ee of the Hewvers Circle Method for Cations 7 Assured pattern < 2 = E © ot NSS NAA RSS Saisl_| SW \ CN AN come SN VK SS A SNS SS SNS SS 28080059 || 280800750 |_| 90800 750 “50 50059 ecge vieege | Wedge fete] Leteaht | Latah} ot | incom a0 mm "| "p60 mm ‘oiomm 1 2 ? ‘ 5 Padding requicerents are dependent spon the cross: sectional ares of the citing wall Fur a given depth of ccrting wal, thia walle cequired heavier pedding than thiekee ones (Fig. 139). Fall, we will consider the ond ons or the point at which he feeder sone sods. The hiker the plate the longer the end zone, and as the pnllel feel zone provides no padding, this ca tend vovoeds 2eeo wih shiek plates. According to Fig. 140, the angle of the pads also a function of ve vall height; the staihline boundacy of the pad is thorefore csaly an appecximusion to a cueved proale. When using feeding pads (eeSection 6.2.2), th: evevature must be rsintained frit sl of ily he er Koeteeiareeitns * Fiat. I de wal thicken is double by pad, the voluos ‘of ee eecer hea i incensed elgne rine Fie 140, Difowat pudding sacivions, voles angles and weige Slopes as fuses fiat wall thicknots and wedge beig Soe representa, Fic. 142, The feeder weight increases as the cube of the val ‘hikes, | Pads cin be looked upon as coessctions te incosrsctly designed castings, and they have 10 be removed again by expensive dessing operations. ‘They also requite con- siderable mounts of eteel. By thickening the scetion one inereases the modulus, znd therefore the size Of the Feeder, which increases as the cube of the plate thickness (Figs. 141 and 142). The expensive padding of vole regions ofthe easting eaanio: always be avoided| gr m7 Incteaing the ‘Thermal Gridiert inthe Casing FiGve dito feeders can ceeasomally be ales. Te pla UE he foolece io sally expensive snd dieu from the poiet of lew of uid weheigae (Fig, 143), s0 Farther methods of envucing the soundness Gf the mass in lower sections of the cisting have been developed. Figssttda and b, With should over the beiring ection housing 2 single feeder had is sifiient. Ta Pig. 14s the feeder is covered with exothermic matedal. Note the “roof-shaped 1, Use oF re Cimets Merton ror ExrsNpisc ‘gEDER ZONES. FEEDING OF BARS AND Bi ‘The feeding zone of the head can be extended aud the pane sioeneee cea - ssumber of fetdect celueed by padiiog 25 shown in : Fie, 144, ‘The misimum permissible lengch of such a pal may be detecrsined se a modalue: kness sO mmm, modulus 2.5 em, feeder heat modus 25 3 12-= ) cn This msl inet not be ‘hczoded atthe pei of attachment ofthe feeder, even by pads, otherwise 4 luger fooler would be neceseary Dadiing focme a epecal form of ingate or clcuaicn see Chaptee d,s thatthe pad modulus must ie betwoee tht of the esting and fedec. According to Fig. 14, the rmodulus of the feeder will be stained with a length Of pad (= wedge lengit) which couesponds to: 28 times the plate thickness 6 times the plac modules 7 times (5 timer) the feeder modulus. Fic. tHe, Shoalder connect the cextce of mais of = pum Ihouing, The sheuldeer lo actas an addtional, easly removable Sete. |7a iL oF \ | | ye ofthe Heores Cle Mad fr Cag “ dae ee of 25m he sed tables. When pidding isto be employed irequendy, Toose wooden pattefs arc useful, “The pad must be designed in conformity with the modulus curve (see later), Le. ic must aot run ous at 2 Shallow angleas in Fig. 147, ber must be sharply defied. Bsamples ore given in Figs. 148 and 449 [pa ray Bes aa ee 2 aa = | | as a [ele = | 20 | 30 | 3.0 | ‘ 206 [a3 [ee ms gerne oe Sato | SI BS feces co oem Fre. 147, Development ofthe en pens ofthe 