
braking on a modern automobile.

Anti-skid is not simulated in FSX/FS10 or in ProSim737 (at the time of writing).

To read about converting an OEM Autobrake Selector navigate to this post.

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Rejected Takeoff (RTO) - Review and Procedures

FEBRUARY 1, 2015 AT 13:15

A takeoff may be rejected for a variety of reasons,

including engine failure, activation of the takeoff warning horn, ATC direction, blown tyres, or
system warnings. For whatever reason, Boeing estimates that 1 takeoff in every 2000 will be
rejected (Boeing Corporation).

LEFT: The Rejected Takeoff is part of the Auto Brake Selector Panel located on the Main
Instrument Panel (MIP). RTO can be selected by turning the selector knob to the left from OFF by
one click.
This is an OEM (Original Equipment Manufacture) autobrake assembly that has been converted
for use in the simulator. Note that the selector knob is not NG compliant but is from a 500 series
airframe. In time this knob will be replaced. (click image to enlarge)

Performed incorrectly, an RTO can be a dangerous procedure; therefore, protocols have been are
established that need to be followed.

This is the first of two consecutive posts that will discuss components of the autobrake system.
In this post RTO procedures will be explained. In the second post the auto brake will be
examined.

Rejected Takeoff (RTO)

The Auto Brake and Rejected Takeoff (RTO) are part of Auto Brake System, the components which
are located on center panel of the Main Instrument Panel (MIP). An RTO is when the pilot in
command makes the decision to reject the takeoff of the aircraft.

The Boeing Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) states:

(i) A flight crew should be able to accelerate the aircraft, have an engine failure, abort the
takeoff, and stop the aircraft on the remaining runway'; or,
(ii) 'accelerate the aircraft, have an engine failure, and be able to continue the takeoff utilizing
one engine.

Two important variables of pre-flight planning need to be established for an RTO to be executed
safely - V speeds and runway length.

V Speeds and Runway Length

There are three V speeds that are critical to a safe takeoff and climb out: V1, Vr and V2.

V1 is the speed used to make the decision to abort or fly. Vr is the rotation speed, or the speed
used to begin the rotation of the aircraft by smoothly pitching the aircraft to takeoff attitude. V2
is the speed used for the initial climb-out, and is commonly called the takeoff safety speed. The
takeoff safety speed ensures a safe envelope for single engine operations.

It stands to reason, that the runway must be long enough to cater towards the V speeds
calculated from the weight of the aircraft and outside temperature.

Rejected Takeoff - Conditions and Procedure

In general, the protocol used to execute an RTO, is to:

(i) Abort the takeoff for cautions below 80 knots; and,

(ii) between 80 knots and V1 speed, abort only for bells (fire warning) and flight control
problems.

If a problem occurs below V1 speed, the aircraft should be able to be stopped before reaching
the end of the runway. After exceeding V1 speed, the aircraft cannot be safely stopped and the
only option is to takeoff, and after reaching a safe minimum altitude and speed, troubleshoot the
problem.

Before takeoff, a flight crew will position the auto brake selector knob to RTO. This action will
trigger the illumination of the auto brake disarm annunciator, which will illuminate amber for 2
seconds; this is a self-test to indicate that the system is working. After 2 seconds the
annunciator will extinguish.

To arm the RTO prior to takeoff, the following conditions must be met:

(i) The auto brake and anti-skid systems must be operational;

(ii) The aircraft must be on the ground;
(iii) The auto brake selector must be set to RTO;
(iv) The forward thrust levers must be in the idle position; and
(v) The wheel speed must be less than 60 knots.

Once armed, the RTO system only becomes operative after the aircraft reaches 80 knots ground
speed (some manuals state 90 knots). If an abort is indicated below 80 knots, the aircraft will
need to be stopped using manual braking power.

The auto brake will remain in the armed mode if the RTO abort was executed prior to 80 knots
(the auto brake disarm annunciator does not illuminate).

To engage the RTO the following conditions must be met:

(i) The auto brake must be set to RTO;

(ii) The thrust levers must be retarded to idle position;
(iii) The aircraft must have reached 80 knots; and,
(iv) The autothrottle must be disconnected.

When an RTO is executed and the auto brake system engages, the system will apply 3000 PSI to
the brakes to enable the aircraft to stop. Additionally, if the aircraft has reached a wheel speed
in excess of 60 knots, and one or two of the reverse thrust levers are engaged, the spoiler panels
will extend automatically to the UP position (deploy), and the speed brake lever on the throttle
quadrant will move to the UP position.

The auto brake will disengage, if during the RTO either pilot:

(i) Activates the toe brakes;

(ii) Turns the selector knob of the auto brake from RTO to off.

If the reversers have been engaged and the speed brake lever is in the UP position, then the
lever will abruptly move to the DOWN detente position. When this occurs, the speed brake
annunciator will illuminate amber for 2 seconds before extinguishing. Braking will then need to
be accomplished manually.

RTO Procedure

1. Pilot flying calls STOP, ABANDON or ABORT.

2. Pilot flying closes thrust levers and disengages autothrottle.

3. Pilot flying verifies automatic RTO braking is occurring, or initiates manual braking if
deceleration is not great enough, or autobrake disarm light is illuminated.

4. Pilot flying raises speed brake lever (if not already in UP position).

5. Pilot flying applies maximum reverse thrust or thrust consistent with runway and
environmental conditions.
 6. Once stopped, pilot flying engages parking brake and completes RTO checklist.

Point 4 is important as although the spoilers deploy automatically when the reversers are
engaged, they must be extended manually to minimise any delay in spoilers extension, as
extension is necessary for efficient wheel braking.

What Circumstances Trigger An RTO

Prior to 80 knots, the takeoff should be rejected for any of the following:

Activation of the master caution system;

Unusual noise and vibration;

Slow acceleration;

Takeoff configuration warning;

Tyre failure;

Fire warning;

Engine failure;

Bird strikes;

Windshear warning;

Window failure; and/or,

If the aircraft is unsafe or unable to fly.

After 80 knots and prior to V1, the takeoff should be rejected for any of the following:

Fire warning;

Engine failure;

Windshear warning; and/or,

If the aircraft is unsafe or unable to fly.

After V1 has been reached, takeoff is mandatory.

Important Points To Remember

Important points to remember when performing a Rejected Takeoff are:

1. Engage the RTO selector knob before takeoff;

2. Retard throttles to idle;

3. Disengage the autothrottle (A/T);

4. Engage one or both reverse thrust levers;

 5. Monitor RTO system performance, being prepared to apply manual braking if the auto
brake disarm light annunciates;

6. Raise speed brake lever if not already in the UP position BEFORE engaging reverse thrust;
and,

7. Remember that RTO functionality engages only after the aircraft has reached 80 knots
ground speed, and remains armed if the RTO has been executed below 80 knots.

Procedural Variations

A successful RTO is dependent upon the pilot flying making timely decisions and using proper
procedures. Whether an RTO is executed fully or partly is at the discretion of the pilot flying
(reverse thrust engaged to deploy spoilers).

It should be noted that If the takeoff is rejected before the THR HLD annunciation, the
autothrottles should be disengaged as the thrust levers are moved to idle. If the autothrottle is
not disengaged, the thrust levers will advance to the selected takeoff thrust position when
released. After THR HLD is annunciated, the thrust levers, when retarded, remain in idle.

For procedural consistency, disengage the autothrottles for all rejected takeoffs.

Figure 1 provides a visual reference indicating the distance taken for an aircraft to stop after
various variations of the Rejected Takeoff are executed (copyright, Boeing Flight Crew Training
Manual FCTM).
This post has explained the basics of a Rejected Takeoff. Further information can be found in the
Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM) or Quick Reference Handbook (QRH).
In the next post the autobrake system will be discussed.

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Takeoff in Flight Training

Direct-To-Routing, ABEAM PTS and INTC CRS - Review and Procedures

JANUARY 19, 2015 AT 22:49

In an earlier post, a number of methods were

discussed in which to create waypoints on the fly using the Control Display Unit (CDU).
Following on a similar theme, this post will demonstrate use of the Direct-To Routing, ABEAM PTS
and Course Intercept (INTC CRS) functionality.

CDU use an appear very convoluted to new users, and by far the easiest way to understand the
various functionalities is by trial and error and experimentation.

The software (Sim Avionics and ProSim737) that generates the math and formulas behind the
CDU is very robust and entering incorrect data will not damage the CDU hardware or corrupt the
software. The worst that can happen is having to restart the CDU software.

Line Style and Colour

The style and colour of the line displayed on the Navigation Display (ND) is important as it
provides a visual reference to the status of a route or alteration of a route.

Dashed white-coloured lines are projected courses whilst solid magenta-coloured lines are saved
and executed routes. Similar colour schemes apply to the waypoints in the LEGS page. A
magenta-coloured identifier indicates that this is the next waypoint that the aircraft will be flying
to (it is the active waypoint).

Direct-To Routing

A Direct-To Routing is easily accomplished, by selection of a waypoint from the route in the LEGS
page, or by typing into the scratchpad (SP) a NAVAID identifier and up-selecting this to LSK 1L.
Once up-selected, the Direct-To route will be represented on the Navigation Display (ND) by a
dashed white-coloured line. Pressing the EXEC button on the CDU will accept the route
modification and precipitate several changes:

The route line displayed on the ND, previously a white-coloured dashed line will become
solid magenta in colour;

The previous displayed route will disappear from the ND;

All waypoints on the LEGS page between the aircraft's current position and the Direct-To
waypoint in LSK 1L will be deleted; and,

The Direct-To waypoint in LSK 1L will alter from white to magenta.

Once executed the FMS will direct the aircraft to fly directly towards the Direct-To waypoint.

ABEAM PTS

Following on from the Direct-To function is the ABEAM PTS function located at LSK 5R.

ABEAM points (ABEAM PTS) are one or more fixes that are generated between two waypoints
from within a programmed route. The ABEAM PTS functionality is found in the LEGS page of the
CDU at LSL 5R and is only visible when a Direct-To Routing is being modified, within a
programmed route (the LEGS page defaults to MOD RTE LEGS). Furthermore, the ABEAM PTS
dialogue will only be displayed if the the up-selected fix/waypoint is forward of the aircraft's
position; it will not be displayed if the points are located behind the the aircraft.

If the ABEAM PTS key is depressed, a number of additional in-between fixes will be automatically
generated by the Flight Management System (FMS), and strategically positioned between the
aircrafts current position and the waypoint up-selected to LSK 1L. The generated fixes and a
white-coloured dashed line showing the modified course will be displayed on the Navigation
Display (ND).

To execute the route modification, the illuminated EXEC button is pressed. Following execution,
the white-coloured line on the ND will change to a solid magenta-coloured line, and the original
displayed route will be deleted. Furthermore, the LEGS page will be updated to reflect the new
route.

Nomenclature of Generated Fixes

The naming sequence for the generated fixes is the first three letters of the original waypoint
name followed by two numbers (for example, TTR will become TTR 01 and CLARK will become
CLA01). If the fixes are regenerated, for instance if a mistake was made, the sequence number
will change indicating the next number (for example, TTR01, TTR02, etc).

Technique

1. Up-select a waypoint from the route in the LEGS page to LSK 1L, or type into the
scratchpad a NAVAID identifier. This is a Direct-To Routing; when executed the waypoints
between the up-selected waypoint and LSL 1L are deleted.

2. Press ABEAM PTS in LSK 5R to generate a series of fixes along a defined course from the
aircrafts current location to the up-selected waypoint. The fixes can be seen on the ND.

3. Pressing the EXEC button will accept and execute the ABEAM PTS route.
Example and Figures

The below figures are screen captures using ProSim737 avionics suite. The programming of the
CDU has been done with the aircraft on the ground. Click any image to enlarge.

FIGURE 1: The LEGS page shows a route HB-TTR-CLARK-BABEL-DPO-WON. The route is defined
by a solid magenta-coloured line.
FIGURE 2: The Route is altered to fly from HB to BABEL. Note that in the LEGS page, the title
has changed from ACT to MOD RTE 1 LEGS. The ND displays the generated ABEAM PTS and
projected course (white-coloured dashed line), beginning from the aircrafts current position and
travelling through HB01, TTR01, CLA01 to BABEL. The EXEC light is also illuminated.

FIGURE 3: When the EXEC light is pressed, the ABEAM PTS and altered route (Figure 2) will be
accepted. The former route will be deleted and the white-coloured dashed line will be replaced
by a solid magenta-coloured line. The magenta colour indicates that the route has been
executed. The LEGS page will also be updated and display the new route, with the waypoint
HB01 highlighted in magenta.

The Intercept Course (INTC CRS)

To understand the INTC CRS, it is important to have a grasp to what a radial and bearing is and
how they differ from each other. For all practical purposes, all you need to know is that a bearing
is TO and a radial is FROM. For example, if the bearing TO the beacon is 090, you are on the 270
radial FROM it. A more detailed explanation can be read by following the radials link in the
acronyms section at the end of this article.

The Intercept Course (INTC CRS) function is located beneath the ABEAM PTS option in the LEGS
page of the CDU at LSK 6R. Like the ABEAM PTS function, the INTC CRS function is only visible
when a when a Direct-To Routing, is being modified within a programmed route (the LEGS page
defaults to MOD RTE LEGS).

The function is used when there is a requirement to fly a specific course (radial) to the
fix/waypoint. By default, the INTC CRC displays the current course to the fix/waypoint. Altering
this figure, will instruct the FMS to calculate a new course, to intercept the desired radial towards
the fix/waypoint (1) The radial will be displayed on the ND as a white-coloured dashed line,
while the course to intercept the radial (from the aircrafts current position) will be displayed as a
magenta-coloured dashed line.
Visual Cues

An important point to note is that, if the course (CRS) is altered, is that the displayed (ND) white-
coloured line will pass directly through the fix/waypoint, but the line-style will be displayed
differently dependent upon what side of the fix/waypoint the radial is, in relation to the position
of the aircraft. The line depicted by sequential long and short dashes (dash-dot-dash) shows the
radial TOWARDS the fix/waypoint while the line showing dots, displays the radial AWAY from the
fix/waypoint.

