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Chemistry - 10B
Introduction
65 million years ago, the dinosaur race was demolished by a colossal asteroid
that hit the Earth. This evolutionary change buried the dinosaurs bones under several
layers of rock and sediment fossilizing them. These bones and organic life from millions
of years ago provide the most used fuel source, fossil fuel. Every year the world
consumes about 11 million tons of oil in fossil fuels, which represent about 70% of
humans fuel consumption (Fossil Fuels). However, fossil fuels are diminishing and
the Earth needs a new source of energy to sustain its human life. What could be a
Since November of last year, California has been facing one of its most severe
droughts on record, with 37 million people being affected by staggering rain shortages
of more than 40 inches (U.S. Drought Monitor). This drought has dwindled reservoirs,
drained lakes, and dried up farm fields, and is showing no signs of stopping. Such a
lack of water affects every living organism, from the tiniest insects to human beings.
Droughts are not exclusively domestic, either - they are international, plaguing entire
continents like Australia and Africa. If there is a way to produce water from easily
and clean fuel source, and can produce clean, pure water where it is so desperately
needed. Any risks of bacteria and viruses in the newly formed water would be
eliminated by the heat used to fuel the production of the water. This experiment set out
to find the most efficient way of doing these two things, in hopes of taking steps to solve
chloride (NaCl) were first added to distilled water to create 1, 2, and 3 molarity salt
solutions. Then, a portable DC power source was used to send different voltages of
electricity through the solution to cause it to electrolyze. The two factors, voltage and
solution molarity, created four different testing environments, in addition to the standard
trial conditions. The amount of hydrogen gas was measured in cubic centimeters after
each trial was ran for five minutes. This helped to determine which conditions would
Based on these results, the most efficient method of hydrogen production can be
analyzed. The factors with the greatest amount of hydrogen in the five minutes can be
revolutionize the world for the better. The fastest method would also help humanity
produce water and give drought ridden areas a clean solution. Pure hydrogen proves
Review of Literature
The purpose of this experiment was to find the effect of NaCl solution molarity
and voltage of electric current on the rate of electrolysis of water. Three solutions, 1, 2,
and 3M, were prepared. Then, using an adjustable DC (direct current) power supply,
three different voltages (9-volt, 12-volt, and 15-volt) were passed through the solution,
and the amount of hydrogen gas produced was measured; this indicated which
combination of salt molarity and voltage was the most efficient in electrolysis.
Electrolysis is the term for a chemical reaction caused by the passage of direct
electric current, when the reaction would not have occurred on its own (Song). A subset
When this reaction occurs, the neutral, liquid H2O molecules split into gaseous
method. The bubbles formed are the oxygen and hydrogen ions splitting and escaping
to the tops of the test tubes, because the gases are less dense than water (John).
An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into ions in solution, thereby gaining the
ability to conduct electricity. A liquid like water can be transformed into an electrolyte
with the addition of an ionic compound, a bond between and positively charged metal
turns the liquid H2O into an electrolyte. In the water, the compound dissociates into the
two elements it is composed of, a cation and an anion. The cation and anion both have
charges, which in turn gives the solution the ability to electrolyze and conduct electricity.
(Electrolytes).
The ionic compound added to the water in this experiment was sodium chloride,
NaCl, and it was added in different amounts (or molarities): 1, 2, and 3 moles. The
molarity affects the ionization because additional ions results in more electricity running
through the solution, and a faster splitting of the H2O molecules. This variable was
chosen based on the use of ocean water, which contains salt and can be used to
When the electrolytic solution has a pair of electrodes that have been submerged
in the solution (as shown in Figure 2), electrolysis can occur. The electrodes attract
oppositely charged ions from the solution. After the electric current has fully separated
the water molecules, there are ions, charged particles, floating in the solution. The
negatively charged anions, oxygen atoms, shift towards the positively charged electrode
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 5
(anode) while the positively charged cations, hydrogen atoms, shift towards the
experiment. The battery provides the electric current, and the anode and cathode tubes
are submerged in the electrolyte solution. When the current runs through said solution,
the ionized oxygen (O2-) atoms are drawn towards the positively charged anode, while
the hydrogen (H+) atoms are drawn towards the negatively charged cathode. Since the
ions are gases, they are less dense than the solution and float to the tops of the test
tubes, where the quantity of gas produced can be measured using the lines marked on
theory states that when a larger number of intermolecular collisions occur in a system,
there is an increased probability that the molecules will complete the desired reaction
because the NaCl solution molarity is held high, there is more dissociation of the ions
(causing a larger number of free ions, and therefore more conduction of electricity).