3 Be Decereaty ‘Feng, based on the gad cntees fies Stein ‘These ratice alo apply approximately to plates sacee than £0 mm thick. A maximum pad length is therefore Teoclated with the modulas of cach feeder. All pad dimensions may therefore be tefezsed to the feeder eo- dulus ( “To simplify che ealculation use stand- is. 19, Teeetrct mnoat ofthe stouldes tia 146. Developmoct and Almensons ofthe shoulcer modulus Mos fineion of the feeder duis My. ale isang tthe etn nd for dete she fie rt as |76 Tecteasing the Thermal Gradient in the Costes Fae 10-182. Alteenative mathode of fdiog bosses. Pia, 1$0, Gyladsaa eeder ead on bomes, with or without small Pec 11%. ELIF feeder” with chee on ane fide of the core ‘Poo, 1528: The lig sange of the Redee Sead cia be colanged by tacresing the bos eamsts, Po. 152. With stil anger boss lames, of futher ceonomiss| in the shoulder insesections ate dsized, one or moze cls cn the opposi ade Eom the feeder bond can be oF acntnee. For furter dtl see ChapeeS. Pade are also used ro feed bosses. Figures 150-152 in- dicate verious possbilities. In maay enses “half heads" are used. Te is pulficient for the junetion of the feeder with the easting co make the poiat of intersection at a position having a cheek only on ong sides whien the boss is incecased further, the feeding range of the onesided “economy feeder” can he extended by means of padding cr chills (6ee Chapter 8). ‘The ceonomic limits of “full” and “half” feeder heads ace indicated in Fig. (53 by means of the simple case of OTe ieee re swaD He me mo ea a Ht ees WO te HS, ox 14 ons aie “hottneone es yen othe “tu ed” stat oy ee eli i tap a BL Ey | ae Hoe i a ‘el c rH z L | pre . ‘eer bs Ftc. 185 Limits of aplictions of “full” and “half” bose feeder ead, {boss faving increasing wall shickoess st As soon a8 the core darsete reaches 40-50 pee cont of the boss sinmstex, “hale” heads cin be tdopted, A sepsnite feeder falculation is chen 20 longer nccettey, en fewould not Drodace significantly more arcuate result. ‘A asiug vith paling showld not fa the long ron cequite more fering than 2 similar casting without ypdding. Ie muse rot be foqgoxten ia this connection that where there is no padding to remove there ace probably some addtional feeders. Limiting cses fr che Utlzaion of “padding systems” are often enconsvered tnd thes: ghoald be decided only withthe help of ob- jective time studies, Even when busning of the feeders fanually, the oxesall ies are somewhat less with palded castings (TiBle 2); with mecharieal fame ext- fing the padding method is often prefered in the fevdiag shop.‘Use of the Havers Cte Meta for Castings n saber — Tameajinvesmeamox of ron Fooxomie Emncescr tr Tee Sovipes Merion, Caxniep Gor ox 1x DEESSING Saor o tux Bans or Trace Seupsste Tas Canes Wane Ee ‘Boast Orr uNOpR ExacTry Tax Saas Conprstoss Garin Hack with 2 teers (with Soaldes) hoger (Casting brought up by ene, sent seeing ep borer Ducsiag tt eee \ Secing up ad caer ous Bucniag ted cis 370 | pd see, coreting horned setine 1.38 . etiog up ingot 03 Pat pages food Batning ingate “0 | ria Casting reared by ease 6 ae hem sal sianen removed by ese | Total Ed Oxygen consumption (weighed) 3.6 by, ‘Gearsin blink with3 Hom (withontshouldes), The, mia ! Cauting Brought up by eee, | seting up ducner “7 Burning ist nse Bs Sting up and reer 030 Sewing up $e nse aa Sed vee, coercing bored section pose orn ingate Costing renoved by erane 995 luc ac stant sorioved by ence 2.05 Tent Toa ‘Onygen consampsion (weighed) 49. 