It is important to understand, that for the purposes of the FMS, it will always intercept a course
TO a fix/waypoint; therefore, the disparity in how the line-style is represented provides a visual
cue to ensure a flight crew does not enter an incorrect CRS direction.

Intercept Heading

However, the flight crew may wish not fly directly to the fix/waypoint, but fly a heading to
intercept the radial. In this case, the flight crew should select the particular heading they wish to
fly in the MCP heading selector window, and providing LNAV is armed, the aircraft will fly this
heading until reaching the intercept course (radial), at which time the LNAV will engage and the
FMS will direct the aircraft to track the inbound intercept course (radial) to the desired
fix/waypoint.

Technique

1. Up-select a waypoint from the route in the LEGS page to LSK 1L, or type into the
scratchpad a NAVAID identifier and up-select. This is a Direct-To Routing and will delete all
waypoints that the aircraft would have flown to prior to the up-selected identifier.

2. Type the course required into INTC CRS at LSK 6R.

3. This will display on the ND a white-coloured long dashed line (course/radial). Check the
line-style and ensure that the course is TOWARDS the waypoint. The line, closest to the
aircraft should display sequential long and short dashes.

4. Prior to pressing the EXEC button to confirm the route change, check that the intended
course line crosses the current course line of the active route (solid magenta-coloured
line).

5. If wishing to fly a heading to intercept the radial, use the MCP heading window. If LNAV is
armed the FMS will direct the aircraft onto the radial.

Example and Figures

The below figures are screen captures using ProSim737 avionics suite. The programming of the
CDU has been done with the aircraft on the ground. Click any image to enlarge.
FIGURE 1: The LEGS page shows a route HB-TTR-CLARK-BABEL-DPO-WYY-WON. The route is
defined by a solid magenta-coloured line. ATC request QANTAS 29 fly 300 degrees until
intercepting the 345 degree radial of BABEL; fly that radial to BABEL then remainder of route as
filed.

FIGURE 2: From the LEGS page, locate in the route the waypoint BABEL (LSK 4L). Recall that
the INTC CRS will only function in Direct-To Routing mode. Up-select BABEL to LSK 1L. Note that a
dashed white-coloured line is displayed on the ND showing the new course from HB to BABEL.
The original course is still coloured magenta and the EXEC light is illuminated.
FIGURE 3: Type the radial required (345) into INTC CRS at LSK 6R. This action will generate (fire
across the page) a white-coloured dashed line displaying the 345 course to BABEL (the 165
radial). Check the line-style and ensure the radial crosses the aircraft current course which is
300. Recall that this line style indicates that the radial to TO BABEL.

FIGURE 4: Press EXEC to save and execute the new route. The dashed line alters to a solid
magenta-coloured line and joins with the remainder of the route at BABEL. The magenta colour
indicates this is now the assigned route. Note that the magenta line continues across the ND
away from the aircraft and BABEL. This is another visual cue that the radial is travelling TO
BABEL.
If the aircraft continues to fly on a course of 300 Degrees, and LNAV is armed, the FMS will alter
course at the intersection and track the 345 course to BABEL (165 radial). The LEGS page is also
updated to reflect that BABEL is the next waypoint to be flown to (BABEL is coloured magenta).

Summary

Direct-To Routings and ABEAM Points are usually used when a flight crew is required to deviate,
modify or shorten a route. Although the use of ABEAM PTS can be debated for short distances,
the technology shines when longer routes are selected and several fixes are generated. The
Intercept Course function, on the other hand, is used whenever published route procedures
(STAR and SID transitions), or ATC require a specific course (radial) or heading to be followed to
or from a navigation fix.

Caveat

The content of this post has been checked to ensure accuracy; however, as with anything that is
convoluted minor mistakes can creep in (Murphy, aka Murphy's Law, reads this website). If you
note a mistake, please contact me so it can be rectified.

Acronyms and Glossary

ATC Air Traffic Control

CDU Control Display Unit
Direct-To Routing Flying directly to a fix/waypoint that is up-selected to LSK 1L in the CDU.
All waypoints prior to the u-selected waypoint will be deleted
DISCO refers to a discontinuity between two waypoints loaded in a route within the LEGS page
of the CDU. The DISCO needs to be closed before the route can be executed
DOWN-SELECT - Means to download from the CDU LEGS page to the scratchpad of the CDU)
FIX A geographical position determined by visual reference to the surface, by reference to one
or more NAVAIDs
FMC Flight Management Computer
FMS Flight Management System
Identifiers Identifiers are in the navigation database and are VORs, NDB,s and published
waypoints and fixes
LSK 5L Line Select: LSK refers to line select. The number 5 refers to the sequence number
between 1 and 6. L is left and R is right (as you look down on the CDU in plan view)
MCP Mode Control Panel
NAVAIDS Any marker that aids in navigation (VOR, NDB, Waypoint, Fix, etc.). A NAVAID
database consists of identifiers which refer to points published on routes, etc
ND Navigation Display
RADIALS A line that transects through a NAVAID representing the points of a compass. For
example, the 045 radial is always to the right of your location in a north easterly direction
(Bearings and Radials Paper)
ROUTE A route comprising a number of navigation identifiers (fixes/waypoints) that has been
entered into the CDU and can be viewed in the LEGS page
SP - Scratchpad
UP-SELECT Means to upload from the scratchpad of the CDU to the appropriate Line Select
(LSK)
WAYPOINT A predetermined geographical position used for route/instrument approach
definition, progress reports, published routes, etc. The position is defined relative to a station or
in terms of latitude and longitude coordinates.

1: The FMS will calculate the new course based on great circle course between the aircrafts
current location and the closest point of intercept to the desired course. This course is displayed
on the ND as a white dashed line

Crosswind Landing Techniques Part One - Crab and Sideslip

JUNE 17, 2014 AT 15:07

This video very clearly illustrates my point that landing in a strong crosswind can be a
challenging and in some cases downright dangerous (Video CargoSpotter (with thanks);
courtesy U-Tube).

Generally, flight crews use one of two techniques or a combination thereof to approach and land
in crosswind conditions. If winds exceed aircraft tolerances, which in the 737-800 is 33 knots
(winglets) and 36 knots (no winglets), the flight crew will divert to their alternate airport(Brady,
Chris - The Boeing 737 technical Guide).

Maximum crosswind figures can differ between

airlines and often it's left to the pilot's discretion and experience. Below is an excerpt from the
Landing Crosswind Guidelines from the Flight Crew Training Manual (FCTM). Note that FCTMs can
differ depending on date of publication.

LEFT: Although not as dramatic as the video clip, the screen shot illustrates the crab
approach. Wind is right to left at 16 knots with aircraft crabbing into the wind to maintain
centerline approach course. Just before flare, left rudder will be applied to correct for drift to
bring aircraft into line with centerline of runway. This technique is called 'de-crabbing. During
such an approach, the right wing may also be lowered 'a tad' (cross-control) to ensure that the
aircraft maintains the correct alignment and is not blown of course by a 'too-early de-crab'. Right
wing down also ensures the main gear adheres to the runway during the roll out.

There are several factors that require careful consideration before selecting an appropriate
crosswind technique: the geometry of the aircraft (engine and wing-tip contact and tail-strike
contact), the roll and yaw authority of the aircraft, and the magnitude of the crosswind
component. Consideration also needs to be made concerning the effect of the selected
technique when the aircraft is flared to land.

Crosswind Approach and Landing Techniques

There are four techniques used during the approach and landing phase which center around the
crab and sideslip approach. The crab and sideslip are the primary methods while the de-crab
and combination crab-sideslip are used more during the landing and flare.

1. Crab (to touchdown).

2. Sideslip (wing low).
3. De-crab during flare.
4. Combination crab and sideslip.

1: Crab (to touchdown) - wet runway preferable

Airplane touches down in crab.

Flight deck is over upwind side of runway (Main gear is on runway center).

Airplane will de-crab at touchdown.

Maintain directional control during roll out with rudder and aileron.

With wings level, the crew will use drift correction to counter the effect of the crosswind during
approach. Drift correction will cause the aircraft to be pointing in a direction either left or right of
the runway heading, however, the forward energy of the aircraft will be towards the centerline.

Most jetliners have the ability to land in a crab, however, it must be remembered that landing in
a crab places considerable stress on the main landing gear and tyre side-walls, which in turn can
cause issues with tyre and wheel damage, not too mention directional control.

Tthe later is caused by the tandem arrangement of the main landing gear that has a strong
tendency to travel in the direction that the nose of the aircraft is pointing at the moment of
touchdown. This can result in the aircraft travelling toward the edge of the runway during the
roll out. To counter this, and align the nose of the aircraft with the centreline of the runway, the
pilot flying must apply rudder input when lowering the nose wheel to the runway surface.

A reference to the maximum amount of crab that can be safely applied in the B737 was not
found, other than maximum crosswind guidelines must not be exceeded.

2: The Sideslip (wing low)

Upwind wing lowered into wind.

Opposite rudder (downwind direction) maintains runway alignment.

In a side-slip the aircraft will be directly aligned with the runway centerline using a
combination of into-wind aileron and opposite rudder control (called cross-controls) to
correct the crosswind drift.

The pilot flying establishes a steady sideslip (on final approach by applying downwind rudder to
align the airplane with the runway centerline and upwind aileron to lower the wing into the wind
to prevent drift. The upwind wheels should touch down before the downwind wheels touch down.

The sideslip technique reduces the maximum crosswind capability based on a 2/3 ratio leaving
the last third for gusts. However, a possible problem associated with this approach technique is
that gusty conditions during the final phase of the landing may preempt a nacelle or wing strike
on the runway.

Therefore a sideslip landing is not recommended when the crosswind component is in excess of
17 knots at flaps 15, 20 and 30, or 23 knots at flaps 40.

The sideslip approach and landing can be challenging both mentally and physically on the pilot
flying and it is often difficult to maintain the cross control coordination through the final phase of
the approach to touchdown. If the flight crew elects to fly the sideslip to touchdown, it may also
be necessary to add a crab during strong crosswinds.

3: De-crab During Flare ('crab-de-crab')

Maintain crab on the approach.

At ~100 foot AGL you de-crab the aircraft; and,

During the flare, apply rudder to align airplane with runway centreline and, if required
opposite aileron to keep wings level.

This technique is probably the most common technique used.

The crab technique involves establishing a wings level crab angle on final approach that is
sufficient to track the extended runway centerline. At approximately 100 foot AGL and during
the flare the throttles are reduced to idle and downwind rudder is applied to align the aircraft
with the centerline (de-crab).

Depending upon the strength of the crosswind, the aircraft may yaw when the rudder is applied
causing the aircraft to roll. if this occurs, the upwind aileron must be placed into the wind and
the touchdown maintained with crossed controls to maintain wings level (this then becomes a
combination crab/sideslip - point 4).

Upwind aileron control is important, as a moderate crosswind may generate lift by targeting the
underside of the wing. Upwind aileron control assists in ensuring positive adhesion of the landing
gear to the runway on the upwind side of the aircraft as the wind causes the wing to be pushed
downwards toward the ground.

Applied correctly, this technique results in the airplane touching down simultaneously on both
main landing gear with the airplane aligned with the runway centerline.

4: Combination Crab and Sideslip

De-crab using rudder to align longitudinal axis with runway (point 3).

Increase aileron to touchdown on upwind tyre, upwind wing slightly low.

The combination of crab and sideslip is used to counter against the turbulence often associated
with crosswinds.

As with the sideslip method, there is the possibility of a nacelle or wing strike should a strong
gust occur during the final landing phase, especially with aircraft in which the engines are
mounted beneath the wings.
FIGURE 1: Diagram showing approach technique (copyright Boeing).

Operational Requirements and Handling Techniques

With a relatively light crosswind (15-20 knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind landing can
be conducted with either; a steady sideslip (no crab) or a wings level, with no de-crab prior to
touchdown.
With a strong crosswind (above a 15 to 20 knot crosswind component), a safe crosswind landing
requires a crabbed approach and a partial de-crab prior to touchdown.

For most transport category aircraft, touching down with a five-degree crab angle with an
associated five-degree wing bank angle is a typical technique in strong crosswinds.
The choice of handling technique is subjective and is based on the prevailing crosswind
component and on factors such as; wind gusts, runway length and surface condition, aircraft
type and weight, and crew experience.

Touchdown Recommendations

No matter which technique used for landing in a crosswind, after the main landing gear touches
down and the wheels begin to rotate, the aircraft is influenced by the laws of ground dynamics.

Effect of Wind Striking the Fuselage, Use of Reverse Thrust, and Effect of Braking

The side force created by a crosswind striking the fuselage and control surfaces tends to cause
the aircraft to skid sideways off the centerline.

Furthermore, the effects of applying the thrust reversers, especially during a crab only landing
can cause additional direction forces. Reverse thrust will apply a stopping force aligned with the
aircrafts direction of travel (the engines point in the same direction as the nose of the aircraft).
This force increases the aircrafts tendency to skid sideways.

The effect of braking is often overlooked.

Autobrakes operate by the amount of direct pressure applied to the wheels. In a strong
crosswind landing, it is common practice to use a combination of crab and sideslip to land the
aircraft on the centerline. Sideslip and cross-control causes the upwind wing to be slightly down
upon landing and this proceedure is carried through the landing roll to control directional
movement of the aircraft. The extra pressure applied to the wing-down landing gear causes
increased auto-braking force to be applied which creates the tendency of the aircraft to turn into
the wind during the landing roll.

Furthermore,
if the runway is contaminated and contamination is not evenly distributed, the anti-skid system
may prematurely release the brakes on one side causing further directional movement.

FIGURE 2: Diagram showing reiovery of a skid caused by crosswind and reverse thrust side
forces (source: Flight Safety Foundation ALAR Task Force)

Maintaining Control - braking and reverse thrust

If the aircraft tends to skew sideward from higher than normal wheel-braking force, the flight
crew should release the brakes (disengage autobrake) which will minimize directional movement.

To counter against the directional movement caused by application of reverse thrust, a crew can
select reverse idle thrust which effectively cancels the side-force component. When the
centerline has been recaptured, pedal braking can be applied and reverse thrust reactivated.

Runway Selection and Environmental Conditions

If the airport has more than one runway, the flight crew should land the airplane on the runway
that has the most favourable wind conditions. Nevertheless, factors such as airport maintenance
or noise abatement procedures sometime preclude this.