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 6
The other factor of the experiment is voltage, or the numerical value of the
difference between two points in the electrical field. This value also describes the force
with which the electrons in an electrical current travel. Three different voltages were
used: 9 volts, 12 volts, and 15 volts. Nine-volt batteries can be found easily, but most
voltages above that are not found in stores (Beaty). Instead of batteries, a portable
electric power supply (seen in Figure 3 below) was used to change voltages between
trials. The different voltages were chosen to see if an increase in the force of electrons
Figure 3 shows the portable direct current power supply used in this experiment.
Refer to Appendix B to set the machine up and how to operate it properly. Accurate
adjustments can be made to the voltage for different trials with the knob located near
One such experiment was run to see which electrolyte conducted electricity the best
(Electrolysis of Water Experiment). This was not a factor in the current experiment,
but it was used as a basis when making the NaCl solutions. Different types of
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 7
electrolytes, such as dish detergent, lemon juice, and table salt, were added to distilled
water with the same amount of voltage running through the solution. This experiment
differs from the other because different variables were used (type of water, instead of
solution molarity), and the electricity run through the electrolyte was run at three
There was also another experiment which ran electricity through water and
observed the formation of hydrogen and oxygen bubbles ("Splitting Water: Electrolysis
Experiment"). However, electrolytes were not added to the water in this experiment, so
the water did not conduct much electricity. This experiment was used to determine the
fact that electrolytes must be added for gas production to take place.
Another experiment compared molarity of the solution, voltage input, and water
temperature (Bimberg). Three different water temperatures, three voltages, and three
different molarity solutions were tested. This experiment is different because sodium
chloride, salt, was used instead of magnesium sulfate, and temperature was constant.
Bimbergs experiment influenced this experiments setup and had an influence on which
There are numerous reasons why this experiment is important to todays world.
Hydrogen can be transformed into an alternative, clean, and efficient fuel. This reduces
humanitys dependence on fossil fuels and reduces the pollution threat to the world.
The electrolysis can also solve drought problems in regions such as California, Africa,
and Australia by acting like hydrolysis and separating the other impurities from dirty
water to produce gaseous hydrogen. Then the hydrogen can be combined with oxygen
Problem Statement:
Which combination of NaCl solution molarity (1, 2, or 3M) and voltage (9, 12, or
15 volts) will produce the most hydrogen gas during five minutes of water electrolysis?
Hypothesis:
The largest amount of hydrogen will be produced if the highest voltage, 15 volts,
Data Measured:
The independent variables in this experiment are the voltage of the electric
current and the molarity of each solution. The dependent variable is the volume (in cm3)
graduated cylinders with milliliter measurement lines will be used. When the hydrogen
floats to the top of the test tube, the amount of space (up to a certain mark on the
graduated cylinder) that the gas occupies will be used to determine the volume of gas
produced. A two factor DOE will be used to analyze the effect of molarity and voltage
Experimental Design
Materials:
Procedures:
I. Precautions
2. To avoid electrocution, do not touch or place metal objects in the beaker during
the electrolysis process.
3. Do not have any open flames in the vicinity of the experiment. Hydrogen gas is
highly flammable.
4. If large amounts of hydrogen gas are released into the room, open a window to
let the gas out.
2. Plug the alligator clips into adjustable DC power supply. The red cord goes into
the red outlet, and the black cord into the black outlet.
3. Add 200 mL of the solution which is required in the trial (1M, 2M, or 3M of NaCl
solution) to the 300 mL beaker.
4. FIll the two 10 mL graduated cylinders with some of the solution from the beaker
and place them upside-down into the beaker.
