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Molarity and Voltage on the Production of Hydrogen through Electrolysis

Arjun Muralidharan, Jacob Nadolsky, and Ian Rasch

Macomb Mathematics Science Technology Center

Chemistry - 10B

Mrs. Hilliard / Mr. Supal / Mrs. Kincaid Dewey

May 21, 2015


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Introduction

65 million years ago, the dinosaur race was demolished by a colossal asteroid

that hit the Earth. This evolutionary change buried the dinosaurs bones under several

layers of rock and sediment fossilizing them. These bones and organic life from millions

of years ago provide the most used fuel source, fossil fuel. Every year the world

consumes about 11 million tons of oil in fossil fuels, which represent about 70% of

humans fuel consumption (Fossil Fuels). However, fossil fuels are diminishing and

the Earth needs a new source of energy to sustain its human life. What could be a

better replacement for these fossil fuels?

Since November of last year, California has been facing one of its most severe

droughts on record, with 37 million people being affected by staggering rain shortages

of more than 40 inches (U.S. Drought Monitor). This drought has dwindled reservoirs,

drained lakes, and dried up farm fields, and is showing no signs of stopping. Such a

lack of water affects every living organism, from the tiniest insects to human beings.

Droughts are not exclusively domestic, either - they are international, plaguing entire

continents like Australia and Africa. If there is a way to produce water from easily

obtainable gasses this problem could be solved.

Hydrogen is the solution to both of these issues; it can be used as a renewable

and clean fuel source, and can produce clean, pure water where it is so desperately

needed. Any risks of bacteria and viruses in the newly formed water would be

eliminated by the heat used to fuel the production of the water. This experiment set out

to find the most efficient way of doing these two things, in hopes of taking steps to solve

some of todays biggest problems.


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To simulate different environments for electrolysis, different quantities of sodium

chloride (NaCl) were first added to distilled water to create 1, 2, and 3 molarity salt

solutions. Then, a portable DC power source was used to send different voltages of

electricity through the solution to cause it to electrolyze. The two factors, voltage and

solution molarity, created four different testing environments, in addition to the standard

trial conditions. The amount of hydrogen gas was measured in cubic centimeters after

each trial was ran for five minutes. This helped to determine which conditions would

produce the most hydrogen in the same five-minute time frame.

Based on these results, the most efficient method of hydrogen production can be

analyzed. The factors with the greatest amount of hydrogen in the five minutes can be

used by other industries to produce a cheaper, emission-cutting fuel that can

revolutionize the world for the better. The fastest method would also help humanity

produce water and give drought ridden areas a clean solution. Pure hydrogen proves

quite significant in the worlds growing water and energy crises.


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Review of Literature

The purpose of this experiment was to find the effect of NaCl solution molarity

and voltage of electric current on the rate of electrolysis of water. Three solutions, 1, 2,

and 3M, were prepared. Then, using an adjustable DC (direct current) power supply,

three different voltages (9-volt, 12-volt, and 15-volt) were passed through the solution,

and the amount of hydrogen gas produced was measured; this indicated which

combination of salt molarity and voltage was the most efficient in electrolysis.

Electrolysis is the term for a chemical reaction caused by the passage of direct

electric current, when the reaction would not have occurred on its own (Song). A subset

of this term is the electrolysis of water, a decomposition reaction represented by the

balanced chemical equation,

2H2O(l) 2H2(g) + O2(g)

When this reaction occurs, the neutral, liquid H2O molecules split into gaseous

cations (H+) and anions (O2-) (as illustrated in Figure 1 below).

Figure 1. Visual of Electrolysis


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Figure 1 shows an illustration of the electrolysis of water and a general setup

method. The bubbles formed are the oxygen and hydrogen ions splitting and escaping

to the tops of the test tubes, because the gases are less dense than water (John).

To achieve electrolysis, the water has to be first transformed into an electrolyte.

