Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Physics
11B
9 June 2016
The Thermal Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite
With the constant advancements that are being made in technology and the
transportation industry, people begin to wonder what else can be done. With technology,
the future of transportation could be a light guided, levitating train. The experiment
conducted was to observe the acceleration of pyrolytic graphite discs. Pyrolytic graphite
is a material that is strongly diamagnetic at room temperature. The graphite was placed
above a grid of magnets and its diamagnetic property repelled the magnetic fields and it
levitated. When exposed to a laser with a focus, the graphite heats up at the point of the
laser and makes the magnetic field unstable causing the graphite to move in the direction
of the laser. Using different thickness and different diameters of pyrolytic graphite discs a
two factor design of experiment was conducted. The experiment proved that the thickness
of the discs was significant while the diameter of the discs proved insignificant. The
graphite disc with the lowest thickness and the smallest diameter had the most
Introduction ...................................................................................................................................... 1
Experimental Design........................................................................................................................ 8
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................... 18
Acknowledgements ........................................................................................................................ 21
Introduction
Throughout time many people have made the assumption that magnetic levitation
was nothing but science fiction, however it is not only real but also the future of
transportation. There are many occurrences of magnetic levitation being used to create
high speed transportation systems, such as trains. These magnetic levitating trains are
known as maglevs, which is derived from the first three letters of the words magnetic and
levitating (Wilson).
Japan developed a train in the 1990s that could exceed speeds of 563 kilometers
per hour (kph), or 350 miles per hour (mph). This was the fastest maglev that has been
recorded. The first patent for the concept for a magnetic levitating train was made in 1934
by Hermann Kemper, while the idea did not start to develop until 24 years later. The
design of a maglev is a train with magnets on the bottom or sides and opposing magnets
in the rails or walls that attract and repel to provide a magnetic suspension for the train.
Currently Japan has a commercial train that reaches speeds of 431 kph, 250 mph, and
transports people 19 miles in 8 minutes. Advances in technology will only make these
magnetic levitation can be achieved. While most substances in the world are diamagnetic,
means that pyrolytic graphite repels all other magnetic forces and fields. When the
graphite is placed above a grid of permanent magnets with alternating positive and
negative forces, its diamagnetism pushes against the magnetic field and the graphite is
suspended above the grid. Differences in the diameter and thickness of the graphite were
Meesseman Rasch 2
used to determine which combination had the most acceleration when exposed to a laser.
The laser heats up the graphite and creates an unbalance in the magnetic field and
weakens the diamagnetism in the graphite lowering the levitation height at the point at
which the laser is focused on, forcing the graphite to move in the direction of the laser
(Zyga). The distance of the track was divided by the time it took each disc to make the
length of the track, and then divided by the time again to calculate the acceleration.
Temperature was a factor that was not used because the graphites temperature is already
being altered, and the increase or decrease in temperature of permanent magnets can
Different factors when testing provide real-life examples that can be helpful in
determining new forms of transportation. Using different levels of each factor, such as
different thicknesses or different diameter discs, can be useful in observing how the
graphite can be used with limited conditions in different places around the world. Places
might only be able to make or obtain graphite of a certain thickness or a certain diameter,
the experiment explored the variations. The laser could also provide possible ideas of
Review of Literature
The experiment tried to solve the question of which disc varying in thickness and
diameter of pyrolytic graphite would have the fastest acceleration when exposed to a
laser. The belief is that the laser will cause the smallest diameter and the thinnest disc to
The first laser was constructed by Theodore Maiman in 1960 at the Hughes
Research Laboratory in California with nothing but a flash lamp and a ruby rod
(Townes). The word laser is not really a word at all, it is actually an acronym for Light
design as shown in Figure 1 below. A laser is created when an electric current is passed
through a laser medium that can be composed of either gasses, crystals, or glasses, and
then becomes excited. As the excited particles move to the outer orbit around the nucleus
and back down to their original orbit, or ground state, they emit photons of light. These
photons all emit the same color wavelength as they are produced, they are coherent. The
wavelength of a laser determines the color of photons that are emitted by the excited
(Frequently Asked)