5. Set the black and red alligator clips and their electrodes into the solution.
6. Turn the positive and negative electrodes upside down and insert them, clip-up,
into the different 10 mL graduated cylinders.
8. Plug in the adjustable DC power supply, turn the power on, and adjust it to the
correct voltage (9, 12, or 15 volts).
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 10
9. Run the 21 trials (3 runs each containing 3 standards and 4 other trials).
1. After running each trial, record the volume of hydrogen gas produced (to the
nearest tenth-cm3) in Table 2 below. In addition, record any observations
(anything that set one trial apart or could have influenced the data collected) in
Table 3 below.
Diagram:
Figure 4 shows the major materials used in this experiment. The 1000 mL
beakers contained the 1M, 2M, and 3M solutions, while the DC power supply was used
to run electricity through the solutions.The graduated cylinder was used to measure the
hydrogen gas that was produced during the trial. The electric current was transferred
through the solution by the electrodes and alligator clips. Not pictured is the scale, used
at the beginning of the experiment to measure the quantity of sodium chloride required
Table 1
Factors Used in Experiment
Molarity of NaCl Solution Voltage
(mol/L) (volts)
1M 2M 3M 9 12 15
Table 1 shows the values of the two factors employed in the experiment.
Different combinations of solution molarity and current voltage were used for water
electrolysis to see which would produce the largest quantity of hydrogen gas. The
values for molarity were 1M (low), 2M (standard), and 3M (high); the values for voltage
Table 2
Hydrogen Production in Five Minutes (cm3)
Order Trial Result Order Trial Result Order Trial Result
(cm3) (cm3) (cm3)
Table 2 shows the 21 data points collected during the experiment. The
independent (predictor) variables were the molarity of the NaCl solution and the voltage
of the electric current; the response variable was the production of hydrogen gas (in
cubic centimeters).
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 12
Table 3
Experimental Observations
Trial Observations
1 Solution turned near pitch black, due to color dissipating from electrodes.
6 First (+ , +) trial; high salt concentration and high voltage caused the
water to turn a darker green color.
9 The solution was near-translucent until the test tubes were lifted up. The
solution suddenly became a yellowish green color, darker than other
trials.
12 Solution was almost completely clear, with no yellow coloring even after
the two test tubes were removed. Attributed to the rusting alligator clip.
13 One of the alligator clips showed signs of rusting and was replaced right
after the trial. After comparing previous trials to this one, the conclusion
was made that the results of following trials were not affected.
14 The new alligator caused the solution to turn a darker green once again,
but the hydrogen output was unaffected.
17 Solution turned very dark because of new electrode (similar to trial 1).
Trial Observations
21 The alligator clips were again showing signs of rusting but were not
replaced because this was the final trial.
alligator clips and electrodes, lab conditions, and issues with solutions were recorded,
Figure 5 shows the first trial of the experiment, which turned almost black after
the lead electrodes were stripped of some of their dark metallic coating.
Figure 6 illustrates the change in color in the solution in most trials as time
In this experiment, quantitative data was collected. The data collected was the
amount of hydrogen gas produced from the electrolysis of water. A two-factor DOE was
used, because there were two factors: molarity of NaCl solution and voltage. The data
collected was valid because the trials were repeated and run in a random order;
standards were also used to measure the consistency of the experiments results.
Table 4
Averages for Five Runs
Runs First Second Third Average
DOE DOE DOE
Molarity Voltage
Table 4 shows the amount of hydrogen produced in each trial (in cm3), in addition
to the average amount for each combination of molarity and voltage. The experimental
grand average was found by averaging the four trial averages (standards not included).
conjunction with 0.4 in (+ , +) trials, 0.3 in (+ , -) and (- , +), and 0.5 in (- , -) suggests
consistency in the experiment and thus reliability in the data collected. There is no
Double the range of standards is 1.2; this value will be used later when
Table 5
Effect of Molarity
Molarity
(-) (+)
0.9 4.7
2.2 2.8
Table 5 and Figure 8 above show the effect of molarity. Subtracting the low
value (1.6) from the high value (3.8) resulted in about 2.2. This 2.2 value means that as
molarity was raised, on average, the amount of H2(g) produced went up by 2.2 cm3.