An electrolyte is a substance that dissociates into ions in solution, thereby gaining the

ability to conduct electricity. A liquid like water can be transformed into an electrolyte

with the addition of an ionic compound, a bond between and positively charged metal

and a negatively charged nonmetal. When an ionic compound is added to water, it

turns the liquid H2O into an electrolyte. In the water, the compound dissociates into the

two elements it is composed of, a cation and an anion. The cation and anion both have

charges, which in turn gives the solution the ability to electrolyze and conduct electricity.

(Electrolytes).

The ionic compound added to the water in this experiment was sodium chloride,

NaCl, and it was added in different amounts (or molarities): 1, 2, and 3 moles. The

molarity affects the ionization because additional ions results in more electricity running

through the solution, and a faster splitting of the H2O molecules. This variable was

chosen based on the use of ocean water, which contains salt and can be used to

produce hydrogen for fuel and water.

When the electrolytic solution has a pair of electrodes that have been submerged

in the solution (as shown in Figure 2), electrolysis can occur. The electrodes attract

oppositely charged ions from the solution. After the electric current has fully separated

the water molecules, there are ions, charged particles, floating in the solution. The

negatively charged anions, oxygen atoms, shift towards the positively charged electrode
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(anode) while the positively charged cations, hydrogen atoms, shift towards the

negative electrode (cathode) (Whyte).

Figure 2. Anode and Cathode in Electrolysis

Figure 2 shows an example of an electrolysis setup similar to that used in this

experiment. The battery provides the electric current, and the anode and cathode tubes

are submerged in the electrolyte solution. When the current runs through said solution,

the ionized oxygen (O2-) atoms are drawn towards the positively charged anode, while

the hydrogen (H+) atoms are drawn towards the negatively charged cathode. Since the

ions are gases, they are less dense than the solution and float to the tops of the test

tubes, where the quantity of gas produced can be measured using the lines marked on

the outside of each graduated cylinder.

The collision theory is an important theory in this experiment. The collision

theory states that when a larger number of intermolecular collisions occur in a system,

there is an increased probability that the molecules will complete the desired reaction

(Clark). The increase in intermolecular collisions will happen in this experiment

because the NaCl solution molarity is held high, there is more dissociation of the ions

(causing a larger number of free ions, and therefore more conduction of electricity).
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The other factor of the experiment is voltage, or the numerical value of the

difference between two points in the electrical field. This value also describes the force

with which the electrons in an electrical current travel. Three different voltages were

used: 9 volts, 12 volts, and 15 volts. Nine-volt batteries can be found easily, but most

voltages above that are not found in stores (Beaty). Instead of batteries, a portable

electric power supply (seen in Figure 3 below) was used to change voltages between

trials. The different voltages were chosen to see if an increase in the force of electrons

in the current causes an increase in ionization, and, therefore, faster electrolysis.

Figure 3. Portable DC Power Supply

Figure 3 shows the portable direct current power supply used in this experiment.

Refer to Appendix B to set the machine up and how to operate it properly. Accurate

adjustments can be made to the voltage for different trials with the knob located near

the top right of the machine.

Previous experiments have been conducted relating to the electrolysis of water.

One such experiment was run to see which electrolyte conducted electricity the best

(Electrolysis of Water Experiment). This was not a factor in the current experiment,

but it was used as a basis when making the NaCl solutions. Different types of
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electrolytes, such as dish detergent, lemon juice, and table salt, were added to distilled

water with the same amount of voltage running through the solution. This experiment

differs from the other because different variables were used (type of water, instead of

solution molarity), and the electricity run through the electrolyte was run at three

different voltages instead of just one.

There was also another experiment which ran electricity through water and

observed the formation of hydrogen and oxygen bubbles ("Splitting Water: Electrolysis

Experiment"). However, electrolytes were not added to the water in this experiment, so

the water did not conduct much electricity. This experiment was used to determine the

fact that electrolytes must be added for gas production to take place.

Another experiment compared molarity of the solution, voltage input, and water

temperature (Bimberg). Three different water temperatures, three voltages, and three

different molarity solutions were tested. This experiment is different because sodium

chloride, salt, was used instead of magnesium sulfate, and temperature was constant.