Figure 1 shows the components of a laser. The mirrors in the laser allow the
photons to be reflected and a small concentrated amount that escapes through the second
Meesseman Rasch 4
mirror make the beam of light, or the laser beam. Different mediums such as; argon,
helium, neon, rubies, or liquid dyes can make changes in the wavelength. Each medium
creates its own wavelength and color (Frequently Asked ). Argon ion laser produce a
blue wavelength, in the range around 450 nm. A blue laser, most likely, with an argon ion
The electric current can either be macroscopic, like the electric current in wires, or
microscopic, like the actual electrons in orbit (Nave). Alternatively, there are materials
that have magnetic fields, magnets. There are generally two different types of magnets,
magnets, or magnets with any composition other than lanthanide or actinides as the rare-
permanent magnets are made of the lanthanide neodymium. Neodymium magnets have
the chemical makeup of Nd Fe B, which means that there are two neodymium atoms,
2 14
fourteen atoms of iron, and only one atom of boron. Scientists believe that neodymium is
the strongest magnetic material, allowing the magnets to receive a gauss rating of 13,500
or more, while a conventional fridge magnet has a rating of a mere 50 gauss (Anissimov,
Foster, What is a). The strengths of these magnets are noted with the letter N
followed by a number. The weakest on the strength scale is N24 and the largest being
magnets can attract and hold up to one thousand times their own weight. With their
incredible size-to-strength ratio, these magnets are used around the world for many
Meesseman Rasch 5
industrial purposes (Anissimov, Foster, What are Neodymium). The magnets used in
the experiment where a quarter inch diameter and an eighth inch thick with a pulling
force of approximately 3.5 pounds. These tiny magnets have an incredible magnetic force
for being smaller than a common penny. These magnets provided an excellent magnetic
magnetic fields (Diamagnetism and Levitation). The force, even with strong
observed in specific conditions. One such example of this phenomenon was the
experiment to levitate a frog (Simon and Geim). Formulas were used to calculate how
strong the magnets needed to be to create a stable zone for the frog to levitate, this was
accomplished because water, H O, is weakly diamagnetic and with frogs having a high
2
proportion of their bodies being water they were able to be levitated. Some materials in
the world are weakly diamagnetic if they are not magnetic. One such material that is
diamagnetic is pyrolytic graphite. This form type of graphite has a high presence of
diamagnetism. Aside from being highly diamagnetic, it also transfers heat very well. This
graphite, a laser to heat up the graphite, a neodymium magnet track that will allow the
In this case, the laser was used to concentrate its light onto the pyrolytic graphite
in order to heat it up, which therefore causes an unbalance in the magnetic field. When
the laser heats up the graphite, it expands the molecules making their structure not as
uniform and lowering is diamagnetic presence. This causes it to become less diamagnetic
at the point at which the laser is shining. The weakened diamagnetic properties at this
point lowers the height that the disc is suspended at. The strong diamagnetism on the rest
of disc is still pushing against the magnetic field and is now pushing on an angle and
propelling itself in the direction of the laser, or the point that has the lower diamagnetism
(Zyga).
Meesseman Rasch 7
Problem Statement
Problem Statement:
Starting from rest which combination of pyrolytic graphite thickness and diameter
Hypothesis:
Pyrolytic graphite of the smallest diameter and thickness will experience the
Data Measured:
The independent variables in this experiment are the diameter (small, average,
and large) of the pyrolytic graphite and the thickness (thin, average, and thick) of the
graphite discs. The dependent variable is the acceleration (in meters per second squared)
of the graphite during exposure to a laser. A two factor design of experiment (DOE) was
used with 7 trials per DOE. Three DOEs were conducted and the data was used to
analyze the effect of temperature and size of pyrolytic graphite on the acceleration of the
Experimental Design
Materials:
Compass
Glass beaker 250 mL
Laser 5 W
Metal track 152.4mm long x 25.4 mm wide x 12.7 (See Figure 1)
(96) Neodymium magnets 6.35 mm diameter x 3.18 mm thick
Plastic pipette dropper 0.5 mL
Pyrolytic graphite sheet 180 mm long x 115 mm wide x 0.25 mm thick
Ruler
Stopwatch
(2) Sunglasses
Procedures:
I. Precautions
2. Use metal point of the compass to cut out circles with proper diameter
4. Turn the laser on, clear the stopwatch, point the laser at the graphite, and start the
stopwatch
5. Move the graphite from one end of the track to the other, stop the stopwatch, and
3. Calculate the acceleration by dividing the change in velocity by the change in time
Meesseman Rasch 9
Diagram:
Table 1
Factors Used in Experiment
Diameter of Pyrolytic Graphite Thickness of Pyrolytic Graphite
(mm) (mm)
Table 1 shows the two factors that were used to conduct the experiment. There
was a different thicknesses and the diameters of the pyrolytic graphite discs were used to
see which combination would yield the quickest acceleration. The diameter varied from
0.50 mm (low), 0.75 mm (standard), and 1.00 mm (high). The thickness of the graphite
Table 2
Acceleration of Pyrolytic Graphite
Order Trial Accel. Order Trial Accel. Order Trial Accel.