I have not discussed environmental considerations which come into play if the runway is wet,
slippery or covered in light snow (contaminated). Contaminated conditions further reduce
(usually by 5 knots) the crosswind component that an aircraft can land.

Determining Correct Landing Speed (Vref)

Vref is defined as landing speed or threshold crossing speed.

When landing with a headwind, crosswind, or tailwind the Vref must be adjusted accordingly to
obtain the optimal speed at the time of touchdown. Additionally the choice to use or not use
autothrottle must be considered. Failure to do this may result in the aircraft landing at a non-
optimal speed causing runway overshoot, stall, or floating (ground affect).

This will be the subject of the next journal post.

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Tools To Assist in Approach: Using the B737-800 Vertical Bearing Indicator, Altitude
Range Arc and Vertical Deviation Scale

MAY 17, 2014 AT 16:37

On 12 February 2012, the flight crew of a Boeing

737 aircraft, registered VH-TJS and operated by Qantas Airways Limited, was conducting a
scheduled passenger service from Sydney, New South Wales to Canberra, Australian Capital
Territory. Due to scheduled maintenance the instrument landing system at Canberra was not
available and the crew prepared for an alternate instrument approach that provided for lateral
but not vertical flight path information. The flight was at night with rain showers and scattered
cloud in the Canberra area.

Shortly after becoming established on the final approach course with the aircrafts automatic
flight system engaged, the flight crew descended below the minimum safe altitude for that stage
of the approach. The crew identified the deviation and levelled the aircraft until the correct
descent profile was intercepted, then continued the approach and landed. No enhanced ground
proximity warning system alerts were generated, as the alerting thresholds were not exceeded.

During those phases of flight when terrain clearance is unavoidably reduced, such as during
departure and approach, situation awareness is particularly crucial. Any loss of vertical situation
awareness increases the risk of controlled flight into terrain. This occurrence highlights the
importance of crews effectively monitoring their aircrafts flight profile to ensure that descent is
not continued through an intermediate step-down altitude when conducting a non-precision
approach (Australian Transport safety Bureau, 2013).

Determining the correct rate of descent (RoD) or vertical speed (V/S) is a critical attribute if an
aircraft is to arrive at the correct altitude and avoid excessive descent rates. Control of the
vertical path uses two different methods: the step-down method and the constant descent
method. Both methods assume that the aircraft is being flown in landing configuration at the
final approach speed (VaPP) from the final approach fix (FAF) to the landing initiation of the
missed approach.

Non Precision Approaches (NPA)

Historically non precision approaches reference ground navigation aids that exhibit a degree of
inaccuracy, which is often enhanced by the poorly defined vertical path published on an
approach chart; NPA charts typically provide only an assigned altitude at the FAF and the
distance from the FAF to the MAP. Thus, flight crew awareness of the aircrafts vertical position
versus the intended vertical path of the final approach can be quite low when executing
traditional style step-down approaches.

To determine the best vertical speed to use during a non precision approach, flight crews use a
number of 'back of the envelope' calculations.

Rate of Descent & Glideslope Calculations

There are several calculations that can be used determine rate of descent some more accurate
than others. Search determine descent rate in Google. Some of the more commonly used rules
of thumb are:

Divide your ground speed by 2, then add a zero (120 kias / 2 = 60, add 0 = 600 fpm).

Rate of descent (RoD) in ft/min should be equal to 5 times the ground speed in knots
(same as above but different calculation).

To maintain a stabilized approach, add a zero to your indicated air speed and divide by two
(150 kias + 0 = 1500 / 2 = 750 fpm).
 To determine distance from threshold to start a 3 degree glideslope, take the height above
ground level and divide by three hundred (600 ft AGL / 300 = 2 nm).

To maintain a 3 degree glideslope (ILS), multiply your ground speed by 5. The resulting
number is the rate of descent to fly (110 kias x 5 + 550 fpm on 3 degree glideslope).

If the glideslope is not operational on an ILS approach with DME, multiply the distance to
go by 300. This will provide the height in feet above the threshold of the runway (4 nm to
the threshold; multiply x 300 = 1200 ft).

Flight crews today, especially those flying in and out of busy intercity hubs, rarely execute step
down approaches as computer and GPS-orientated systems have replaced traditional methods of
navigation. However, as the flight into Canberra revealed, the best system may at times be
inoperative or fail and it is good airmanship to understand and be able to remember one or more
of the above equations.

Today's systems provide a high level of redundancy and the Boeing 737-800 NG incorporates a
number of integrated aids to assist a flight crew during descent and approach. In this post some
of less commonly understood aids will be discussed.

Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI))

A method often overlooked is to use the Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI) which is functionality
available in the CDU. The VBI can calculate an accurate rate of descent to a particular spatial
point. It is basically an angle calculator that provides live vertical speed information based
upon a desired descent angle, the current speed of the aircraft and a end location.

LEFT: CDU showing DES Page, waypoint/altitude and VBI interface (Key RSK3 & RSK4).

A flight crew enters into the VBI the final altitude that the aircraft should be at (for example, the
Final Approach Fix or runway threshold). This figure is determined by consulting the appropriate
approach chart for the airport. The CDU will then calculate the descent rate based on flight
variables. As the aircraft descends, the VBI readout will continually update the descent rate
based upon aircraft speed and rate of descent.

The flight crew can either manually fly the descent rate or use part or full automation to maintain
the rate of descent. A common method is to use the Vertical Speed (V/S) function on the MCP.

It is important to underatnd that the VBI has nothing to do with VNAV. The VBI takes the raw
distance between the aircraft and a selected altitude point and calculates a vertical bearing to
that point. If that point is part of a route in the CDU, then the next altitude constraint will be
displayed, unless the user changes this.

Accessing the VBI

Navigate to Descent page on the CDU by pressing the DES key.

At lower right hand side of the DES page you will see the following: FPA, V/B, V/S. This is the
Vertical Bearing Indicator.

Key RSK3 (right line select 3) allows manual entry of a waypoint and altitude or altitude
restriction. Type the waypoint and altitude separated by a / slash symbol into the scratchpad of
the CDU and upload to the correct line. (for example, MHBWM/200).

The VBI provides three fields:

1. FPA (Flight Path Angle) is the vertical path in degrees (angle of descent) that the
aircraft is currently flying.

2. V/B (Vertical Bearing) is the computed vertical path in degrees that the aircraft SHOULD
be flying to reach the CDU waypoint or altitude restriction.

3. V/S (Vertical Speed) is the vertical bearing (V/B) converted into a vertical speed (RoD)
for easy input into the MCP. The V/S is the vertical speed (RoD in feet per minute) required
to achieve the displayed vertical bearing.

Observe the V/B. The idle descent in a B737 is roughly 3.0 degrees. Wait until the V/B moves
between 2.7 and 3.0 degrees (or whatever descent angle you require based upon your approach
constraints) and note the descent rate (V/S). At its simplest level, the V/S can be entered directly
into the MCP and is the rate of descent required to achieve the computed vertical path..

The VBI can be used for any waypoint, fix and altitude and acts in conjunction with the AFDS.

Automation will attempt to follow the vertical bearing indicated by the CDU; for example, if a
VNAV descent is activated before the Top of descent (ToD) is reached, the Flight Management
System (FMS) commands a 1250 fpm descent rate until the displayed V/B is captured while
maintaining VNAV connection.

The vertical bearing when the aircraft is on final approach calculates data from the Final
Approach Fix (FAF) to the runway threshold.

To read an earlier post concerning the Vertical Bearing Indicator.

Other Approach Aids

 Altitude Range Arc (ARA)

A handy feature often overlooked is the Altitude Range Arc (ARA). The ARA is a green coloured
half semicircle which can be viewed on the Navigation Display (ND). The ARA indicates the
approximate map position where the altitude, as set on the mode control panel is expected to be
reached. Once the aircraft is well established on the vertical bearing (V/B) calculated by the
CDU, the ARA semicircle should come to rest on the targeted waypoint.

LEFT: Altitude Range Arc and Vertical Deviation Scale and Pointer B737-800NG

Vertical Deviation Scale and Pointer (VDS)

The Vertical Deviation Scale is another feature often misunderstood. The scale can be found on
the lower right hand side of the Navigation Display (ND).

The VDI will be displayed when a descent and approach profile is activated in the CDU (such as
when using VNAV). However, the tool can be used to aid in correct glideslope for any type of
approach (RNAV, VNAV, VOR, etc). To display the VDI, an appropriate approach be selected in
the CDU; however, the flight crew fly a different type of approach without VNAV engaged).

The Vertical Deviation Scale presents the aircrafts vertical deviation from the flight management
computers determined descent path (vertical bearing) within +- 400 feet. It operates in a
similar way to the Glideslope Deviation Scale on the Instrument Landing System (ILS).

The VDS is a solid white-coloured vertical line with three smaller horizontal lines at the upper,
lower and middle section, on which a travelling magenta-coloured diamond is superimposed.
The middle horizontal line represents the aircrafts position and the travelling diamond
represents the vertical bearing (V/B).

When the aircraft is within +- 400 feet of the vertical bearing the diamond will begin to move,
indicating whether you are above, below or on the V/B target. When the aircraft is on target
(middle horizontal line) with the indicated vertical bearing, the FMA will annunciate IDLE thrust
mode followed by THR HLD as the aircraft pitches downwards to maintain the V/B.

In some literature this tool is referred to as the Vertical Track Indicator (VTI).

Vertical Development (VERT DEV)

The Vertical Development (VERT DEV) is the numerical equivalent of the vertical deviation scale
and is found on the Descent Page of the CDU. The VERT DEV allows a flight crew to cross check
against the VBI in addition to obtaining an accurate measurement in feet above or below the
targeted vertical bearing. The VERT DEV will display HI or LO prefixed by a number which is the
feet the aircraft is above or below the desired glideslope.

The Vertical Deviation Scale and pointer (VDS) will remain visible on the Navigation Display (ND)
throughout the approach, and in association with the Vertical Development display on the CDU
are important aids to use for Non Precision Approaches (NPA).

Summary

The traditional method of a step down approach, which was the mainstay used in the 1970s has
evolved with the use of computer systems and GPS. In the 1980s RNAV (area navigation)
approaches with point to point trajectories began to be used, and in the 1990s these approach
procedures were further enhanced with the use of Required Navigational Performance (RNP) in
which an aircraft is able to fly the RNAV approach trajectory and meet specified Actual
Navigation Performance (ANP) and RNP criteria. From the 1990s onward with the advent of GPS,
the method that non precision approaches are flown has allowed full implementation of the RNP
concept with a high degree of accuracy.

Although the nature of non precision approaches has evolved to that of a 'precision-like'
approach with a constant descent angle, their are operators that widely use these techniques,
despite their flaws, weaknesses and drawbacks. Even if modern navigational concepts are used
in conjunction with traditional methods, aids such as the VBI, ASR and VDI should not be
overlooked. Appropriate cross checking of the data supplied by these aids provides an added
safety envelope and avoids having to remember, calculate and rely on back of the envelope
calculations.

The flight crew landing in Canberra, Australia did not use all the available aids at their disposal.
If they had, the loss of vertical situational awareness may not have occurred.

Abbreviations

ANP - Actual Navigation Performance

ARA - Altitude Range Arc
CDU Control Display Unit (used by the flight crew to interface the with the FMC)
FAF - Final Approach Fix
FMS Flight Management System
FMA Flight Mode Annunciation
FMC Flight Management Computer (connects to two CDU units)
ILS Instrument Landing System
KIAS - Knots Indicated Air Speed
MAP - Missed Approach Point
MCP Mode Control Panel
ND Navigation Display
NPA Non Precision Approach
RoD Rate of Descent
RNP - Required Navigation Performance
RNAV - Area Navigation
ToD Top of Descent
V/B Vertical Bearing
VBI Vertical Bearing Indicator
V/S Vertical Speed
VDS Vertical Deviation Scale and pointer (also called Vertical Track Indicator)
VERT DEV Vertical Development

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Flight Training

Changing Pilot Automation Dependency

FEBRUARY 7, 2014 AT 22:58

Although this website primarily discusses

construction and flying techniques of the Boeing 737, I believe it's pertinent to include articles
that relate to flying in general and have merit to both real-time aviators and virtual pilots.

This post adds to the post I wrote concerning use of the Speed, VNAV and Altitude
Intervention (INTV) system.

Rather than create a link to an interesting article which may at some stage be removed, Ive
copied the article verbatim below. The article which came fromAviation Week Space and
Technology is a little long, but well worth a read.

How To End Pilot Automation Dependency

It is foolhardy to draw hasty conclusions about accidents. The investigation into the cause of the
Asiana 214 Boeing 777-200ER crash at San Francisco International Airport on July 6 is still in its
early stages. While it is not clear exactly how crew performance figured into the accident that
claimed three lives, we believe that there is no excuse for landing short on a calm, clear day in a
fully functioning jetliner. If the NTSB determines that the 777-200ER s engines and systems were
working properly, then how could the Asiana pilots have gotten themselves into that jam?

It may be that the crew was acting primarily as automation managers and not remaining
sufficiently engaged in actively flying the airplane. It would not be the first time that this has
been a factor in an accident . In the final 2.5 min. of the flight, the NTSB says, multiple autopilot
modes and multiple autothrottle modes were inputtedall while airspeed was allowed to drop
far below the 137-kt. target. It also may turn out that software rules governing interaction of the
autopilot and autothrottle in the 777 are not intuitive under some settings and problematic for
landing (see page 25). But that would be no excuse for flying into the ground.

On balance, automation has been a major contributor to the safer, more efficient operation of
airliners. But automation has not reached the point where it can handle all contingencies. We
have not arrived at the point alluded to in the joke about the crew of the future being a pilot and
a dog (the pilot is there to feed the dog, the dog is there to bite the pilot if he touches the
controls). So humans must be prepared to hand-fly an aircraft at any point .

For years now, concern has been growing that airline pilots basic stick, rudder and energy
management skills are becoming weak due to over-reliance on automation systems. Pilots have
become, in the words of Capt. Warren VanderBurgh of American Airlines Flight
Academy,children of the magenta, dependent upon computers that generate the purple-
pink cues on cockpit displays.