Bimbergs experiment influenced this experiments setup and had an influence on which

factors were chosen.

There are numerous reasons why this experiment is important to todays world.

Hydrogen can be transformed into an alternative, clean, and efficient fuel. This reduces

humanitys dependence on fossil fuels and reduces the pollution threat to the world.

The electrolysis can also solve drought problems in regions such as California, Africa,

and Australia by acting like hydrolysis and separating the other impurities from dirty

water to produce gaseous hydrogen. Then the hydrogen can be combined with oxygen

in a chemical reaction to produce clean, drinkable water.


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Problem Statement:

Which combination of NaCl solution molarity (1, 2, or 3M) and voltage (9, 12, or

15 volts) will produce the most hydrogen gas during five minutes of water electrolysis?

Hypothesis:

The largest amount of hydrogen will be produced if the highest voltage, 15 volts,

is run through the NaCl solution with the highest molarity, 3.

Data Measured:

The independent variables in this experiment are the voltage of the electric

current and the molarity of each solution. The dependent variable is the volume (in cm3)

of hydrogen gas produced during electrolysis of water. To measure this value,

graduated cylinders with milliliter measurement lines will be used. When the hydrogen

floats to the top of the test tube, the amount of space (up to a certain mark on the

graduated cylinder) that the gas occupies will be used to determine the volume of gas

produced. A two factor DOE will be used to analyze the effect of molarity and voltage

on the rate of electrolysis.


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Experimental Design

Materials:

(2) 10 mL Graduated cylinders (2) 0.5 cm 0.5 cm lead electrodes


Scale (0.0001 precision) 1, 2, 3M sodium chloride, NaCl (aq)
(3) 1000 mL beakers (2) Alligator clips
Adjustable DC power supply Timer
Distilled water 300 mL beaker

Procedures:

I. Precautions

1. Wear safety goggles to avoid getting chemicals in eyes.

2. To avoid electrocution, do not touch or place metal objects in the beaker during
the electrolysis process.

3. Do not have any open flames in the vicinity of the experiment. Hydrogen gas is
highly flammable.

4. If large amounts of hydrogen gas are released into the room, open a window to
let the gas out.

II. System Set-Up

1. Attach one lead electrode to each of the alligator clips.

2. Plug the alligator clips into adjustable DC power supply. The red cord goes into
the red outlet, and the black cord into the black outlet.

3. Add 200 mL of the solution which is required in the trial (1M, 2M, or 3M of NaCl
solution) to the 300 mL beaker.

4. FIll the two 10 mL graduated cylinders with some of the solution from the beaker
and place them upside-down into the beaker.

5. Set the black and red alligator clips and their electrodes into the solution.

6. Turn the positive and negative electrodes upside down and insert them, clip-up,
into the different 10 mL graduated cylinders.

7. Set a timer for 5 minutes.

8. Plug in the adjustable DC power supply, turn the power on, and adjust it to the
correct voltage (9, 12, or 15 volts).
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9. Run the 21 trials (3 runs each containing 3 standards and 4 other trials).

III. Data Collection and Observations

1. After running each trial, record the volume of hydrogen gas produced (to the
nearest tenth-cm3) in Table 2 below. In addition, record any observations
(anything that set one trial apart or could have influenced the data collected) in
Table 3 below.

Diagram:

Figure 4. Materials and System Set-up Example

Figure 4 shows the major materials used in this experiment. The 1000 mL

beakers contained the 1M, 2M, and 3M solutions, while the DC power supply was used

to run electricity through the solutions.The graduated cylinder was used to measure the

hydrogen gas that was produced during the trial. The electric current was transferred

through the solution by the electrodes and alligator clips. Not pictured is the scale, used

at the beginning of the experiment to measure the quantity of sodium chloride required

to prepare each solution.