(m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
Table 2 shows the acceleration that was calculated from the velocity for every
=
=
=
=
Figure 4 shows the formula for calculating the velocity of the pyrolytic graphite
and then the acceleration of the graphite. The distance the discs traveled was divided by
how long it took each disc to travel the same distance. The change in velocity of the
discs, from rest, was divided by the time it took the disc to reach the end of the track to
Table 3
Experimental Observations
Trial Observations
3 The discs seemed to be harder to move than expected and started to separate.
Table 3 shows some of the observations made while conducting the experiment.
The thicker pieces were harder to move than the thinner pieces. No damage or holes came
Table 4
Average Acceleration
Runs
Average
Run 1 Run 2 Run 3
Diameter Thickness Accel.
Table 4 shows the acceleration for each of the design of experiments (DOE), and
the average for each combination of factors. The grand average (average of the averages)
is 0.0539 m/s.
Figure 5 shows a dot plot of the standards data collected. Variability of the
consistency in design and execution. A range of standards equal to 0.022 m/s. This
Meesseman Rasch 13
suggests that there is consistency with the results that were collected. There is no
increasing or decreasing trend in the standards, further ensuring the consistency of the
experiment.
Double the range of standards is 0.044; this value will be used later when
determining whether variable effect values are statistically significant to the experiment
Table 5
Effect of Diameter 0.120
0.100
Pyrolytic Graphite
Diameter
Acceleration of
0.080
(-) (+)
(m/s)
0.060
0.052
0.082 0.025 0.056 0.040
Table 5 and Figure 6 show the effect that diameter had on the acceleration of
pyrolytic graphite discs. The Average acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite when the
diameter variable was held high (1.0 mm) and low (0.5 mm). Adding the high values and
dividing by two yields an average of 0.052 m/s. Adding the two low values and dividing
by two yields an average of 0.056 m/s. By subtracting the low value (0.056) from the
high value (0.052), there is a result of -0.004. That means as the diameter increased, on
Table 6
Effect of Thickness
0.120
Thickness
0.0810.100
Pyrolytic Graphite
Acceleration of
(-) (+) 0.080
0.060
(m/s)
0.082 0.025 0.040
0.020 0.027
0.079 0.029
0.000
Average = 0.081 Average = 0.027 -1 Thickness 1
Table 6 and Figure 7 show the effect that thickness had on the acceleration of
pyrolytic graphite discs. The average acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite when the
thickness variable was held high (0.75 mm) and low (0.25 mm). Adding the high values
and dividing by two yields an average of 0.027 m/s. Adding the two low values and
dividing by two yields an average of 0.081 m/s. By subtracting the low value (0.081)
from the high value (0.027), there is a result of -0.054. That means that as the thickness
of the pyrolytic graphite discs increases, on average, the acceleration decreases by 0.054
m/s.
Table 7 0.120
Interaction Effect
Pyrolytic Graphite
0.100
Acceleration of
0.082
0.080
0.079
(m/s)
0.060
D(-)
0.040
0.029
D(+) 0.025
0.020
0.000
-1 Thickness 1
Table 7 and Figure 8 show how the two factors of diameter and thickness
interaction on the acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite. These compare the total averages
Meesseman Rasch 15
of diameter and the total averages of thickness to find the interaction effect. It can be
noted that the slopes of the solid and dotted segments are nearly parallel. This suggests
there was little interaction, or that the effect value was not statistically significant.
The overall interaction effect was found by subtracting the slope of the dashed
segment (-0.0265) from the slope of the solid segment (-0.027). The interaction of
diameter and thickness in this experiment was approximately -0.0005. The -0.0005 value
means that as both diameter and thickness increased, the average acceleration of the
When diameter was held high on its own, an average acceleration of 0.052 m/s
was observed (see Figure 8). The solid segment, which represents the interaction of
diameter and thickness, is shown above. When thickness is held high, there is an average
acceleration of 0.027 m/s; this value is much lower than the 0.052 m/s expected
originally. However, when thickness was held low, there was an average of 0.079 m/s;
Additionally, when diameter was held low, an average acceleration of 0.056 m/s
was observed (see Figure 8). When thickness is held high, there is an average
acceleration of 0.027 m/s, which is again much lower than the original acceleration of
0.052 m/s. However, when thickness is held low, there is an average acceleration of
0.081 m/s. Thickness, when held high, consistently lowers the acceleration of the
graphite, and increases the acceleration of the graphite when held low.