There is nothing inherently risky about using automation, he explains in a famous lecture, but
there is a paradox about automation that crews must be aware of: In most situations, automation
reduces workload. But in some situations, especially when time is critical, automation increases
workload. For example, it is harder to rapidly and correctly reprogram a flight-management
computer to avoid a midair collision than it is to turn off automated systems, grab the controls
and take evasive action on ones own.

This addiction to automation is particularly troubling because of the rapid growth of the
international airline industry in the last two decades, notably in Asia and the Middle East. Many
nations, including South Korea, do not have robust general aviation, light air freight and
commuter airline sectors where pilots can amass hundreds of hand-flown takeoffs and
departures, arrivals and landings before graduating to the cockpit of an Airbus or a Boeing
airplane carrying scores of passengers.

In the wake of the Asiana crash , Tom Brown, a retired United Airlines 747-400 standards captain
and former instructor of Asiana pilots , said in an email to friends that while he worked in South
Korea, he was shocked and surprised by the lack of basic piloting skills. Requiring pilots to
shoot a visual approach struck fear into their hearts.

Other expatriate training pilots who have worked in Asia and the Middle East tell similar stories
about lack of basic head-up airmanship skills and preoccupation with head-down button pushing.
They can perfectly punch numbers into the flight-management computer but if something
unexpectedly crops up late in the flight, such as an air traffic control reroute close to the airport
or a runway change, crews may not have time to punch, twist, push and flick all the controls
required for the automation to make critical changes to the aircrafts flightpath. And head-down,
they risk losing situational awareness.

This pitfall is not peculiar to developing regions, of course. Advanced automation can lull any
crew into becoming mere systems monitors.

So what should be done? The automation dependency paradigm must be changed now. Crews
must be trained to remain mentally engaged and, at low altitudes, tactilely connected to the
controls even when automation is being employed. They should be drilled that, at low
altitudes, anytime they wonder whats it doing now? the response should be to turn
automation off and fly by hand.
Aviation agencies need to update standards for certifying air carriers. There needs to be a new
performance-based model that requires flight crews to log a minimum number of hand-flown
takeoffs and departures, approaches and landings every six months, including some without
autothrottles. Honing basic pilot skills is more critical to improving airline safety than virtually
any other human factor.

Click here to watch Capt. Warren VanderBurghs children of the magenta lecture (VIMEO) to
pilots on how the aviation industry created a culture of maximizing automation.

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Take Off / Go Around (TOGA) - Explained

JULY 10, 2013 AT 14:53

Performing Go-Around can be a confusing procedure, made more so by the effects of inclement
weather.

TO/GA is an acronym for Take Off / Go Around. TO/GA is used whenever an approach becomes
unstable or environmental conditions alter that do not allow an approach and landing within the
constraints that the aircraft is certified. If you watch the short video (embedded from U-Tube)
you will note that the crew utilized TO/GA when a rain squall reduced visibility to almost zero as
the aircraft was about to cross the runway threshold.

VIDEO: Boeing Business Jet (BBJ) - Final Approach engaged TO/GA due to inclement weather
(courtesy & copyright "DougLesso" U-Tube).

So why is TO/GA confusing? Its not the actual use of TO/GA that is confusing, but more the level
of automation you have in use at the time of engaging TO/GA. By automation, I am referring to
the command mode selected for the approach: VNAV, LNAV, V/S, ILS and whether the autopilot is
enaged or not (CMD A/B). In this post three three distinct scenarios will be discussed; however,
engine out (single engine) procedures will not be examined.

Scenario One

Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) configured for autoland: CMD A & B engaged
with localizer and glideslope captured and 'FLARE armed' and annunciated on the Flight Mode
annunciator (FMA). Auto throttle engaged.

Pushing the TOGA buttons will engage the Take Off / Go Around mode & Flight Director
guidance will 'come alive';

The auto throttle will automatically move forward to produce reduced go around (RGA)
thrust;

The Thrust Mode Display (TMD) will annunciate TO/GA and the appropiate thrust will be
displayed;

The autopilot will remain engaged and will pitch upwards to follow the Flight Director (FD)
guidance
 Landing gear will need to be raised and flaps retracted on schedule; and,

A 'bug up' will be observed on the speed tape of the Primary Flight Director (PFD) which
indicates flap retraction speeds.

Scenario Two

Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) configured for manual landing (autopilot on):
CMD A or B engaged. Auto throttle engaged.

Pushing TO/GA buttons will engage the Take Off / Go Around mode & Flight Director
Guidance will 'come alive';

The auto throttle will automatically move forward to produce reduced go-around thrust.
However, the autopilot will disconnect;

The Thrust Mode Display (TMD) will annunciate TO/GA and the appropiate thrust will be
displayed;

The crew will need to take control and manually fly to follow the Flight Director guidance
(around 15 Degrees nose up);

Landing gear will need to be raised and flaps retracted on schedule; and,

A 'bug up' will be observed on the speed tape of the Primary Flight Director (PFD) which
indicates flap retraction speeds.

Scenario Three

Autopilot Flight Director System (AFDS) configured for manual landing (autopilot off):
CMD A or B not engaged. Auto throttle engaged/not engaged.

Pushing TO/GA buttons will engage the Take Off / Go Around mode and Flight Director
guidance will 'come alive';

The crew will need to take control and manually fly to follow the Flight Director guidance
(around 15 Degrees nose up);

The auto throttle will not command reduced go around thrust. The crew must manually
move the throttle levers to roughly 85% N1;

Landing gear will need to be raised and flaps retracted on schedule; and,

A 'bug up' will be observed on the speed tape of the Primary Flight Director (PFD) which
indicates flap retraction speeds.
 How is TO/GA Engaged

The Boeing 737 has two buttons on the throttle quadrant for engaging TO/GA. These buttons are
located on each thrust handle below the knob of the thrust levers. The TO/GA buttons
are not the buttons located at the end of each throttle knob; these buttons are the auto throttles
(A/T) disconnect buttons.

Pushing one or two of the TO/GA buttons will engage the go-around mode and command Flight
Director guidance for attitude pitch.

Depending on the level of automation set, but assuming minimal automation, the pilot-flying
may need to push the throttle levers forward to roughly 85% N1 (Reduced Go Around Thrust).
Boeing pilots often refer to this technique as the 'Boeing arm' as an outstretched arm grasping
the throttle levers moves the levers to 'around' 85% N1.

If the crew pushes the TO/GA button once, reduced go-around power is annunciated on the
Thrust Mode Display (above the N1 indications on the EICAS screen) and also in the Flight Mode
Annunciator (FMA). Reduced go-around thrust is roughly 10% below the green

coloured reference curser on the N1 indicator. This thrust

setting will generate a rate of climb between 1000 and 2000 fpm.

LEFT (2): Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) on Primary Flight Display (PFD) indicated TOGA and
TOGA will be displayed on Thrust Mode Display (TMD). Replace CRZ (1) with TO/GA.
 If the TO/GA buttons are pressed again (two button pushes),
go-around thrust will be set to maximum thrust (at the reference curser). Engaging the TO/GA
button twice is normally only used if terrain separation is doubtful.

A Typical Go Around (CAT 1 Conditions)

The pilot flying focuses on the instruments as the aircraft descends to about 200 feet AGL. The
pilot not flying splits his attention between his responsibilities to both monitor the progress of the
approach, and identify visual cues like the approach lighting system. If the approach lights of
the runway come into view by 200 feet, the monitoring pilot will announce 'continue' and the
flying pilot will stay on instruments and descend to 100 feet above the runway.

If the non-flying pilot does not identify the runway lights or runway threshold by 200 feet AGL,
then he will command 'Go Around Flaps 15'. The pilot flying will then initiate the Go Around
procedure.

The pilot flying will engage the TOGA command by depressing the TO/GA buttons once, resulting
in the Flight Director commanding the necessary pitch attitude to follow (failing this the pitch is
roughly 15 Degrees nose up). The auto throttle (depending on level of automation selected) will
be commanded to increase thrust to the engines to attain and manage a 1,000 foot per minute
climb; a second press of the TOGA buttons will initiate full thrust.

The pilot not-flying will, when postive rate is assurred, raise the landing gear announcing 'gear
up all green' and begin to retract the flaps following the 'bug' up schedule as indicated on the
Primary Flight Display (PFD). Once the Go Around is complete, the Go Around Checklist will be
completed.

Important Points to Remember when using TOGA

If the Flight Directors (FD) are turned off; activating TO/GA will cause them to 'come
alive' and provide go around guidance.

Engaging TOGA provides guidance for the flight modes and/or N1 setting commanded by
the auto throttle, It will not take control of the aircraft. If the autopilot and auto throttle is
engaged then they will follow that guidance; however, if the autopilot is not engaged the
crew will need to fly the aircraft.

TOGA will not engage the auto throttle unless the autopilot is engaged. The only way to
engage auto throttle is with your hand (flip the switch on the MCP). See sidenote below.

TOGA will engage only if the aircraft is below 2000 RA (radio altitude).

TOGA will engage only if flaps are extended.

Remember to dial the missed approach altitude into the Mode Control Panel (MCP) after
reaching the Final Approach Fix (FAF). The FAF is designated on the approach plate by the
 Maltese cross. This ensures that, should TOGA be required, the missed approach altitude
will be set.

Side-note: It is possible to engage the auto throttle using the TO/GA buttons if the auto throttle
is in ARMED mode and the speed deselected on the MCP. Note this method of auto throttle use is
not recommended by Boeing.

Flight Crew Psychology

Flight crews are as human as the passengers they are carrying, but its difficult to accept that a
Go Around is not a failure, but a procedure established to ensure added in-flight safety. Several
years ago airline management touted that a go-around required a detailed explanation to
management; after all, a go-around consumes extra fuel and causes an obvious delay as the
aircraft circles for a second landing attempt. This philosophy resulted in several fateful air
crashes as flight crews were under time and management pressure to not attempt a go-around
but continue with a landing.

Management today see the wisdom in the go-around and many airlines have a no fault go-
around policy. This policy is designed to remove any pressure to land in unsafe conditions -
regardless of the reason: visibility, runway condition, crosswind limits, etc. If one of the pilots
elects to go-around, that decision will never be questioned by management. So while TO/GA
isn't the desired landing outcome, a go-around is not considered a failure in airmanship.

Minimal Discussion

This post has briefly touched on the use of TO/GA in an approach and landing scenario;
nonetheless, to ensure a more thorough understanding, I urge you to read the Flight Crew
Operations Manual (FCOM) available for download in the Training and Documents section of this
website.

Acronyms Used

AFDS - Autopilot Flight Director System

A/T - Auto Throttle Category 1 - Decision height of 200 feet AGL and a visibility of 1/2 SM
CMD - Command A or B (autopilot)
FAF Final Approach Fix
FD - Flight Directors
FMA - Flight Mode Annunciator
FPM - Feet Per Minute
MCP - Mode Control Panel
N1 - Commanded Thrust % (rotational speed of low pressure spool)
RA - Radio Altimeter
RGA Reduced Go-Around Thrust
TMD - Thrust Mode Display (on EICAS display)
TO/GA - Take Off / Go Around

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/ Go Around, To Go Around in Flight Training, Videos
Avoiding Confusion: Acceleration Height, Thrust Reduction Height, Derates, Noise
Abatement and the Boeing Quiet Climb System

JUNE 29, 2013 AT 19:24

During preparation for takeoff, three similar functions that deal with how the autothrottle
calculates N1 thrust can be altered in the CDU: Acceleration Height (AH), Thrust Reduction
Height (TRH) and the Quiet Climb System (QCS). Although there are similarities, each function is
used independently of each other.

Confusion can also occur deciphering the different methods used to alter N1 thrust, such as:
Derated Thrust, Assumed Temperature and Derated Thrust Climb.

Acceleration Height (AH)

Acceleration Height is the altitude above ground level (AGL) that a pilot accelerates the aircraft
by reducing the aircrafts pitch, to allow acceleration to a speed safe enough to raise flaps and
slats, and then reach the desired climb speed.

LEFT: Thompson B738NG transitioning to Acceleration Height, Manchester, UK. Click to see full
size.

Part 23 of Federal Aviation Regulations (USA) dictates that the airplane is able to climb at a
certain rate in this configuration up to a safe altitude.

The acceleration height is the altitude that the aircraft transitions from takeoff speed (V2+15/20)
to climb out speed. This altitude is usually between 1000 and 1500 feet, but may be as low as
800 feet; however, can differ due to noise abatement, airline policy, or airport specifics such as
obstacles, etc.

The reason for acceleration height is to allow a safety envelope below this altitude should an
engine problem develop after rotation; engines are set to maximum thrust, and the plane is
pitched for V2 safety speed (V2+15/20).

Acceleration Height is altered in the CDU 'Init/Ref Index/Takeoff Ref Page (lsk4R) Accel HT ----
AGL'

Practical Application
Once the Acceleration Height has been reached, the pilot flying will reduce attitude pitch by
pushing the yoke forward to increase speed. As the speed increases Flaps 5 is retracted. At this
time the speed will need to be increased in the MCP speed window from V2 to climb speed,
followed by further flap retraction on schedule.

Although crews use slightly varying techniques; I find the following holds true for a non-
automation climb to 10,000 feet AGL.

Set the MCP to V2 +15/20.

Fly the Flight Director cues to Acceleration Height.

At Acceleration Height, push yoke forward reducing pitch.

As forward speed increases you will quickly pass through the schedule for initial flap
retraction retract flaps 5.

Dial into the MCP speed window the appropriate 'clean up' speed (reference the top bug
on the speed tape of the PFD, usually 210-220 kias).

Continue to retract flaps as per schedule.

After flaps are retracted, engage automation (if wanted) and increase speed to 250 kias or
as indicated by Air Traffic Control.

NOTE: If the acceleration height has been entered into the CDU, then the Flight Director bars
will command the decrease in pitch when the inputted altitude (RA) has been reached - all you
do is follow the FD bars.

Thrust Reduction Height (TRH)

The main wear on engines, especially turbine engines, is heat. If you reduce heat, the engine will
have greater longevity. This is why takeoff power is often time limited and a height established
that thrust is reduced. The difference between takeoff thrust and climb thrust may only be a few
percent, but the lowering of EGT reduces heat and extends engine life significantly.