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Data and Observations

Table 1
Factors Used in Experiment
Molarity of NaCl Solution Voltage
(mol/L) (volts)

(-) Standard (+) (-) Standard (+)

1M 2M 3M 9 12 15

Table 1 shows the values of the two factors employed in the experiment.

Different combinations of solution molarity and current voltage were used for water

electrolysis to see which would produce the largest quantity of hydrogen gas. The

values for molarity were 1M (low), 2M (standard), and 3M (high); the values for voltage

were 9 volts (low), 12 volts (standard), and 15 volts (high).

Table 2
Hydrogen Production in Five Minutes (cm3)
Order Trial Result Order Trial Result Order Trial Result
(cm3) (cm3) (cm3)

1 Std. 3.2 1 Std. 3.1 1 Std. 2.8

6 ++ 4.5 2 ++ 4.9 3 ++ 4.6

2 - - 0.9 5 - - 1.2 6 - - 0.7

4 Std. 3.0 4 Std. 2.9 4 Std. 3.3

3 + - 2.8 6 + - 3.0 5 + - 2.7

5 - + 2.2 3 - + 2.4 2 - + 2.1

7 Std. 2.7 7 Std. 3.0 7 Std. 3.1

Table 2 shows the 21 data points collected during the experiment. The

independent (predictor) variables were the molarity of the NaCl solution and the voltage

of the electric current; the response variable was the production of hydrogen gas (in

cubic centimeters).
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Table 3
Experimental Observations
Trial Observations

1 Solution turned near pitch black, due to color dissipating from electrodes.

2 Trial proceeded normally; solution ended up slightly cloudy and yellow.

3 The solution turned darker greenish-yellow after both test tubes,


including the one containing hydrogen gas, were lifted out of the water.

4 Trial proceeded normally; solution ended up slightly cloudy and yellow.

5 Trial proceeded normally; solution ended up slightly cloudy and yellow.

6 First (+ , +) trial; high salt concentration and high voltage caused the
water to turn a darker green color.

7 Trial proceeded normally; solution ended up slightly cloudy and yellow.

8 Trial proceeded normally, with solution ending up cloudy and golden.

9 The solution was near-translucent until the test tubes were lifted up. The
solution suddenly became a yellowish green color, darker than other
trials.

10 Trial proceeded normally; solution ended up slightly cloudy and yellow.

11 Trial proceeded normally; solution ended up slightly cloudy and yellow.

12 Solution was almost completely clear, with no yellow coloring even after
the two test tubes were removed. Attributed to the rusting alligator clip.

13 One of the alligator clips showed signs of rusting and was replaced right
after the trial. After comparing previous trials to this one, the conclusion
was made that the results of following trials were not affected.

14 The new alligator caused the solution to turn a darker green once again,
but the hydrogen output was unaffected.

15 More solutions were prepared because of overnight evaporation. Trials


were not affected by the use of new solutions.

16 One of the researchers misplaced one of the lead electrodes, so


another one was obtained and cut to the same size.

17 Solution turned very dark because of new electrode (similar to trial 1).

18 Trial proceeded normally; solution ended up slightly cloudy and yellow.

19 Trial proceeded as normal, with solution ending up slightly cloudy and


yellow.
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Trial Observations

20 Solution was not as yellow as in previous trials, again attributed to the


rusting alligator clip (similar to trial 12).

21 The alligator clips were again showing signs of rusting but were not
replaced because this was the final trial.

Table 3 is a table for the experiments observations. Solution color, condition of

alligator clips and electrodes, lab conditions, and issues with solutions were recorded,

among other things.

Figure 5. Trial 1 Photo

Figure 5 shows the first trial of the experiment, which turned almost black after

the lead electrodes were stripped of some of their dark metallic coating.

Figure 6. Before and After Solution Color of Common Trial

Figure 6 illustrates the change in color in the solution in most trials as time

progressed, a gradual transition from cloudy white to a light green or yellow.


