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Optional reading: Logic and Proofs, page 334 (Appendix A) of the textbook.
The set with no element is called the empty set, and is denoted by .
1
2
We have
N Z Q R.
The real line: It is convenient to identify real numbers with points on a line.
1/2 2
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
There are real numbers which are not rational. These numbers are called irra-
tional numbers. So R\Q is the set of all irrational numbers.
Theorem 1.2.1. 2 is irrational.
Proof of Theorem 1.2.1: Suppose 2 is rational. Then
n
2=
m
where n and m are integers with no common factor other than 1. Then
n2
2= 2
m
and
2m2 = n2 .
This says that n2 is even. So n is also even, and n = 2k for some integer k.
Substituting this into the last equation, we get
2m2 = 4k2 .
So
m2 = 2k2 .
3
But this says m2 is even. So m is also even. It follows that 2 isa common factor
for n and m. This contradicts our assumption on n and m. So 2 is not rational.
Exercise Prove that 3 is irrational.
A more general statement is as follows:
Exercise Show that if n is a natural number, and there is no natural number
whose square is n, then n is NOT a rational number.
1.3. The natural numbers. We shall assume that N has the following funda-
mental property:
Example If A = {203, 206, 209, 212, ...}, then the least element in A is 203.
Note that A has no largest element.
Exercise Prove that the principle of mathematical induction also implies the
well-ordering principle. So these two statements are equivalent.
4
S = {k | {1, 2, . . . , k} N r A}.
So P(k + 1) is true.
By the principle of mathematical induction, P(n) is true for all n N.
5
1. a + b = b + a, a, b R.
2. (a + b) + c = a + (b + c), a, b, c R.
3. 0 R such that 0 + a = a + 0 = a, a R.
4. For each a R, a R such that
a + (a) = (a) + a = 0.
5. ab = ba, a, b R.
6. (ab)c = a(bc), a, b, c R.
7. 1 R such that 1 , 0 and 1a = a1 = a a R.
8. If a R and a , 0, then a1 R such that
a a1 = a1 a = 1.
9. a(b + c) = ab + ac, a, b, c R.
Notation
means for every;
means there exists.
Remark
6
Any nonempty set F together with two operations called addition and multipli-
cation satisfying the conditions 1-9 is called a field. So Q and C are fields, but
Z and N are not.
Notation
We write a b if a < b or a = b.
1.6. Intervals.
So by Rule 1, either (i) 2x 1 > 0 and x + 2 > 0, or (ii) 2x 1 < 0 and x + 2 < 0.
1 1
For (i) x > and x > 2 x > .
2 2
1
For (ii) x < and x < 2 x < 2.
2
1
So the solution set is {x R : x > } {x R : x < 2}, that is, (, 2)
2
1
( , ).
2
3x + 1 1
Example Solve < .
2x + 3 2
Solution:
9
Solution: We have
3x + 1 1 3x + 1 1
< <0
2x + 3 2 2x + 3 2
4x 1
<0
2(2x + 3)
4x 1
2(2x + 3)2 < 2(2x + 3)2 0
2(2x + 3)
(2x + 3)(4x 1) < 0.
By Rule 2, we either have (i) 2x + 3 > 0 and 4x 1 < 0, or (i) 2x + 3 < 0 and
4x 1 > 0.
3 1 3 1
For (i), x > and x < < x < .
2 4 2 4
3 1
For (ii), x < and x > . But this is impossible.
2 4
3 1 3 1
So the solution set is {x : < x < } = ( , ).
2 4 2 4
1.8. Arithmetic mean and geometric mean. Definition Let a > 0 and b >
0. Then
a+b
the arithmetic mean of a and b is .
2
the geometric mean of a and b is ab.
1
|x| + |x + 1| < 2 = x + x + 1 < 2 = x <
2
1
= 0 < x < .
2
Case II. 1 x 0.
|x| + |x + 1| < 2 = x + x + 1 < 2 = 1 < 2
= 1 x 0.
Case III. x < 1.
3
|x| + |x + 1| < 2 = x x 1 < 2 = 2x < 3 = x >
2
3
= < x < 1.
2
3 1
Answer: < x < .
2 2
Proof: We have
|a| a |a|
|b| b |b|.
Adding the inequalities gives
(|a| + |b|) a + b |a| + |b|.
13
|a + b| |a| + |b|.
so
|a| |b| |a b| (1)
Interchanging the roles of a and b, we obtain
Proof: Induction.
14
: (b) A real number L is called the infimum (or greatest lower bound) of S
if
: (i) L is a lower bound of S ;
: (ii) L v for every lower bound v of S .
In this case, we write L = inf S .