Thrust Reduction Height (TRH): The thrust reduction height is where the transition from
takeoff to climb thrust takes place. TRH can be altered in the CDU 'Init/Ref Index/Takeoff Ref
Page (lsk1R) Reduction AGL-- AGL'

The height usually used for thrust reduction, not taking into
account noise abatement, can vary; but, 400 feet AGL is the minimum allowed.

LEFT: Figure showing Thrust Mode Display (TMD). In this example it is displaying CRZ
(cruise).Figure copyright FCOM.

Once takeoff has occurred, examination of the Thrust Mode Display (TMD) will alert the flight
crew to the type of climb that has been choosen. The TMD will display the acronym TO (takeoff)
or R-TO (reduced takeoff thrust) and will alter to CLB (climb) once the Thrust Reduction Height
has been reached.

Confusion between Acceleration Height and Thrust Reduction Height

Newcomers are often confused between the two similarly-sounding terms, possibly because they
both occur at the interface between takeoff and climb-out. Simply written:

Acceleration Height is when the nose is to be lowered to allow the aircraft to accelerate. When
the aircraft starts accelerating is when the flight crew will retract flaps as per the
schedule. Thrust Reduction Height is when the autothrottle will decrease the engine power to
the preselected climb thrust; thereby reducing engine wear and tear. Both may occur
simultaneously or at differing heights above ground level.. Both can be configured in the CDU.

Differing Methods to alter Thrust: Derated Thrust (CLB-1, CLB-2), Assumed

Temperature & Derated Thrust

There are several methods available to flight crews to alter N1 thrust controlled by the
autothrottle system, and with the exception of the N1 speed reference knobs on the Main
Instrument Panel (MIP), all are accessed via the CDU interface.

Derated Thrust (Derates): Derate is a term used for derated thrust (or reduced thrust).

The CDU displays a list of fixed-rate derates which may differ between aircraft, the reason being
that each airframe may have a different powered engine.

Derates can be accessed from the N1 Limit Page.

Assumed Temperature: This method calculates thrust based on a higher than actual air
temperature and requires the crew to input into the CDU a higher than normal outside
temperature. This will cause the on-board computer to believe that the temperature is warmer
than what it actually is; thereby, reducing N1 thrust.

The outside air temperature can be altered in the N1 Limit Page (lsk1L) or from the Takeoff Ref
Page 2/2 (lsk4L).

Derated Thrust Climb (CLB-1 & CLB-2): Selecting CLB-1 or CLB-2 commands the autothrottle
to reduce N1 thrust during any climb phase to a higher altitude.

Rather than use maximum climb or rate, crews often select CLB-1 which is approximately a 10%
derate of climb thrust (climb limit reduced by 3% N1), while CLB-2 is approximately a 20%
derate of climb thrust (climb limit reduced by 6% N1). Flight crews routinely preselect a lower
than maximum climb thrust before departure.

CLB-1 and CLB-2 can be accessed from the N1 Limit Page.

The reduced climb thrust setting, no matter which method used, gradually increases to full rated
climb thrust by 15,000 feet.

Quiet Climb System (QCS) - Abiding with Noise Abatement Protocols

Boeing has developed the Quiet Climb System, an automated avionics feature for quiet
procedures that causes thrust cutback after takeoff. By reducing and restoring thrust
automatically, the system lessens crew workload and results in a consistently less noisy engine
footprint, which helps airlines comply with noise abatement restrictions. There are two variables
to enter: Altitude reduction and altitude restoration.

During the take-off checklist procedure, the pilot selects the QCS and enters the altitudes at
which thrust should be reduced (greater than or equal to 800 ft AGL) and restored (typically 3000
feet AGL). With the auto throttle system engaged, the QCS reduces engine thrust when the
cutback altitude is reached to maintain the optimal climb angle and airspeed. When the airplane
reaches the chosen thrust restoration altitude (typically 3,000 ft AGL or as indicated by noise
abatement procedures), the QCS restores full climb thrust automatically. Note that the minimum
altitude that the QCS can be set is 800 feet AGL. This allows the safety envelope dictated by
Acceleration Height to remain active.

Multiple Safety Features for Disconnect

The Quiet Climb System incorporates multiple safety features and will continue to operate even
with system failures. If a system failure does occur, there are several methods for exiting QCS. In
the most common method, the pilot selects the takeoff/go-around (TOGA) switches on the
throttle control levers. The pilot can also take control of the throttles easily by disconnecting the
auto throttle and controlling the thrust manually.

The Quiet Climb System, also known as cutback can be accessed from the Takeoff Ref Page
(lsk6R). You will observe the name cutback with on/off. You can also enter an altitude that you
wish the system to restore full thrust.

For completeness, below is a copy of the current Noise Abatement Departure Procedures
(NADP). A copy of these procedures can be downloaded from the Training and
Documents section on this website. Click image for larger view.
Similarity of Terms

When you look at each of the above-mentioned three functions they appear similar in many
respects.

The way I remember them is as follows:

Acceleration Height (AH) is the altitude above ground level (AGL) that is set to ensure take-off
speed (V2+15/20) is maintained for safety reasons.

Thrust Reduction Height (TRH) is the altitude above ground level (AGL) that is set to reduce
take-off thrust a few percent to maintain and increase engine life.

The Quiet Climb System (QCS) allows a minimum and maximum altitude to be set in the FMC;
thereby, reducing engine power and engine noise. The restoration altitude is the altitude that
full climb power is restored. The QCS is used only for noise abatement.

Thrust Reduction Caveat

It must be remembered that any thrust reduction made within the CDU is accumulative. For
example, if you select a lower fixed-rate derate and then select a reduced N1 by the assumed
temperature method, the thrust reductions will be added. It is imperative that the crew actually
look at the N1 power settings to ensure they are suitable for the weight of the aircraft,
environmental conditions, and length of the runway. To check and confirm the N1 settings, look
at the Thrust Mode Display or the appropiate page in the CDU.

I urge you to read further by downloading the following documents located in the Training and
Documents section on this site.

Reduced Thrust Operations

Quiet Climb System

Reduced Thrust Considerations

Reduced and Derated Thrust

ProSim 737

As of June 2013, the ProSim737 avionics suite incorporates the Boeing Quiet Climb System and
Thrust Reduction Height. Acceleration Height is yet to be modelled.

Quality Assurance (QA)

This has been a long post dealing with items that are often confusing in their own right. Rather
than separate the similar topics into individual posts, I thought it easier to deal with them
together.

When explaining procedures, I attempt to keep the writing style simple and easy to understand
for a wide range of audiences. If I have failed, or you discover a mistake, please contact me so
this can be rectified.

Acronyms Used

AH Acceleration Height
AGL Above Ground Level
CDU Control Display Unit
CLB-1 & CLB-2 Climb 1/2
DERATE De-rated Thrust
FMC Flight Management Computer
LSK1R Line Select 1 Right (CDU)
PFD - Primary Flight Display
QCS Quiet Climb System
R-TO Reduced Takeoff (thrust)
RTC Reduced Takeoff Climb
TRH Thrust Reduction Height
TO Takeoff (thrust)
TMD Thrust Mode Display

Searching for Definitive Answers - Flight Training

JUNE 21, 2013 AT 19:46

 Learning to operate the B737 is not a matter of 1, 2, 3 and away you fly; theres a lot of
technical information that requires mastering for successful and correct flight technique.
Searching for a definitive answer to a flight-related question can become frustrating. Whilst
respondents are helpful and want to impart their knowledge, Ive learnt through experience that
often there isnt a definitive answer to how or why something is done a certain way.

Typical Pilot-type Personalities

Typical pilot personalities nearly always gravitate towards one answer and one correct method;
black or white, right or wrong virtual pilots or simmers behave in a similar fashion. They
want to know with certainty that what they are doing replicates the correct method used in the
"real-world".

In reality, the Boeing 737NG is flown by different crews in different ways all over the globe every
minute of the day. Often the methods used are not at the discretion of the crew flying but are
decided by airline company policy and procedures, although the ultimate decision rests with the
Captain of the aircraft. Just ask the __________ (you fill in the nationality or airline) and they will
tell you that they are the best and fly the correct way.

For example, climb out procedures vary between

different airlines and flight crews. Some crews verify a valid roll mode at 500 (LNAV, HDG SEL,
etc) then at 1000 AGL lower pitch attitude to begin accelerating and flap retraction followed by
automation. Others fly to 1500' or 3000 AGL, then lower pitch and begin to "clean up" the
aircraft; others fly manually to 10,000 AGL before engaging CMD A.

LEFT: First Officer conducts pre-flight check list & compares notes. Whilst check lists are
essential in ensuring that all crews operate similarly, there is considerable variance in how flight
crews actually fly the 737 (click for larger view)

Another example is flying an approach. Qantas request crews to disengage automation at 2500
AGL and many Qantas crews fly the approach without automation from transition altitude
(10,000 AGL). This is in contrast to European counterparts in Ryanair which request crews use
full automation whenever possible. A further example is the use of Vertical Navigation, Level
Change and Vertical Speed; there are several possibilities.

Considerable Variance Allowed

I have been told by a Qantas pilot, that there is "a huge amount of technique allowed when
flying the B737". "There are certainly wrong ways to do things; but, there is often no single right
way to do something".

Therefore; when your hunting for a definite answer to a question, remember there are often
several ways to do the same thing, and often the method chosen is not at the crews discretion
but that of the airline.

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Video Lecture on Automation Dependency, Loosing The Ability To Fly

APRIL 24, 2013 AT 13:23

This is an excellent lecture video that discusses the reasons for and the solution to
"Automation Dependency". As aircraft become increasingly complex, higher levels of automation
are made available to allow pilots to minimise task loading. In the late 1990's pilots were often
referred to as flight managers, meaning they supervised how and when various automated
systems controlled the aircraft. Several air crashes during the last decade has revealed that
pilots are loosing the raw ability to actual fly an aircraft and are relying increasingly on
automation to solve issues during time of critical flight stress. This lecture video discusses the
implications arising from automation dependency and how airlines are attempting to solve the
issue. I found the presentation to be very informative, amusing in parts and helps to
explain "What's it doing now"...... The video has been embedded directly from U-Tube.

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Children of Magenta, Flight Management, Flight Training in Flight Training, Reference, Videos

Reference Nav Data - CDU Functionality Explained

MARCH 29, 2013 AT 12:24

In past posts, Ive documented some of the functionality of the Central Control Unit (CDU).
Following on with this theme, lets look at four navigation data functions the CDU is capable of:
Reference Nav Data, Nav Options, Nav Status and Nav Frequency Changes.

Before continuing, the CDU is controlled by the avionics suite you are using; whether it is
ProSim737, Sim Avionics or whatever. Each avionics suite provides differing functionality;
therefore, if something does not operate as indicated, it maybe the limiting ability of your
avionics suite.

Note: This post follows standard terminology. lsk3R means line select key 3 right.

------------------------------

A: REFERENCE NAV DATA

Occasionally, you will need to cross check information and the frequency of a specific navaid.

The Reference Nav Data display is part of the Nav Data page and can be assessed by the INDEX
page:

INIT REF / INDEX / NAV DATA (lsk1R)

The screen will show three available options: Enter WPT Ident, Navaid Ident and Airport Ident.

Example: Type HB into the navaid Ident. Two pages will be displayed showing all the HB Idents
from the navigation database. Selection of the appropriate navaid (HB) will present a further
page displaying the following information: Navaid WPT, Airport and Ident code, Latitude,
Longitude, Frequency, Elevation and magnetic variance.

NOTE: If you cannot identify the ident by name use the Longitude and Latitude coordinates.

------------------------------

B: NAV OPTIONS & NAV STATUS

Following on from the Reference Nav Data page are: Nav Options and Nav Status.

Nav Options and Nav Status can be assessed two ways:

1: INIT REF/ INDEX / NAVDATA (lsk1R) / NAV OPTIONS (lsl6R)

2: PROG (progress) / NAV STATUS (lsk6R) (use when in flight)

Two consecutive pages are available: Nav Options and Nav Status. By default, Nav Status (page
2/2) is displayed. Use the PREV and NEXT PAGE keys to cycle between the two pages.

Nav Status - page 1/2

This page provides you with a list of the closest navaids including frequencies. It also indicates
the currently set identifier and frequency for NAV 1 and NAV 2 (as set on the NAV 1/2 radio).

Nav Options - page 2/2

This page can be used to inhibit a particular waypoint or station. By inhibiting a navaid, it will
not be able to be used by the CDU to calculate a navigation solution. By default all navaid types
are activated. At crew discretion, two VOR and two DME stations can be inhibited. When you
inhibit a navaid it will be removed from page 1/2 and not be visible in the Nav Status page list.
The inhibited navaid will be reset when you reset the CDU.

------------------------------

C: FREQUENCY CHANGE - ALTERING THE THE CDU

In usual practice, crew will alter the navigation, communication, ADF and transponder frequency
on the actual panel located in the central pedestal. However, often you may need to cross check
frequencies, dial in a third frequency for positional awareness, or use a frequency from an
avionics module not present in the pedestal or that is malfunctioning.

The alter Nav Data screen can be assessed by:

MENU / MAINT (lsk6R) / COM/NAV (lsk3L)

This will display a page showing all idents and frequencies currently being used.
COM 1, COM 2, NAV 1, NAV 2, ADF 1, ADF 2 AND EXPR

To alter a frequency, type into the scratch pad the frequency of the navaid and upload to the
appropriate line. To upload, select and press the key to the left or right of the nominated radio.
Changing a frequency in the CDU will also cause a corresponding change in the frequency of the
selected radio (in the center pedestal).

Flow Route

When you work through the above four functions of the CDU, you will note that the INDEX
function is always available. This allows you to easily develop a flow route as you move between
the various pages. Once you know how the flow route operates, you will discover that the CDU is
very much like a book with several hundred pages of information that is easily assessable via a
few select menu keys.

As with all my posts, if you discover a discrepancy please contact me so it can be rectified.