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Data Analysis and Interpretation

In this experiment, quantitative data was collected. The data collected was the

amount of hydrogen gas produced from the electrolysis of water. A two-factor DOE was

used, because there were two factors: molarity of NaCl solution and voltage. The data

collected was valid because the trials were repeated and run in a random order;

standards were also used to measure the consistency of the experiments results.

Table 4
Averages for Five Runs
Runs First Second Third Average
DOE DOE DOE
Molarity Voltage

(+) (+) 4.5 4.9 4.6 4.7

(-) (-) 0.9 1.2 0.7 0.9

(+) (-) 2.8 3.0 2.7 2.8

(-) (+) 2.2 2.4 2.1 2.2

Table 4 shows the amount of hydrogen produced in each trial (in cm3), in addition

to the average amount for each combination of molarity and voltage. The experimental

grand average was found by averaging the four trial averages (standards not included).

The grand average was approximately 2.7 cubic centimeters.

Figure 7. Dot Plot of Standards


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Figure 7 shows a graph of the standards data collected. Variability of the

standards (i.e., the range of standards) provides an indication of an experiments

consistency in design and execution. A range of standards equal to 0.6 cm3, in

conjunction with 0.4 in (+ , +) trials, 0.3 in (+ , -) and (- , +), and 0.5 in (- , -) suggests

consistency in the experiment and thus reliability in the data collected. There is no

increasing or decreasing trend in the standards, further ensuring their accuracy.

Double the range of standards is 1.2; this value will be used later when

determining whether variable effect values were statistically significant to the

experiment (that is, less than -1.2 or greater than 1.2).

Table 5
Effect of Molarity
Molarity

(-) (+)

0.9 4.7

2.2 2.8

Average = 1.6 Average = 3.8

Figure 8. Effect of Solution Molarity

Table 5 and Figure 8 above show the effect of molarity. Subtracting the low

value (1.6) from the high value (3.8) resulted in about 2.2. This 2.2 value means that as

molarity was raised, on average, the amount of H2(g) produced went up by 2.2 cm3.

This effect was significant to this experiment, since it was outside the bars set up at -1.2

and 1.2 (see Figure 7).


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Table 6
Effect of Voltage
Voltage

(-) (+)

0.9 4.7

2.8 2.2

Average = 1.9 Average = 3.5

Figure 9. Effect of Voltage

Table 6 and Figure 9 above show the effect of voltage. Subtracting the low value

(1.9) from the high value (3.5) resulted in about 1.6. This 1.6 value means that as

voltage was raised, on average, 1.6 cm3 more hydrogen was produced. This effect was

also statistically significant, as it was between -1.2 and 1.2 (see Figure 7).

Table 7
Interaction Effect
Voltage

(-) (+)

Solid (+)
2.8 4.7
Segment
Molarity
Dashed (-)
0.93 2.2
Segment

Figure 10. Interaction Effect

Table 7 and Figure 10 above show the interaction of molarity and voltage. The

solid segment represents the results when molarity was held high (3M), and the dashed

segment represents the results when molarity was held low (1M).

It can be noted that the slopes of the solid and dotted segments are nearly

parallel. This suggests there was little interaction, or that the effect value was not

statistically significant.
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The overall interaction effect was found by subtracting the slope of the dashed

segment (0.92) from the slope of the dotted segment (0.65). The interaction of molarity

and voltage in this experiment was approximately 0.27. The 0.27 value means that as

both variables were raised, the amount of hydrogen produced went up by 0.27 cm3.

This statement was supported by the fact that the (+,+) trial averaged 4.7 cm3, while the

(-,-) trial averaged only 0.93 cm3.

When molarity was held high on its own, an average of 3.8 cm3 of hydrogen was

produced (see Figure 8). The solid segment, which represents the interaction of

molarity and voltage, is shown above. When voltage was held low, the value was 2.8;

this value was lower than the 3.8 expected originally. However, when voltage was held

high, the value was 4.7; this value was higher than the expected 3.9 cm3.