The supremum and infimum of of a set may or may not be elements of the set.
Example
(a) If S 1 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, then sup S 1 = 4 and inf S 1 = 1. Both 4 and 1 are
elements of S 1 .
(b) If S 2 = (0, 1), then sup S 2 = 1 and inf S 2 = 0. Both 0 and 1 are not
elements of S 2 .
(c) If S 3 = (0, 2) [3, 5]. Then sup S 3 = 5 and inf S 3 = 0. Note that 5 is an
element of S 3 but 0 is not.
(d) If S 4 = [72, ), then inf S 4 = 72 but sup S 4 does not exist.
(e) R = (, ) has no supremum and no infimum.
In the example above, max S 1 = 4 and min S 1 = 1, but the set S 2 has no
maximum and no minimum.
16
So
x b x S ,
and this says b is an upper bound for A. Since A is bounded above, by the
supremum property of R, A has a supremum u.
Claim: inf S = u.
u is an upper bound for A, so
x u, x A, or equivalently x S .
This gives
x u x S .
Hence u is a lower bound for S .
Let v be another lower bound for S . Then v is an upper bound for A. Since
u = sup A, u v. So u v. Hence inf S = u.
Proof: Suppose the statement is not true. Then there is a real number x such
that x n for all n N. So x is an upper bound for N. By the supremum
property, u = sup N exists.
By taking = 1 and applying Lemma 1.10.1, m N such that
u 1 < m.
So
u < m + 1.
Since m + 1 N, this says that u is not an upper bound for N. But u = sup S ,
so we have obtained a contradiction.
Example Let
( ) ( )
1 1 1
S = : n N = 1, , , ... .
n 2 3
Prove that inf S = 0.
Solution: Since 0 is a lower bound for S , inf S 0.
If inf S > 0, then by Corollary 1.10.2, n0 N such that
1
< inf S .
n0
But this contradicts the definition of inf S .
Notation: For any real number x, [x] denotes the greatest integer less than or
equal to x. In the above corollary, [x] = n 1.
Since the statements b2 < 2 and b2 > 2 are both false, we must have b2 = 2.
Uniqueness: Is it possible to have a positive number a such that a , b and
a2 = 2?
Using similar reasoning, we can prove that for any positive real number c, there
exists a unique positive real number b such that b2 = c. We call b the positive
square root of c and write
b = c.
Remark: The reasoning used in the proof for Theorem 1.11.1 can also be
used to show that the supremum property does not hold for Q. In fact, the set
A = {r Q : r 0, r2 < 2} does not have a supremum in Q.
21
1.12. Density of Q. .
a b
Proof: By the density theorem, r Q such that < r < . So a < r 2 <
2 2
b and r 2 is irrational.
I1 I2 I3 In In+1
\
The intersection of all the intervals I1 , I2 , ... is denoted by In , that is,
n=1
\
In = {x R : x In n N}.
n=1
Example For each n N, let In = [0, 1/n]. Then I1 , I2 , ... is a nested sequence
\
of closed intervals. What is In ?
n=1
\
\
\
What about (0, 1/n), (0, 1/n] and [n, ) ?
n=1 n=1 n=1
23
Proof: Let A = {an : n N} and B = {bm : m N}. Then both A and B are
bounded. (Why?)
Let a = sup A and b = inf B.
Uniqueness:
(i) Given x [0, 1], is the sequence (a1 , a2 , ...) constructed above unique?
(ii) Given a sequence (a1 , a2 , ...) of 0s and 1s, does it uniquely determine a
real number x in [0, 1]?
1.15. Decimal Representations. Let x [0, 1]. Then there is a sequence
(b1 , b2 , b3 , ...) of integers in {0, 1, 2, ..., 9} such that for all n N,
b1 b2 bn b1 b2 bn + 1
(1.15.1) + 2 + + n x + 2 + + .
10 10 10 10 10 10n
In this case, we say that x has a decimal representation given by
x = 0.b1 b2 b3
26
To obtain the sequence (b1 , b2 , ...) for x, we follow the process for obtaining a
binary representation except that we now divide the interval at each stage into
10 equal subintervals.
Definition
(i) We say that the decimal 0.b1 b2 is repeating (or periodic) if there ex-
ists k and m such that
bn+m = bn n k.
It turns out that a real number is rational if and only if its decimal representation
is repeating! So irrational numbers have nonrepeating decimals, for example,
2 = 1.414213562373095
Question: Do you think that there are more rational numbers than irrational
numbers, more irrational numbers than rational numbers or about the same
numbers of each?
Answer: Read Section 1.3 on finite and infinite sets, Proposition 2.5.4 and The-
orem 2.5.5 of the textbook.