BELOW: Montage of images from the CDU showing various pages displayed within the
Reference Nav Data. CDU is manufactured by Flight Deck Solutions (FDS). Click image to see
larger.
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tagged B737 Flight Training, Boeing B737 Flight Simulator, CDU, FMC, FSX, Nav Options, Nav
Status, Reference Nav Data in CDU / FMC, Flight Training

Speed & Altitude Intervention (SPD INTV & ALT INTV) & V-NAV - How to Use It
FEBRUARY 20, 2013 AT 9:00

There are a number of differing levels of

automation used when flying the B737 and the Flight Management Computer (FMC) and/or Mode
Control Panel (MCP) is used to engage these automation features.

The MCP has several features that can be used to control the outputs from the auto pilot: Level
Change (LVL CHG), Vertical Speed (V/S), Control Wheel Steering (CWS), Lateral Navigation
(LNAV), Vertical Navigation (VNAV), Speed Intervention (SPD INTV) and Altitude Intervention (ALT
INTV).

In this post we will examine the use of altitude and speed intervention and demonstrate the use
of these modes in flight with VNAV and LNAV engaged. A breif recap of VNAV is provided,
however, for the most part it is assumed you already know the basics of what VNAV is, and what
it can do.

Before continuing, you must realize that there is a lot of interconnection between the differing
avionics of the 737 aircraft. When you alter one aspect, often a corresponding change within
another system may occur. These systems are replicated in the flight avionics suite that you are
using, however, functionality is often dependent upon which software suite you are using. The
following information pertains only to ProSim737s avionics suite.

Finally, be aware that not every Boeing 737-800 has the same functionality. Speed and altitude
intervention are company options that may or may not be ordered at the time of airframe
purchase. The acronyms FMC and CDU are interchangeable in this post.

VNAV can be confusing

Understanding VNAV and the use of Speed and Altitude Intervention can often be a confusing
subject to grasp; real-world pilots with years of training can become perplexed to how the flight
computer is controlling the aircraft. A report commissioned by Honeywell (Cognitive Engineering
Anaylsis of Vertical Navigation, 2000) indicated that "the use of VNAV are well known sources of
operator confusion, and explain, in part, the operational issues experienced by airline pilots".

I've attempted to convey this information succinctly; however, please treat this as a introduction.
I recommend reading the appropriate section in the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) for a
more thorough understanding (see bottom of page for link to download).

VNAV, MCP & FMA

An often misunderstood facet of the MCP is that the illuminated lights indicate whether a
function/mode is turned on or off. This is not entirely correct. Illuminated lights indicate modes
that can be switched off. Active modes that cannot be switched off, extinguish their light on the
MCP. A pilot (virtual or otherwise) would be foolhardy to rely solely on this method to determine
the operational status of a mode or function and cross referencing with the FMA and CDU is
considered wise.

The Flight Mode Annunciator (FMA) seen above the Primary Flight Display (PFD) displays various
alerts and status messages and its prudent to cross reference between the FMA, MCP and CDU
to determine what exactly is happening at any given time. When a function is about to be
executed, the FMA will draw a green rectangle around the function.

If in doubt, always disengage VNAV and then reengage after studying your predicament.

Speed Intervention (SPD INTV) & Altitude Intervention (ALT INTV) Why?

The flight deck can be an extreme work environment, especially during the high-task descent
approach phase of the flight; speed and altitude intervention were designed to allow pilots to
easily and quickly change either the speed or altitude of their aircraft without re-programming
the CDU or disengaging VNAV. The intervention buttons are strategically located on the MCP and
when engaged (pressed) allow you to quickly change either speed or altitude level on "the fly".
To engage these buttons they must be depressed for one to two seconds.

Scenario

You are flying at FL280 (28,000) at 300 kias (.54 Mach). The CDU has a flight plan engaged
(Company Route) and the CDU LEGS page specifies speed and altitude constraints. VNAV, LNAV
and CMD (A or B) is engaged. The speed window located on the MCP should be blank (one
indication that VNAV is engaged) and the VNAV, L-NAV and CMD A or B indication buttons will be
illuminated.

LNAV will be controlling the lateral navigation of the aircraft while VNAV will be controlling the
altitude of the aircraft relative to the altitude and speed constraints that have been set in the
CDU.

You have been asked by ATC to decrease your speed to 280 kias and lower your altitude to
FL260.

Speed Intervention (SPD INTV)

Engaging speed intervention you will immediately observe that the MCP speed window becomes
active iand displays your current speed. Dial in into the speed window the new speed
requirement of 280 kias. Notice on the PFD that the speed indicator value above the speed tape
has changed from 300 kias to the new speed of 280 kias. If you cross check with the cruise
altitude (INDEX/PERF INT/CRZ ALT) in the CDU it will still indicate the cruise speed of 300 kias.

If you wish to stay at this speed (280 kias), you will need to manually alter the cruise speed
constraint in the CDU. However, in this case the reduction in speed is momentary and ATC
advise you to return to your original speed.
To do this, you press the SPD INTV button and your speed will return to the original speed. Note
the speed indication on the PFD changes from 280 kias back to 300 kias. Also note that the MCP
speed window is now blank (no actual speed display).

If you practice this a few times, it will become second nature and will soon be your preferred
method to alter speed momentarily, but maintaining the original speed constraint within the
Vertical Navigation system.

Altitude Intervention (ALT INTV)

Altitude Intervention is little more convoluted compared to the simpler Speed Intervention. This
is because the relationship changes between whether the aircraft is ascending or descending.

In normal flight with VNAV and LNAV engaged the FMA will read FMC SPD / LNAV / VNAV PTH and
the V-NAV, LNAV and CMD buttons on the MCP will be illuminated.

Descent using ALT INTV - Lets assume the same scenario (FL280 to FL260)

Dial into the MCP altitude window the new altitude (FL260). You will observe the PFD changes
from the original altitude of FL280 to FL260. Press the ALT INTV button and you will notice the
FMA annunciates: FMC SPD / LNAV / VNAV PTH. The aircraft will then descend at 1000 fpm until
FL260 is reached.

Its a function of ALT-INTV that all descents are maintained at 1000 feet per minute.
Interestingly, this corresponds to the same decent rate when using Descend Now in the CDU.

If you cross check with the cruise altitude (INDEX/PERF INT/CRZ ALT) in the CDU it will still show
the original cruise altitude of FL280. The CDU has NOT been automatically updated to the lower
altitude (this is normal).

To return to the original altitude level of FL280, dial into the MCP the previous altitude level
(FL280), press ALT INTV and the aircraft will ascend to FL280.

However, if you want to remain at FL260, you will need to manually update the cruise altitude in
the CDU.

Its important to remember that VNAV will not engage unless the original altitude level
(FL280) is manually dialed into the altitude window of the MCP.

Company Procedure
Depending upon company procedure, the usual method to accomplish a cruise descent in VNAV
is to dial into the MCP altitude window the lower altitude, then open the the DES (descent) page
on the CDU. Follow through by typing the new altitude into the scratch pad and by pressing CRZ
DES (cruise descent). The aircraft will begin a descent at 1000 feet per minute whilst
maintaining VNAV. The LEGS page and the PERT INT altitude in the CDU will also be updated to
reflect the altitude change.

ASCENT using ALT INTV - Lets assume the same scenario (FL260 FL280)

The ALT INTV button operates a little differently when you ascend. For a start, it automatically
updates the cruise altitude (CRZ ALT) to the new altitude level. The FMA will annunciate: N1 /
LNAV / VNAV SPD during the climb phase of the flight, changing to FMC SPD / LNAV / VNAV PTH
when the new altitude level is reached.

Its important to remember the main difference between using ALT INTV during an ascent
or decent is the Cruise Altitude in the CDU ONLYupdates for ascents and not descents.

Special Considerations ALT INTV

When using ALT INTV, there are several variables pertaining to the altitude constraint that alter
depending upon whether you are in VNAV climb, cruise or descent. Rather than re-word what
already has been written, Ive scanned the appropriate page from the Cockpit Companion by BIll
Bulfer below.
Other Ways to Change Altitude Maintaining VNAV

There are other ways to either ascend or descend to an assigned altitude and still use VNAV. You
can engage Level Change (LVL CHG) or use Vertical Speed (V/S); using either will cause the
aircraft to descend. Level Change will cause a relatively fast descent whilst Vertical Speed allows
you to input the descent rate both of which can be greater than the 1000 fpm ALT INTV uses.

Dial into the MCP altitude window the new altitude level and press either LVL CHG or V/S and the
aircraft will descend to that altitude. Note that the V-NAV light on the MCP extinguishes and the
speed window becomes active showing the aircrafts current speed. To return to the original
altitude level, dial into the altitude window the original altitude level and press the V-NAV button
on the MCP.

I prefer to use LVL CHG or V/S to initiate a descent to be more reliable than using the ALT INTV
(read on..).

Reliability of ALT INTV ProSim737

In ProSim737 using Version 1.27, I've observed that the ALT INTV occasionally exhibits difficulty
in holding a lower altitude level.

The Boeing system is designed in a way that once the V-Path is intercepted, the Flight Director
cross hairs maintain the new altitude by pitch. In ProSim737 this pitch is often difficult to hold
and a resultant pitching of the aircraft (up and down) occurs as the system attempts to hold
altitude. When using Level Change (LVL CHG) or Vertical Speed (V/S) this does not occur.

Im unsure if this behavior is common only to my system or is more widespread; but a way to
solve the issue is to open the CDU (Index/Perf/Cruise Altitude) and change the cruise altitude to
your new height. Another method is to deselect V-NAV completely. If and when you wish to
return to a higher altitude, dial in the higher alttiude increment into the MCP and then select
either VNAV or ALT INTV. The aircraft will return to that altitude and V-NAV will be active. The
CDU will automatically update its cruise altitude to the new height as well as updating the
alttiude in the LEGS page.

I find that V-NAV can cause confusion, especially if you are still learning the system and how it
interacts with other FMS variables.

If at anytime during a flight you observe a VNAV discrepancy and become unsure of what
the aircraft computer is doing, the best option is to turn VNAV off and on again - usually
this solves any potential problem.

The developers at ProSim737 are continually tweaking these variables. In future software
releases this issue may well be rectified.

Summary

During a flight there are many of reasons why you may need to alter speed and/or altitude;
whether it is to divert around a localized weather pattern or to abide by an Air Traffic Control
request. Whatever the reason, often the new requirements are short-lived and a return to the
original constraints necessary.

Both the SPD INTV and ALT INTV functions can be used as time savers to alter either speed or
altitude without spending unnecessary time updating the CDU. The time saved in the latter
being especially important during the high-task descent and approach phase of the flight.

In this post I've attempted to explain the intervention functionality of the B737 and provide a
"work-around" should V-NAV not operate as anticipated. However, to fully understand the
interrelationship between these systems, the CDU and flight dynamics I strongly recommend
perusing the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) and the Cockpit Companion written by
retired aircraft captain Bill Bulfer.

If Ive made any glaringly obvious mistakes in this post, please contact me so they can be
rectified.
To read a review of the Cockpit Companion.

To download the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) navigate to the documents section
where there are several versions for download.

Table 1: ALT-INTV FMA indications and notes

Acronyms

FMA Flight Mode Annunciator

VNAV Vertical Navigation
LNAV Lateral Navigation
MCP Mode Control Panel
ALT INTV - Altitude Intervention
SPD INTV - Speed Intervention
LVL CHG Level Change
V/S Vertical Speed
CDU Control Display Unit
FMC Flight Management Computer
PFD Primary Flight Display
FMS - Flight Management System

Ground Effect - Historical Perspective & Technical Explanation

OCTOBER 8, 2012 AT 11:06

During the Second World War, a crippled

Boeing B17 was struggling to maintain altitude. The aircraft and eleven crew members were
over occupied Europe, returning to England, after a successful bombing mission.

Searchlights, Flak & Enemy Fighters

After negotiating the enemy searchlights that probed the darkness over their target, and then
being struck by several pieces of shell fragment from anti-aircraft flak, they had been pounced
upon by German fighters on their homeward leg. The ensuring fight was dramatic and left the
damaged bomber with only two engines running and third engine having difficulty. As the
bomber approached France, the enemy fighters, starved of fuel, aborted their repetitive attacks,
but the damage had been done. Loosing airspeed and altitude the aircraft could not maintain
contact with the Bomb Group; soon they were alone.

The captain, in an attempt to maintain altitude, requested that everything heavy be jettisoned
from the aircraft. This included machine guns, ammunition and damaged radio equipment; soon
the B17 was a flying Skeleton if its former self.

The Captain was concerned that a fire may develop in engine number three as it was spluttering
due to a fuel problem. The Captain did not need to concern himself much longer as the engine
began to cough uncontrollably before vibrating and ceasing to function. The aircraft was now
only flying on one engine something that was not recommended as it placed great strain on the
engine and aircraft superstructure.

The aircraft continued to loose altitude despite the jettisoning of unwanted equipment. The
Captain decided it was better to ditch into the English Channel rather than land in occupied
France. His thinking was that Air Sea Rescue maybe able to pick them up, if their repeated
Morse code had been received by England; the power of one engine was nowhere enough to
maintain such a large and heavy aircraft, as the B17 aloft for much longer. The crew prepared
for the unenviable ditch into the freezing cold water of the channel.

Were Going In Good Luck Boys!

Get ready guys, were 300 feet above the water yelled the Captain into his intercom system.
As soon as we hit bust them bubbles and get out. Try to get a raft afloat. Link up in the
water Good Luck!

Everyone expected the worse. Surviving a ditching was one thing, but surviving in the cold
water of the English Channel in winter was another! The rear gunner, since moving forward sat
close to escape hatch and gingerly rubbed his rabbits foot; he had carried this on every mission.
The side gunner fumbled repeatedly with his lucky rubber band, the bombardier sat wrapt in
private thoughts, a photograph of his loved one held tightly in his hand, and the navigator
frantically punched his Morse set trying to get the last message out before fate took command of
the situation.

The aircraft, although trimmed correctly, slowly began to dip towards the sea. But at 60 odd feet
above the waves, the aircraft began to float it felt as if the aircraft was gliding on a thermal.
For some reason the aircraft didn't wish to descend. The remaining engine screamed its protest
at being run at full throttle, however the glide continued.

The Captain was amazed and thankful for whatever was keeping this large aircraft from crashing
into the sea. It was as if the B17 was cruising on a magic carpet of air why didnt it crash.