Meesseman Rasch 16
Figure 9 shows the effects of each variable: diameter (D), thickness (T), and their
experiment, its effect value can be compared to double the range of standards (-0.044 and
0.044).
The three different factors were all checked for their effect on the acceleration.
The effect of diameter, -0.004, proved not to be statistically significant, meaning that the
diameter of the graphite discs had little effect on the acceleration of the discs. The effect
of thickness, -0.054, proved to be the only statistically significant, meaning that the
thickness of the graphite discs had a greater effect than any other factor on the
acceleration of the discs. The interaction effect was calculated to be -0.0005 m/s. With
this effect being in the range of standards the interaction between diameter and the
thickness of the pyrolytic graphite discs proved to be insignificant and have very little, to
Only one effect was found to be significant from conducting this experiment. The
effect of thickness was the only significant effect that was determined by doubling the
range of standards. This means that the factor of thickness had the greatest impact on the
= + + + + ""
2 2 2
Figure 10 shows the prediction equation. This equation is made by combining the
grand average, or the average of all the averages, with the effects of the factors and the
interaction all divided by two. This is used to interpolate the acceleration of the pyrolytic
graphite with all the factors affecting the acceleration. The prediction is 0.025 m/s for a
thickness of 0.625 mm and a diameter of 0.875 mm, or halfway between the standards
and the high values for the factors (see Appendix C for sample calculation).
= + + ""
2
includes the grand average and any significant effects divided by two. Thickness was the
only significant factor, and therefore was the only effect to go in the equation. This
equation can be used to interpolate the acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite by using the
only effect that proved significant. The parsimonious prediction is 0.0269 m/s, for a
thickness of 0.625 mm, or halfway between the standard (0.5 mm) and the high (0.75
Conclusion
graphite when exposed to the photons of a laser. The hypothesis that the low diameter
and low thickness would have the highest acceleration was accepted. With the highest
average acceleration of 0.082 m/s, the lowest diameter and lowest thickness factors
provide the evidence to support the original hypothesis. Of the two factors, thickness and
means that as thickness increased, the acceleration of the graphite decreased by 0.054
m/s. With the slopes of the interaction between the two factors being so similar, it
showed that the interaction was not significant, also the diameter was proven to not be
significant.
Most people have heard about magnetism, the attractive and repulsive forces
between two objects, but diamagnetism is the force acting in opposition to externally
applied magnetic fields. The force is very small even in strongly diamagnetic materials.
were explored. When coupled with a grid of neodymium magnets, the diamagnetic
properties of the graphite repel and push against the magnetic field created by the
magnets and levitates the graphite above the magnet grid. With the laser focused at the
graphite, the heat from the laser causes the molecules to expand and decrease the
diamagnetic property that it had from its uniform structure. The area will have a
weakened diamagnetic properties and with have a lower height of levitation above the
magnets than the other half, and the diamagnetism will push on an angle moving the disc
forward (Zyga). The time it took for the graphite to reach the end of the six-inch track
Meesseman Rasch 19
was recorded and used to calculate the velocity and the and then the acceleration. The
thickness was significant because it was more difficult to heat up and weaken the
diamagnetic property enough to produce a high acceleration. The diameter did not appear
to make a difference because the diameter only changed the difficulty of the laser
Although reliable data was collected from this experiment, there were some flaws
in the experiment that could have affected the data. The primary issue that could have led
to problems in the data was the discs not finishing the length of the track while being
moved. Often, the laser would move off of the edge of the pyrolytic graphite and this
would cause the disc to stop moving which resulted in the trial run having to be re-
conducted. This could have caused small inconsistencies in the data resulting from the
continuous re-runs of the trials. The laser also had to focus differently for each different
trial to keep the discs from revolving around the point of focus that the laser was at. The
smaller discs and thinner discs would often rotate in a circle around the point at which the
beam was at. This is because the laser was covering a larger portion of the discs, and they
While diamagnetic materials are still hard to work with and not fully taken
advantage of, this research could be a gateway into the exploration of diamagnetic
magnetic levitating train system, or maglevs. Although these trains are electromagnetic,
there could be better ways to make a levitating train system without the use of these
electromagnets. Research, such as this, could help the potential idea of a laser guided or
technology and a vast amount of lasers with incredible power, such an idea could be
possible. The use of infrared lasers could even be used to provide the heat needed to
move the diamagnetic materials without the creating a beam of light visible in the
spectrum that humans can see, which would make the beam safer. Transportation systems
with the use of diamagnetic properties of materials could be the future of everyday
transportation.