This effect was significant to this experiment, since it was outside the bars set up at -1.2
(-) (+)
0.9 4.7
2.8 2.2
Table 6 and Figure 9 above show the effect of voltage. Subtracting the low value
(1.9) from the high value (3.5) resulted in about 1.6. This 1.6 value means that as
voltage was raised, on average, 1.6 cm3 more hydrogen was produced. This effect was
also statistically significant, as it was between -1.2 and 1.2 (see Figure 7).
Table 7
Interaction Effect
Voltage
(-) (+)
Solid (+)
2.8 4.7
Segment
Molarity
Dashed (-)
0.93 2.2
Segment
Table 7 and Figure 10 above show the interaction of molarity and voltage. The
solid segment represents the results when molarity was held high (3M), and the dashed
segment represents the results when molarity was held low (1M).
It can be noted that the slopes of the solid and dotted segments are nearly
parallel. This suggests there was little interaction, or that the effect value was not
statistically significant.
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 17
The overall interaction effect was found by subtracting the slope of the dashed
segment (0.92) from the slope of the dotted segment (0.65). The interaction of molarity
and voltage in this experiment was approximately 0.27. The 0.27 value means that as
both variables were raised, the amount of hydrogen produced went up by 0.27 cm3.
This statement was supported by the fact that the (+,+) trial averaged 4.7 cm3, while the
When molarity was held high on its own, an average of 3.8 cm3 of hydrogen was
produced (see Figure 8). The solid segment, which represents the interaction of
molarity and voltage, is shown above. When voltage was held low, the value was 2.8;
this value was lower than the 3.8 expected originally. However, when voltage was held
high, the value was 4.7; this value was higher than the expected 3.9 cm3.
Additionally, when voltage was held high, an average of 3.5 cm3 of hydrogen was
produced (see Figure 9) When molarity was held low, hydrogen production averaged
only 2.2 cm3, once again lower than the original 3.5. However, when molarity was held
high, this value went up to 4.7 cm3. Not only was this higher than the average of 3.5, it
was also the greatest average in the experiment. Voltage, when held low, consistently
lowered hydrogen production rates, and when held low, increased hydrogen production
Figure 11 shows the effects of each variable: molarity (M), voltage (V), and their
experiment, its effect value was compared to double the range of standards. In this
case, the range of standards was 0.6 (from 2.7 cubic centimeters to 3.3 cubic
centimeters). Doubling the range of standards yields 1.2, so any effect value outside
the bars at -1.2 and 1.2 was deemed statistically significant. This experiments
statistically significant factors were molarity (2.2) and voltage (1.6), meaning that both
variables played a significant role in the production of hydrogen in the trials conducted.
only the grand average plus any statistically significant variables (those whose effect
values are outside -1.2 or 1.2). Both molarity and voltage were included, but their
effects were halved in the equation. Noise is a non-numerical value that accounts for
design flaws, human error, or other events that could have affected data.
Y = 3.65
Figure 13 shows a prediction of 3.65 cm3. The prediction is for a molarity of 2.5,
or halfway between the standard (2M) and the high (3M) values. Since 2.5M is halfway
between the standard (0) and the high value (1), 0.5 was plugged into the parsimonious
equation. The same was done for voltage, which would be at 10.5 volts. This
combination would likely produce between 3 and 4 cm3 of hydrogen in five minutes.
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 19
Conclusion
variables (solution molarity and voltage) on hydrogen production through the electrolysis
of water. The hypothesis stated that the electrolysis process would be most efficient
(would produce the most hydrogen gas) when both the molarity of the NaCl solution and
the voltage of the electric current were held at their highest values (3 molarity and 15
volts). This hypothesis was accepted. After running 21 trials in a two-factor Design of
Experiment, the most concentrated solution, 3M sodium chloride, and the highest
voltage, 15 volts, when run together, consistently extracted the largest amount of
hydrogen in five minutes. The average for this combination was 4.7 cm3 of hydrogen,
while the other averages were, at best, almost two cubic centimeters behind (the
Both the molarity of the solution and the voltage were significant in this
experiment. The effect of molarity was 2.2, which means that as molarity increased, the
production of hydrogen gas increased by 2.2 cubic centimeters. While not as large, the
effect of voltage was 1.6, meaning the production of hydrogen gas increased by 1.6
cubic centimeters as the voltage was increased. The fact that these variables were
the Electrolysis of Water. This experiment found that the effect of molarity was
from the Journal of Physical Chemistry, the effect of voltage on the electrolysis of water
was tested, and it was found that a higher voltage created more hydrogen (Damon).