A tail wind assisted in pushing the B17 toward England and safety; seeing the English coast in
sight, the navigator quickly calculated a route to the nearest airfield closest to the coast. Twenty
minutes later the bomber lumbered over the runway where the only way to land was to actually
reduce power to the remaining engine and push the control wheel forward lowering the pitch
angle. They were home and safe!

Divine Interaction, Luck, or Skill ?

The crew thought it was divine interaction that the bomber had not crashed or perhaps luck!

Aviation engineers were baffled to what had occurred. The aircraft had glided many miles above
the surface of the English Channel and had not crashed. Boeing, in an attempt to unravel what
had occurred, repeated the event in the confines of a wind tunnel to realize that what had
maintained the large aircraft airborne was not divine interaction, but the interaction of what has
since been termed Ground Effect.

The above account, although embellished in detail, did occur and the mishaps of this bomber
during the Second World War demonstrated a previously unknown phenomenon - ground effect.

Ground Effect Technical Explanation

Ground effect" refers to the increased lift and decreased drag that an aircraft wing generates
when an aircraft is about one wing-spans length or less over the ground (or surface). Ground
effect often gives pilots and/or passengers of light aircraft the feeling that the aircraft is
"floating", especially when landing.
 When an aircraft is flying at an altitude
that is approximately at or below the same distance as the aircrafts wingspan, there is,
depending on airfoil and aircraft design, an often noticeable ground effect. This is caused
primarily by the ground interrupting the wingtip vortices and down wash behind the
wing. LEFT: Diagram depicting ground effect with aircraft in flight.

When a wing is flown very close to the

ground, wingtip vortices are unable to form effectively due to the obstruction of the ground. The
result is lower induced drag, which increases the speed and lift of the aircraft.

LEFT: Diagram depicting aircraft in ground effect whilst on the ground.

A wing generates lift, in part, due to the difference in air pressure gradients between the upper
and lower wing surfaces. During normal flight, the upper wing surface experiences reduced static
air pressure and the lower surface comparatively higher static air pressure. These air pressure
differences also accelerate the mass of air downwards. Flying close to a surface increases air
pressure on the lower wing surface, known as the "ram" or "cushion" effect, and thereby
improves the aircraft lift-to-drag ratio. As the wing gets lower to the surface (the ground), the
ground effect becomes more pronounced.

While in the ground effect, the wing will require a lower angle of attack to produce the same
amount of lift. If the angle of attack and velocity remain constant, an increase in the lift
coefficient will result, which accounts for the "floating" effect. Ground effect will also alter thrust
versus velocity, in that reducing induced drag will require less thrust to maintain the same
velocity.

The best way to describe ground effect and which many people, both pilots and passengers,
have encountered is the floating effect during the landing flare.
Low winged aircraft are more affected by ground effect than high wing aircraft. Due to the
change in up-wash, down-wash, and wingtip vortices there may be errors in the airspeed system
while in ground effect due to changes in the local pressure at the static source.
Another important issue regarding ground effect is that the makeup of the surface directly affects
the intensity; this is to say that a concrete or other hard surface will produce more interference
than a grass or water surface.
Problems Associated With Ground Effect

Take Off

Ground effect should be taken into account when a take-off from a short runway is planned.

Although ground effect may allow the airplane to become airborne at a speed that is below the
recommended take-off speed, climb performance will be less than optimal. Ground effect may
allow an overloaded aircraft to fly at shorter take off distances and at lower engine thrust than
normal. However, the aircraft will not have the ability to climb out of ground effect and
eventually will cease to fly, or hit something after the runway length is exceeded.

Approach and Landing

As the airplane descends on approach and enters ground effect, the pilot experiences a floating
sensation which is a result from the increased lift and decreased induced drag value. Less drag
also means a lack of deceleration and could become a problem on short runways were roll-out
distance is limited.

Therefore, it's important that power is throttled back as soon as the airplane is flared over the
threshold and the weight of the airplane is transferred from the wings to the wheels as soon as
possible.

How to Counter Ground Effect

To minimise ground effect on landing, the following must be addressed:

Pitch angle should be reduced to maintain a shallow decent (reduces ability of the wing to
produce more lift).

Thrust should be decreased.

Power should be throttled back as you flare across the threshold at RA 50 feet.

Land the aircraft onto the runway with purpose and determination. Do not try and grease
the aircraft to the runway (often called a carpet landing). The weight of the aircraft must
be transferred to the wheels as soon as possible to aid in tyre adhesion to the runway
(also important when landing in wet conditions).

Does Ground Effect Occur in Flight Simulator?

If FSX is set up correctly, ground effect will definitely be experienced in flight simulator.

If you have ever wondered why, after reducing speed on an otherwise perfect approach, your
aircraft appears to be floating down the runway, then you have already experienced ground
effect.

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Creating Waypoints on the Fly with the CDU

SEPTEMBER 20, 2012 AT 12:00

 Often you need to inject into the flight plan an along track waypoint, that is defined by a
distance from a known waypoint or navigational aid. There are several ways to achieve this and
each method is similar in operation, but is used in differing circumstances. Depending upon the
software version installed in the Control Display Unit (CDU), you can either use
the LEGS or FIX page.

To Create a Place Bearing Waypoint and a Along Track Waypoint in the CDU

There are two methods that obtain similar results - a Place Bearing Waypoint (Points 1 through
3) and an Along Track Waypoint.

1. In the LEGS page, type into the scratchpad the waypoint name, vector and distance. The
distance is where the new waypoint will be created and is measured from the waypoint or
navigation aid you are using as an anchor (LAV340/10).

2. After entering the information into the scratchpad (LAV340/10), upload to the CDU by key
pressing the appropriate waypoint, where you wish the along track waypoint to be created.

3. Clean up any discontinuity and execute.

LAV is the waypoint, 340 is the vector, in degrees, that the waypoint will be created, And
10 is the distance from LAV that the new waypoint will be created.

To insert the waypoint before the anchor waypoint, use the negative key - (LAV340/-10).

To insert the waypoint after the anchor waypoint, do not use any identifier (LAV340/10).

Note that the / is after the vector, and the waypoint name and vector are joined with no
spaces.

To insert an Along Track Waypoint the identifier and distance is typed into the scratchpad and
up-selected. For example, LAV/-10 or LAV/20.

If the target waypoint is already in the route, then it is not necessary to type the identifier into
the scratchpad; rather, select the identifier from the route list and press the appropriate line
select. The software will automatically insert the selected waypoint into the scratchpad for
editing.
 If you want the new waypoint to be
created along the current navigation track, type the vector that is displayed adjacent to the
waypoint in theLEGS page of the CDU. If you do not type a vector, then the location of the along
track waypoint will be automatically assigned by the software, which may not be along your
current track course.

In the example shown (LEFT), I have created an along track waypoint called LAV02 which is
located the aircraft side of the waypoint LAV. I also have created a circle around LAV (see
instructions below).

The CDU software will create along track waypoints with generic names (LAV01, LAV02, LAV03,
etc). In the example, I have already flown over LAV01 and LAV02 is now the next waypoint.

METHOD 1 - How To Create a Circle around a Waypoint Using the FIX Functionality in
the CDU

There are many reasons why you may want to place a circle identifier around a waypoint or
navigational fix at a specific distance. Least of which to highlight a distance from a waypoint so
it can easily be seen on the Navigation display (ND). Other reasons are to designate the distance
from the runway threshold that the landing gear is to be lowered, or the beginning of the
glideslope for an ILS approach.

1. Press FIX on the CDU to open the FIX page.

2. Type into the CDU scratchpad, the name of the waypoint or navigation aid (VOR, NDB, etc)
and upload to the FIX page (in the example, LAV). This will display a small circle around
the identifier in the Navigation Display in green-dashed lines.

3. Type into the scratchpad the distance you require the circle to be drawn around the
waypoint. For example, /15 and upload this to LSL1.

A quick way to insert a waypoint from a route into the FIX page is to press the waypoint name in
the LEGS page. This will automatically down select the waypoint to the scratchpad saving you
the time typing the name. Then select FIX and upload the waypoint from the scratchpad.
In the example shown (ABOVE), I have created a circle at a distance of 15 miles from LAV which
can be viewed on the navigation Display (ND). The straight, green dashed line displayed from
LAV is the vector, which in this example is unimportant, as we are only creating a circle.

The vector only becomes important when you want to create a waypoint that intersects the edge
of the circle (see below).

METHOD 2 - How to Create a Single Along-Track Waypoint (at the edge of the circle)

If you want to create an along track waypoint at the edge of the defined circle, and insert this
waypoint in line with the aircraft's current navigation track (route), then the vector becomes
more important. The vector will determine the bearing, from the waypoint anchor that the
waypoint is created.

A waypoint can be created anywhere along the circle, that is drawn at the nominated distance
around the anchor waypoint. The location of new waypoint is defined by the vector (bearing). If
the inserted waypoint is in line with aircraft's current navigation track, the vector shown in
the FIXpage or adjacent to the waypoint in the LEGS page should be used. The new waypoint will
be displayed before the anchor waypoint.

1. Open the FIX page and type into the scratchpad the waypoint or navigation aid identifier
and up-select to the four digit space at the top of the screen (for example, LAV). If the
identifier is part of a route, open the LEGS page, select the waypoint from the route and
press the appropiate line select button for the waypoint which will populate the
scratchpad. Then, open the FIX page and up-select from the scratchpad to the FIX page
the waypoint. A dashed-green coloured circle will be displayed around the waypoint in the
Navigation Display.

2. Type into the scratchpad the appropriate bearing vector and distance and up-select to the
appropriate line (for example, 049/5 will generate a waypoint 5 miles from the anchor
waypoint on a bearing of 049 degrees). A dashed-green coloured circle will be drawn at 5
miles from the anchor waypoint, and the new waypoint will be shown along that line at the
appropriate bearing.

3. To place this new waypoint into the route, press the appropriate line select button adjacent
to the entry and down-select this to the scratchpad. The CDU software will automatically
convert the entry to a format that can be inserted into the route.

4. Open the LEGS page and up-select the waypoint to the location within the route that you
wish the waypoint to appear.

5. Finally, clean-up any discontinuity (DISCO).

In the example (BELOW), I have created the first, along track waypoint (ADM 01) as an entry
point to an arc, directly in line with the navigation track of the aircraft, before reaching the
anchor waypoint - ADMAR. ADM 01 is at the edge of the defined circle.

METHOD 3 - How to Insert Additional Along-Track Waypoints Around the Arc of the
Circle
Another variable of the above theme, often used when executing an NDB Approach, is to create
several along track waypoints that intersect a defined circle. The waypoints which are created at
a set distance from an anchor waypoint or navigation fix, create an arc.

First, ensure you have a circle created around the waypoint at the distance required (FIX page).

1. Select the anchor waypoint for the arc from the LEGS page and download to scratchpad.

2. Type in the scratchpad as seperate entries: ADMAR100/15, ADMAR130/15, ADMAR160/15,

ADMAR190/15 and so forth and up-select to the appropiate line select in the route. This
will create an arc 15 miles from ADMAR at the different bearing locations.

If you want the first waypoint to be along your navigation track, use the vector for this
initial waypoint as indicated in the LEGS page of the CDU.

The above can also be generated from the FIX page using the methods outlined in Method
2.

In the example (LEFT), I have created a

number of along track waypoints, separated each by 30 degrees, that intersect the circle 10
miles from ADMAR. With a little imagination, it is easy to uncover several uses for such
funtionality: terrain avoidance, approach protocols, etc. Click image to enlarge.

It is important to note that user and along track waypoints are given generic names by the
software (ADMAR01, ADMAR02, ADMAR03, etc).

To ensure that the waypoints are sequential when displayed (01,02,03,04,05, etc), upload the
new waypoints to the LEGS page, to the same waypoint name that was used to create the along
track waypoint. In this example it is ADMAR.

Understanding the CDU

What I have described above is but a very brief and basic overview of some functions that are
easily performed by the CDU.

CDU operation can appear to be a complicated and convoluted procedure to the uninitiated.
However, with a little trail and error you will soon discover a multitude of uses. It is important to
remember, that there are often several ways to achieve the same outcome, and available
procedures depend on which CDU software you are using.
I am not a professional writer, and documenting CDU procedures that is easily understood is
challenging. If this information interests you, I strongly recommend you purchase the FMC
Guide written by Bill Bulfer. Failing this, navigate to the training section of this website and
download some of the FMC tutorials.

Acronyms

Anchor Waypoint The waypoint from which additional waypoints are created from

CDU Control Display Unit

FMC Flight Management Computer

Target Waypoint The waypoint that has been generated as a sibling of the Anchor waypoint

Waypoint Navigation fix, usually an airport, VOR, NDB or similar

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FSX, NDB Arcs, Radial Circles, Waypoints in CDU / FMC, Flight Training

B737-800 Primary Flight Display (PFD) Diagram

SEPTEMBER 9, 2012 AT 13:00

I recently came across this in the Flight Crew Operations Manual (FCOM) for the B738. The
simple to understand picture is an excellent visual reminder to the most important areas of the
Primary Flight Display (PFD).

When I was new to jets, I had this image printed in colour above the computer screen as a quick
reference guide. It doesn't take long before the its part of memory.

I've made the image quite large so you can right click, save and print it out if you want to.

If you want to read ther B738 Flight Crew Manual (FCOM) navigate to the Training &
Documents section (menu above) and you can download the manual. There are a lot of Boeing
documents that can be read and downloaded from this section.
KEY

1. Bug 5 (white)
2. Flaps Manoeuvring Speeds (green)
3. V2+15 (white)
4. Takeoff Reference Speeds (green)
5. Minimum Manoeuvre Speed (amber)
6. Minimum Speed (red and black)
7. Maximum Manoeuvring Speed (amber)
8. VREF+20 (white)
9. Landing Reference Speed (green)
10. Speed Reference Display (green)
11. 80 Knot Airspeed Bug (white)

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tagged B737-300 Boeing 737 Flight Simulator, FCOM, FSX, Flight Training, PFD, Pilots Flight
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Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI) - How To Calculate A Controlled Idle Descent

JULY 23, 2012 AT 14:54

 Often you are requested by ATC to alter
altitude, or must intercept a desired point in space at a certain altitude for operational reasons.
There are several methods available to the pilot to initiate the change in altitude; outlined below
are three methods.