Additionally, when voltage was held high, an average of 3.5 cm3 of hydrogen was

produced (see Figure 9) When molarity was held low, hydrogen production averaged

only 2.2 cm3, once again lower than the original 3.5. However, when molarity was held

high, this value went up to 4.7 cm3. Not only was this higher than the average of 3.5, it

was also the greatest average in the experiment. Voltage, when held low, consistently

lowered hydrogen production rates, and when held low, increased hydrogen production

rates. This statement is representative of the 1.6 voltage effect value.

Figure 11. Dot Plot of Effects


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Figure 11 shows the effects of each variable: molarity (M), voltage (V), and their

interaction (MV). To determine if a variable was statistically significant to a given

experiment, its effect value was compared to double the range of standards. In this

case, the range of standards was 0.6 (from 2.7 cubic centimeters to 3.3 cubic

centimeters). Doubling the range of standards yields 1.2, so any effect value outside

the bars at -1.2 and 1.2 was deemed statistically significant. This experiments

statistically significant factors were molarity (2.2) and voltage (1.6), meaning that both

variables played a significant role in the production of hydrogen in the trials conducted.

Y = 2.7 + 1.1(M) + 0.8(V) + noise

Figure 12. Parsimonious Prediction Equation

Figure 12 shows the parsimonious prediction equation. This equation included

only the grand average plus any statistically significant variables (those whose effect

values are outside -1.2 or 1.2). Both molarity and voltage were included, but their

effects were halved in the equation. Noise is a non-numerical value that accounts for

design flaws, human error, or other events that could have affected data.

Y = 2.7 + 1.1(0.5) + 0.8(0.5) + noise

Y = 3.65

Figure 13. Parsimonious Prediction

Figure 13 shows a prediction of 3.65 cm3. The prediction is for a molarity of 2.5,

or halfway between the standard (2M) and the high (3M) values. Since 2.5M is halfway

between the standard (0) and the high value (1), 0.5 was plugged into the parsimonious

equation. The same was done for voltage, which would be at 10.5 volts. This

combination would likely produce between 3 and 4 cm3 of hydrogen in five minutes.
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Conclusion

This experiment was designed to determine the effects of two independent

variables (solution molarity and voltage) on hydrogen production through the electrolysis

of water. The hypothesis stated that the electrolysis process would be most efficient

(would produce the most hydrogen gas) when both the molarity of the NaCl solution and

the voltage of the electric current were held at their highest values (3 molarity and 15

volts). This hypothesis was accepted. After running 21 trials in a two-factor Design of

Experiment, the most concentrated solution, 3M sodium chloride, and the highest

voltage, 15 volts, when run together, consistently extracted the largest amount of

hydrogen in five minutes. The average for this combination was 4.7 cm3 of hydrogen,

while the other averages were, at best, almost two cubic centimeters behind (the

next-highest average, 3M and 9 volts, was only 2.8 cm3).

Both the molarity of the solution and the voltage were significant in this

experiment. The effect of molarity was 2.2, which means that as molarity increased, the

production of hydrogen gas increased by 2.2 cubic centimeters. While not as large, the

effect of voltage was 1.6, meaning the production of hydrogen gas increased by 1.6

cubic centimeters as the voltage was increased. The fact that these variables were

significant is supported by other experiments, such as Production of Hydrogen through

the Electrolysis of Water. This experiment found that the effect of molarity was

significant in the production of hydrogen (Bimberg & Roach). In another experiment,

from the Journal of Physical Chemistry, the effect of voltage on the electrolysis of water

was tested, and it was found that a higher voltage created more hydrogen (Damon).

Besides previous experiments, there is also a scientific theory that explains why the
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largest amount of hydrogen was produced in the 3M, 15 volt trials. The collision theory

states that when a larger number of intermolecular collisions occur in a system,

there is a direct link to the increased probability that the molecules will complete the

reaction (Clark). In this experiment, the higher variables create this increase in

intermolecular collisions: when the NaCl solution molarity is held highest, there are

more dissociated sodium (Na+) and chlorine (Cl-) ions to guide and transfer the electric

current through the solution. Thus, the H2O molecules are partitioned more quickly and

the overall rate of the reaction rises.