Besides previous experiments, there is also a scientific theory that explains why the
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 20
largest amount of hydrogen was produced in the 3M, 15 volt trials. The collision theory
there is a direct link to the increased probability that the molecules will complete the
reaction (Clark). In this experiment, the higher variables create this increase in
intermolecular collisions: when the NaCl solution molarity is held highest, there are
more dissociated sodium (Na+) and chlorine (Cl-) ions to guide and transfer the electric
current through the solution. Thus, the H2O molecules are partitioned more quickly and
This more efficient electric current leads into the next variable, the voltage of the
current itself. When voltage is held high, the cathodes rate of reduction and the
anodes rate of oxidation increase, which speeds up the electrolysis reaction and leads
to an increase in the formation of the products (hydrogen and oxygen). A higher voltage
means there is simply a larger quantity of electrons moving at a faster speed to collide
Throughout the course of the experiment, some errors may have affected the
data. One possible error was the consistency of the NaCl solutions molarities.
Overnight evaporation may have concentrated the solutions beyond their intended
molarity, and the salts tendency to sink and settle at the bottom of the beaker may have
caused uneven distribution even after stirring the solution. Since the effect of molarity
was the largest in the experiment, any issues with consistency in that area could have
notable effects on the data for the trials affected. Another error that could skew the data
is the fact that in some trials, when the graduated cylinders were filled with solution and
tipped upside-down into the beaker, air bubbles escaped to the top. These air bubbles
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 21
were measured and subtracted from the final result, but it was sometimes difficult to tell
Hydrogen is largely used as an energy or fuel source for rockets or, more rarely,
cars (Hydrogen). However, the use of hydrogen as a fuel could and should be further
explored; not only does it conserve precious fossil fuels, it provides a cleaner energy
source that, after ejection, re-oxidizes into water with the oxygen in the air. This
reduced use of fossil fuels will also keep the air cleaner, reducing carbon dioxide
emissions (which in turn slows global warming and the erosion of the ozone layer).
Hydrogens only use does not lie in fuel, however; it can also be used to create
water for drought-ridden areas like Africa and California. After electrolysis of
unsanitized water, the hydrogen gas collected and be mixed with oxygen in a chemical
reaction with applied heat or energy to produce pure clean water. The reaction needs
energy to make the water, this can be done by using a flame. There is an explosion
when they react, not a fiery explosion just a loud sound. With the proper protection this
can easily be done with no side effects (Granger). Hydrogens applications, although
some still in progress, are a clean, efficient solution to many of todays environmental
issues.
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 22
Appendix A
Randomization of Trials:
maximum number, followed by a comma, and then the number of integers that
need to be generated.
5. For this experiment, use randInt(1, 4, 1); since the randomization is for the four
non-standard trials in each run, separately generate random integers until one,
7. The first standard will always be conducted first, followed by the trial represented
by whichever random integer was generated first. For instance, if the first integer
was 3, the (- , +) trial would be conducted. The first, fourth, and seventh trials will
always be standards.
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 23
Appendix B
1. Plug in the cords to their respective ports in the box (red cord in red port, and
2. Plug the machine into the nearest power outlet, and ensure that no water is
3. Turn the knob at the top right to set the machine to the voltage required.
4. Keep the machine running until ten seconds before the end of each trial. Do not
try to unplug the machine or take the cords out while the current is still running.
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 24
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2015. <http://www.eesi.org/topics/fossil-fuels/description>.
Granger, Jill. "H2O - The Chemistry of Water." H2O - The Mystery, Art, and Science of
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