A: Initiating Level Change or Vertical Speed on the MCP will activate an advancing and
contracting green line arc (Altitude Prediction Line) on the CDU. This green arc identifies the
location that the aircraft will reach ,if the vertical speed is maintained, in relation to the active
CDU waypoint.

B: You can calculate the distance and vertical descent using mathematics, but this can be
cumbersome and may illicit possible mistakes.

C: You can alter the LEGS page of the CDU keying in the new altitude constraints (this assumes
you are using VNAV & LNAV.

The CDU Vertical Bearing Indicator (VBI) can help you. The VBI is basically an angle calculator
that provides "live" vertical speed information based upon a desired descent angle. An example
using the waypoint TESSI is provided.

Navigate to Descent page by pressing the DES key.

At lower right hand side of the DES page you will see the following: FPA, V/B, V/S. This is
the Vertical Bearing Indicator.

Key RSK3 (right line select 3) and enter the waypoint and altitude (TESSI/17000)

The VBI provides 3 fields:

FPA (Flight Plan Angle) is the vertical path in degrees that the aircraft is currently flying.

V/B (Vertical Bearing) is the vertical path in degrees that the aircraft SHOULD be flying to
reach the keyed waypoint (TESSI/17000).

V/S (Vertical Speed) is the vertical bearing (V/B) converted into vertical speed for easy
input into the MCP.

Observe the V/B. The idle descent in a B737 is roughly 3.0 degrees (PMDG use 2.7 degrees)

Wait until the V/B moves between 2.7 and 3.0 degrees (or whatever descent angle you require)

When the value is reached, dial in the required altitude and indicated Vertical Speed on the MCP
The Altitude Prediction Line will now intersect the selected waypoint (TESSI) and the aircraft
should fly a perfect idle descent to TESSI. Note that the original altitude selected for the pinpoint
in the LEGS page does not reflect the new change.

Benefits

One of the advantages in using the Vertical Descent Indicator is that the pilot can instigate an
accurate controlled idle descent, following a desired glide path to the desired waypoint. This
advantage can be used in a number of scenarios:

1. Descent from cruise altitude.

2. Approaching the runway from a straight-in approach course.

3. Approach the runway from base or via an ARC approach.

4. Approaching the runway for a downwind approach.

I often use the VBI from FL10 to FAF on approach, when other constraints are not required.

Video

Ive made a short video showing the procedure.

In the video, TESSI has been selected from the LEGS page and downloaded to the scratchpad.
Pressing DES opens the required page where the VBI resides. In the scratchpad, the altitude
constraint is entered for the waypoint TESSI/17000 and uploaded to the WPT / ALT section of
the Vertical Bearing Indicator (right line select 3).

If you watch the indicator you will see the V/B and V/S changing as the aircraft approaches
TESSI.

Select the new altitude and vertical speed on the MCP (17000 & 780 - or nearest numeral) and
you will note the FPA begins to change, indicating the new vertical path of the aircraft. The
Navigation Display (ND) will then show the Altitude Projection Line moving towards and stopping
at TESSI. The aircraft will now descend at the nominated angle of descent until reaching TESSI.
Note that the original altitude in the LEGS page does not reflect the new change.

To read a later post on the VBI, click here.

CDU is Flight Deck Solutions (FDS) and MCP is CP Flight (Pro model). Double click video to
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Flight Path Vector (FPV) - Explanation and Use

JULY 7, 2012 AT 12:59

 I often get asked what the FPV button
does on the EFIS unit. Pressing the button doesnt do anything grand or remotely obvious, unless
you are observant and note that an oddly shaped circle with lines has instantly appeared on the
Primary Flight Display (PFD).

LEFT: FPV button located on the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) unit on the Captain
and First Officer side. EFIS unit produced by CP Flight (Pro model).

What is the Flight Path Vector and What Does it Do - The Basics

The FPV is a small circular symbol which, when the FPV button on the EFIS is depressed,
superimposes over the Attitude Indicator (AI) part of the Primary Flight Display (PFD). The
circular symbol represents the aircraft's axis in relation to the vertical and lateral movement
referenced to the Earth's surface. If you were stationary on the ground, the circle would be on
the horizon line and centered in the display.

The data received by the FPV is derived mostly from the Internal Reference System (IRS) of the
aircraft; therefore, the Flight Path Vector provides an almost instantaneous display of flight path
angle and drift information.

For example, if an aircraft took off in a 15 Knot crosswind the Flight Director (FD) bar would
register the pitch of the aircraft while the circular FPV would be located above the horizon and to
the right or left. The lateral deviation of the FPV provides a visual indication of drift caused by
the crosswind, while the vertical deviation shows the aircraft's attitude or pitch.
 When the aircraft changes from climb phase to
level flight, the FD bar is commensurate with the configuration of the aircraft (speed, weight,
flap, etc.) and the FPV would be on the horizon line, indicating level flight.

Decending in approach phase on a 3 degree glidepath, the position of the FD and Horizon
Heading Scale (aircraft symbol bar/pitch bar) is dependent upon the speed, flap and gear
extension, but the position of the FPV will stay at 3 degrees, unless the flight controls are used to
alter the aircraft's pitch.

The FPV will provide greater accuracy than the Horizon Heading Scale as it does not 'lag' behind
real time as other instruments can do; therefore, it is sensible for flight crews to include this tool
in their routine scan.

LEFT: Flight Path Vector (FPV) in ProSim737 avionics suite. The FPV symbol is in the blue part of
the Altitude Indicator and reads roughly 2.5 - 3 degrees nose up. The aircraft is in TO/GA
command mode ascending at 1100 feet per minute to flaps up speed. There is no crosswind so
the symbol is does not show a deviation (drift) from center.

Boeing provides a caveat in their literature, stating that the FPV is not a primary flight
instrument. Therefore, information displayed by the FPV should be used to augment data from
the primary instrumentation.

Flight Path Vector (FPV) Advantages

It allows you, at a glance, to assess the performance of the aircraft. If the FPV is in the blue
part of the Primary Flight Display, you are definitely ascending. Vice-versa when you are
'in the brown'.

If you are unlucky enough to have a windshear encounter, the first instrument to warn you
other than the aural warning will be the FPV as it assumes an unusual position (drops
away or rushes up). The other instruments (altitude, vertical speed and airspeed) have
significant lag before they accurately show the true picture of what is occurring, but the
FPV provides an almost immediate indication (live-time).
 It is an ideal tool to use during non-precision approaches as it provides the flight crew with
additional situational awareness, especially during night operations.

The FPV is an ideal tool to gauge the accuracy with which the aircraft is flying a glideslope
and can be used to cross check against other information.

The FPV is an ideal tool to monitor non-automation phases of the flight (manual flying) as
the flight crew need only to keep the FPV on the horizon to maintain level flight.

The FPV registers the smallest trend almost immediately, while the flight director (FD) will
only correct an issue after a deviation has occurred.

The FPV can be used to provide additional information during crosswind landings. If you
look at the FPV as part of your usual instrument scan, the FPV will provide visual display to
whether you are correctly aligned with the centerline of the runway (the FPV will display
the drift).

The last point requires expanding upon, as the FPV can be used to determine the correct rudder
deviation to use when using the sideslip method for a crosswind approach and landing. A
crosswind will push the FPV circle in the direction that the wind is blowing TO. Rudder inputs will
cause the FPV symbol to move towards the the center of the Altitude Indicator. Once the the FPV
is centred in the Altitude Indicator, the aircraft is aligned correctly (no drift).

The Flight Path Vector is a small unobtrusive icon located on the PFD that pays large dividends
when used correctly. Not only can this device warn you of impeding problems but it can be used
to facilitate greater flight accuracy in a number of conditions including approach, straight and
level flight, and crosswind landings.

BELOW: Schematic of the Flight Path Vector showing how it relates to aircraft axis, angle and
drift.
Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

Take Off

Speed Margin

Eng Fail select LVL CHG and MAX CONT after flaps up

Climb w/o FMC

best angle Flaps up maneuvring speed

best rate Flaps up maneuvring speed + 50 kts / .74

Econ 280 / .74

1 Eng Inop Flaps Up Maneuvring Speed / Max Continuous

Cruise

Max Altitude Margin

Optimum Altitude Provides +/- 1.5 load factor ( 48 bank )

2000 ft above allows +/- 45 bank prior buffet

2000 ft above / below optimum increase fuel by 1 / 2 %

4000 ft below optimum increase fuel by 3 / 5 %

Optimum calculation altitude: Distance + distance

8000 ft below optimum increase fuel by 8 / 14 %

Long Range Cruise provides fuel mileage 1 % less than Max Range

M .01 above LRC increase fuel by 1 / 2 %

M .74 gives LRC within 2000 ft of optimum

LRC provides best buffet margin at all cruise altitude

4000 ft climb needs 135 to 225 kgs

but climb only if you cruise 20 min or more

Fuel temperature rate of cooling is 3C per hour up to 12 C

Increase of M .01 increase TAT by 0.5 to 0.7 C

Engine Failure

1 Eng Inop Distance At cruise level & speed : 260 Nm

V2 gives stall margin for 15 + 15 overbank

V2 + 15 gives stall margin for 30 + 15 overbank

Max Altitude is the minimum of

certified altitude, thrust capability to

climb or buffet margin limited

altiude ( 0.3 g / 40 bank )

Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

Descent

Planning 3 Nm / 1000 ft

Speed

Target 10 000 ft, 250 kts at 30 Nm

Flaps Up maneuvring at 12 Nm for Straight In

Flaps Up maneuvring at 8 Nm Out for Abeam

Deceleration 25" - 2 Nm from 280 to 250 kts in Level

25" - 3 Nm from 250 to 210 kts in Level

Holding Minimum fuel is Flaps Up maneuvring Speed

Above FL 250, take VREF 40 + 100 kts

Flaps 1 increase Fuel by 10%

Approach

Engine Failure On Final retract flaps to 15 and increase Vref by 15 kts

Flaps 15 Landing All Eng Use Flaps 1 for go-around

Rudder authority and rudder pedal steering are not affected by rudder trim

Landing

Braking with A/S Apply full braking

Braking without A/S Apply progressive constant braking

Reverse thrust with X wind Avoid reverse trust if A/C in crab

X wind landing Reduce X wind by 5 knots if assymetric reverse

Overweight Landing Use Flap 30 for speed margin

Landing distance is less than TO distance

Except on Wet/Contaminated RWY ( check PI )

Reduce Weight by increasing drag

You can go to speed 20 kts below Maneuvring Speed

with normal bank. No 15 protection overbank

No Autoland recommanded

Maneuvers

Rapid Descent 1 Lights, 2 Start Switches, 3 Altitude,

4 LVL CHG, 5 Thrust Levers and 6 Speed Brake

Check MSA, ATC, QNH

Stall Speed

Stick Shaker Speed Fup: 180, F5: 145, F15: 125, F30: 116

M .74 / 280 kts gives 2100 / 3000 ft/min

250 kts gives 1700 / 2400 ft/min

210 kts gives 1400 / 1900 ft/min

Rem: Time and speed decrease by 50% with speedbrake

zero crab landing not

recommanded if x wind exceeds 17

kts or 23 with flaps 40

Brake Energy Limits not exceeded for F30 or F40

Fup: 160, F5: 135, F15: 118, F30: 108

Rem: Fup and F5 is for MTOW, others for MLW

Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

NN Operations

Ditching

Loss Of Thrust On Use TO EGT Limit for restart

High Vibration Reduce Power, Speed and Altitude

All Flaps Up Landing Fly manually on Final, Use A/B and full Reverse

Leading Edge Flaps Trans Vref gives protection for 15 + 15 Overbank

Trailing Edge Flaps Config Wanrning can occur if gear up and F>15

Alternate Flaps Extens. No Assymetry Protection and Slower Speed

Jammed Flight Controls Override with big constant force to keep control

No breakthrough system like the 146

Jammed Stabiliser Force on stabiliser trim wheel

Full control by elevator still available

Fuel Imbalance Limit is for structural life not for controlability

Low Fuel (>453 kgs) Smooth handling in pitch and roll

Leave wings pumps on even with low pressure light

Manual Reversion Gear and leading edge devices cannot retract

Extend and retract trailing edge flaps electrically

Plan a long final, smooth thrust reduction on flare

Landing Gear Lever Jam. Use if gear transfer valve stuck and if time
Tire Failure Advise ATC to check the rwy and land normally

Go to your destination if rwy long enough

Don't use the autobrake, use max reverse

Partial Gear Up Landing Do not recycle the lever. Don't waiste time

Ask fire truck to check your gear condition

One Main Gear Down Do not arm the speedbrakes

Shutdown fuel pumps and critical engine on flare

Tailstrike Do not pressurize tha A/C

Risk in late go-around if you refuse the touchdown

Window Damage With both window 1 damaged, do an autoland

Slide Window Open may be open at or below holding speed

calm air area over the open window

Low Visibility Procedure

Low Vis Take Off Visibility less than 400m

Check Airport Minimas

CATII/CATIII Approach Visibility down to 200m

Captain make a good briefing

Synthesis 1 Verify A/C status

2 Verify airport status

3 Verify weather

4 Verify crew qualification

Use F40, Reduce Fuel and pitch +/- 10 for touch

Boeing 737 Tips

JF CLAES 2006

General Info

Passenger Weight Male: 83 kgs

Charter Flight Europe Female: 69 kgs

All Adult : 76 kgs

Child ( 2 to 12 ): 35 kgs
Infant ( under 2 ) : 0 kg

Baggage Weight 1 piece : 13 kgs

Charter Flight Europe

Fuel Consumption Engine

2500 kgs/h

Or check QRH

APU (ground) 115 kg/hr

Perfo Improvement Method 1 Bleeds off or unpressurized TO

2 Use another rwy

3 Take headwind into account

4 Use improve climb

5 Improve climb + bleeds off

Perfo Information At TO thrust, each 3T below the max climb weight, you increase

your climb gradient by 1%

Both engine running: climb gradient multiplied by 4: 2,4% x 4 = 9,6%