Meesseman Rasch 21
Acknowledgements
We are unable to express how thankful we are for all the help from our teachers.
Our teachers Mr. McMillan and Mrs. Cybulski have proved a vast amount constructive
criticism that helped us make this paper with a quality that is to be not only required but
unexpected and intelligent. Without all of their time and effort they put into checking and
rechecking our paper section by section and the helpful ideas to improve this paper and
Without help from close friends and other students this paper would not have
been completed. Our friends provided helpful comments and ideas for how to incorporate
all of our ideas into this one paper and make it scientifically accurate.
A final thank you to our parents and families for supporting our idea and allowing
the purchasing of materials that could be harmful if not used carefully. And another thank
you to Mr. McMillan and for helping us adjust our topic to make it something worth
researching and presenting, while giving us the moral to further investigate the idea.
Meesseman Rasch 22
Figure 12 shows how the magnets were placed on the track. They were placed in
an alternating positive and negative pattern so they will stay together and create a
magnetic field. The magnets are in four columns of twenty-four magnets, for a total of
ninety-six.
Meesseman Rasch 23
0.15240 0.1524
= = = 0.049 /
3.070 3.07
0.0490 0.049
= = = 0.016 /
3.070 3.07
Figure 13 shows an example problem of how to calculate the velocity and the
acceleration of the pyrolytic graphite disc from when the diameter and thickness were
both held high in the third DOE. The velocity was calculated by taking the distance the
disc traveled, the length of the track, and dividing by the time it took the disc to get
across the track. The acceleration was calculated by taking the velocity of the disc and
dividing by the time it took the disc to reach the end of the track. All of the initial values
for these calculations were zero because the disc was at rest at the start of the trails.
Meesseman Rasch 24
= + 2 + 2 + + ""
2
= 0.025 /
Figure 14 shows the formula of the prediction equation and what the prediction is.
The prediction is equal to the sum of the grand average (average of the all the averages),
the effects divided by 2, and noise. Noise is an unquantifiable effect that accounts for
design flaws or other factors that may have affected the data.
= + 2 + ""
0.054
= 0.054 + + ""
2
= 0.027 /
Figure 15 shows the formula of the parsimonious prediction equation and what
the prediction is. The prediction is equal to the sum of the grand average (average of the
all the averages), the statistically significant effects divided by 2, and noise. Noise is an
unquantifiable effect that accounts for design flaws or other factors that may have
Works Cited
neodymium-magnet.htm>.
- - - "What Are Neodymium Magnets?" WiseGeek. Conjecture, n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2016.
<http://www.wisegeek.org/what-are-neodymium-magnets.htm>.
"Diamagnetism and Levitation." K&J Magnetics Blog. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 Mar. 2016.
<https://www.kjmagnetics.com/blog.asp?p=diamagnetic-levitation>.
"Frequently Asked Questions About Lasers." U.S. Food and Drug Administration. U.S.
<http://www.fda.gov/Radiation-
EmittingProducts/RadiationEmittingProductsandProcedures/HomeBusinessandEn
tertainment/LaserProductsandInstruments/ucm116362.htm>.
<https://lasers.llnl.gov/education/how_lasers_work>.
Nave, Carl R. "Magnetic Field." Hyper Physics. N.p., n.d. Web. 24 Apr. 2016.
<http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/magnetic/magfie.html>.
"New World Record Speed for Trains." Maglev NET. N.p., n.d. Web. 8 May 2016.
<http://www.maglev.net/new-world-record-speed>.
Magnets (invited)." J. Appl. Phys. Journal of Applied Physics 87.9 (2000): 6200.
Web. <http://www.physics.ucla.edu/marty/diamag/diajap00.pdf>.
Meesseman Rasch 26
Townes, Charles H. "The First Laser." The University of Chicago Press. Ed. Laura
Garwin and Tim Lincoln. The University of Chicago, 2003. Web. 24 Apr.
2016. <http://www.press.uchicago.edu/Misc/Chicago/284158_townes.html>.
2016. <https://sites.tufts.edu/eeseniordesignhandbook/2015/maglev-magnetic-levi
tating-trains/>.
Zyga, Lisa. "Magnetically Levitating Graphite Can Be Moved with Laser." Phys.org.
<http://phys.org/news/2012-12-magnetically-levitating-graphite-laser.html>.