This more efficient electric current leads into the next variable, the voltage of the

current itself. When voltage is held high, the cathodes rate of reduction and the

anodes rate of oxidation increase, which speeds up the electrolysis reaction and leads

to an increase in the formation of the products (hydrogen and oxygen). A higher voltage

means there is simply a larger quantity of electrons moving at a faster speed to collide

with the H2O molecules and divide them into H+ and


O2- atoms.

Throughout the course of the experiment, some errors may have affected the

data. One possible error was the consistency of the NaCl solutions molarities.

Overnight evaporation may have concentrated the solutions beyond their intended

molarity, and the salts tendency to sink and settle at the bottom of the beaker may have

caused uneven distribution even after stirring the solution. Since the effect of molarity

was the largest in the experiment, any issues with consistency in that area could have

notable effects on the data for the trials affected. Another error that could skew the data

is the fact that in some trials, when the graduated cylinders were filled with solution and

tipped upside-down into the beaker, air bubbles escaped to the top. These air bubbles
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were measured and subtracted from the final result, but it was sometimes difficult to tell

their exact volume because the bubbles were so small.

Hydrogen is largely used as an energy or fuel source for rockets or, more rarely,

cars (Hydrogen). However, the use of hydrogen as a fuel could and should be further

explored; not only does it conserve precious fossil fuels, it provides a cleaner energy

source that, after ejection, re-oxidizes into water with the oxygen in the air. This

reduced use of fossil fuels will also keep the air cleaner, reducing carbon dioxide

emissions (which in turn slows global warming and the erosion of the ozone layer).

Hydrogens only use does not lie in fuel, however; it can also be used to create

water for drought-ridden areas like Africa and California. After electrolysis of

unsanitized water, the hydrogen gas collected and be mixed with oxygen in a chemical

reaction with applied heat or energy to produce pure clean water. The reaction needs

energy to make the water, this can be done by using a flame. There is an explosion

when they react, not a fiery explosion just a loud sound. With the proper protection this

can easily be done with no side effects (Granger). Hydrogens applications, although

some still in progress, are a clean, efficient solution to many of todays environmental

issues.
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Appendix A

Randomization of Trials:

1. Open the TI-Nspire computer software, or turn on a TI-Nspire calculator.

2. Open a calculator page.

3. Type randInt or go to Menu Probability Random Integer.

4. In the parentheses, type in the minimum number, followed by a comma, the

maximum number, followed by a comma, and then the number of integers that

need to be generated.

5. For this experiment, use randInt(1, 4, 1); since the randomization is for the four

non-standard trials in each run, separately generate random integers until one,

two, three, and four are all generated.

6. The (+ , +) trial will be represented by 1, the (+ , -) by 2, (- , +) by 3, and the (- , -)

trial by 4 (based on their appearance in Table 4).

7. The first standard will always be conducted first, followed by the trial represented

by whichever random integer was generated first. For instance, if the first integer

was 3, the (- , +) trial would be conducted. The first, fourth, and seventh trials will

always be standards.
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Appendix B

Usage of DC Power Supply:

1. Plug in the cords to their respective ports in the box (red cord in red port, and

black cord into black port).

2. Plug the machine into the nearest power outlet, and ensure that no water is

nearby to avoid risks of electrocution.

3. Turn the knob at the top right to set the machine to the voltage required.

4. Keep the machine running until ten seconds before the end of each trial. Do not

try to unplug the machine or take the cords out while the current is still running.
Muralidharan - Nadolsky - Rasch 24

Works Cited

Beaty, William J. "What is Voltage?" The Electrical Curriculum: What Is Voltage? Bill

Beaty, 16 May 2005. Web. 21 Mar. 2015.

<http://amasci.com/miscon/voltage.html>.

Bimberg, Shawn and Roach, Amanda. Production of Hydrogen through the

Electrolysis of Water. (2012): 32. Print.

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