6.22. APPLICATION OF Tax CincLE Memo 10 Jencrrasaax 4 Conmex Casrine ‘This method is luserated in Fig, 154, The heaviest erece-section dictates the size of the feeder. Hero the ‘pad modulus must be 1. times the modulus of the eross- Thos 154, Advantages and linitaion of ping section in question, Ingate ealeulaiion is recommended (oh Fig. 146). If the individual points of intersection ace 100 far apace, a farther hot junction is formed below the feeder ‘due to the padding wedge; thislean be eliminated by exothermic poviders on the feeder head or placing cills rundecoeath (Fig. (55). However, theta is an economic i lint to these methods. Fic, 155, With snoalders whieh ae too steep second alsiohage ‘ivrir cam fem du © a8 increas in the erosesection fed. TBE ‘Sidstng of tis ceotesecton saa be prevented by placing chills under ramples are given in Figs. 456-162. Tidtice geaton wf siete \ Verenine 1 Fis. £86, Devlapnen of shoulder and ealeltion Fora cover |Ce ae ee in| aS at! eee ‘| Tneening the Thermal Gradient is the Caiog Fic, 157a and b, Flanges and larger bases can oft be deat with ‘by a teaasrersely poritioned fesder bead at to postions on | ypusie siden Comidentbe anpunts of cleleting ap in the andy can be saved in this way, eepecally with lege extnge. Shatiiedl ead sores are foemed berween We ingates by de woe oF ele (oe Chanter 8). Plog of « alate valve, rdiagrphiediy soond. The the two intestine of the journals, Pes. ‘whole of tie sting, erent ese fad foam 2 single fear ead by means of paling, (Coty Suker Drs ics, 1st. Boch jouals fed fiom a singh feeder. Ariel end ovee foamed wth cls (ex Chapter 5) hsUse of the Havers Grele Method for Castings a Picstsy2 The rim secon of & brake dum wat ied thor shoulders fiom the boss fester head Fins 139bande. Brske druns, b, Wich evo dia and one bose fecder.c, Rim ard boss fed by 2 si sige feeder. An etic ‘end 2one prokiced a the sen (oe Chapt 8) Fig. 160, Wheel exntre of a martow-gaige locomotive. Feeder bead 1 facts the counterweight, which in tuen feede the inter section ofthe agjcent spoke, Fender ead IT fs coanceied © each of ew0 spoke insets by means of sheulersnceaing the Thestsl Geadient ia the Catiog xa tes. Cover of cotay valve By she wot ofthe shoul te Fee carshere feeder ead supplies ack ony he soe coves Se eho ce isemenins of te ev0 joey The ene sa radiogeepcally send. Sale Bre) see: tendon cae fed by fee bead with cxotermc aos Ind by ican of shoulders to give a sued eating. wie Soke Bre) “the puclding metnod—whethee it is eed to extend the feeding range or to connect separated intersections — fs on the whole one of the most important applications w eipe circle method, and occasionally makes posible ‘a considerably increased yield. 6.5, Calculation of the Modalus Carve (The other sections can sil be uodetrond iE this pact is omitecd.) ‘pi, Atde: Below ofthe end section os plate nso zone Ifthe end section of a large plate is sectioned as show in Fig 1a slong xX}, Sp ees the modulus of ea slice s0 formed is: —— 56 a+2e 8) “While the modulus of semi-infinite plates is equal © sul the plate thickness, the plate end zone behaves 52 ve inch stepped wedge with very small steps; cis ‘presente the “simnlation body” For x=0; M= B25a5 B= O4tGe (Gavoreecred) Below an end zoue leng?h of 2.5 2, however, the cooling eefocnce of the face is practically ail, s0 that below 25.4, M = 945 4 (corrected). The diferenee was divided up uniformly (whethes shis is physically strictly tas a on oan ces GAO) pee 6” ics aég. Path of the modilue curve inthe end 7008 0CClealition of the Modalas Carve 8 ‘The angle of the advancing solidification fronts at 2 point Pig is given by the fist decivative: at = M = ae 68) for = > G9) x>0, mnaZat, and a=45° G9) foe 3-25, tanx 0.0278 and a= 1°56" G0) Fveey trunsition between these two valves can be imax igined, so that we cannot speak of a enastant “pad angle” “TEthe wedge pads according to Brinson aad Duras co Stein) ace deawn to scale for various wedge beights, siilae carved boundaties are obtained, even although straight lines are a saffiiensly good approximation in practice (ef Fig. 4) tl bt im 10 ua x0 0 110 +0 + ae 707 ae 20 20 zo a ‘0| 95 qo 20 a0 40 80 60 76 8OS0TOOTE HOTTHOISD ape wath rm 2 wa fn oO as. sential ard ial wall bihnestes of wedges writhing So sound entings a wedge height of 000 mee. Figure 464a illustrates the influence of plate thickness, “The wedge pad tends towacds zero with inereasing wall thickness, so thet the upper brinch of the curve tends towards the limit of 45° staght line. The lower branch, oof the curve is practially a semight Line, aad can be cxteapolated with a high degree of probability. With aa ital wall thickness of zero (tapec wedge) the wedge thickness i 150 mm (w ~ 8 30/) ata heighe of 1000 mm ere also the wedge wil presimably be bounded by = catve; this seo seeane probable from che superimposed wedge pads drawn in Fig. (64>. m6 | aS ec. t6th, Welk breath and heigst on padded cast sel plat . Breskdown of the feeder tone of pte into sections, If similar considerations are-applied to the feeder zone (Eig. (65), the following apply for semi-iafiite plates for the section below the feeder: Volume 7 aad Cooling surface A = bo 4 @ ‘Modulus 20, [A hinds fhe ea ofthe ace none ie I a fe te modahi aso incenes BY ef and the slope tthe modulus eure (srumed ia the fas ples tbe Tegel ose 025, and @ = 15° “As semicinfinite pletes donot actually exist, Mfg is somewhat less than gj x is also somewhat less, acd is probably in he zegion of a = 12%, thas agreeing falclr ‘well with the value for the end secon. ‘Both values, especially that desived from practice for the end section, are about twice as high as the value of x= 6° given by Namur”, Exp also howd that the Namar valve is too small, and conse- ‘quently important iaduencing factors do not appear to Ihave been illowed for ia his calculation, ‘Presumably the actual sian ofthe pad, o¢ the ange, is ‘goveened by bydenulic considetations, as laminar cap lacy flow existe betoveen the crystal interstices, bringing the feed metal to the spor. ‘The size of these interstices Js in lucaced by the wicth of the solidification band.ral ow sect The metal must flow berween two crystal perks, 28 shosen in Fig, 466; this represents 2 constriction of the cross-sectional area of fow. The amous of liquid which pesecttes is determined by the viscosity of the metil jast below the liquidus cemperatuce, bat no. sultuble eacacemente exist, 10 that itis sor possible at present to formulzte a fow equation, ‘6.4. Fusther Development andSieaplificationin Prac- x ‘ice of the Methods of Heavers and Stein(™ Tf the Stein entves are drawn 10 scale and super Srmpoced she surprisingly simiaeeneve paths permit the consraction ofa characternte curve (ig. 1648) wl is yalid co a close appresimation for all fitial wel sede of ont sel ps ep eda, ‘Tocteasing he Therual Grader inthe Casting Fis, 166 Flow covlions Gus th solicaion of hes lac ‘This sige prcrumably roprents the tac eooditors at che Coupition of tolidiieation (in contest co he lems ofa numb felon) ‘Tho formals of the characteristic cuzve for plates is reprodced in Table 24. Bars, which according to Cech! exhibit much les favournble, ie, shorter, feeding ranges, rust be padded with correspondingly steeper wedge angles. The pidding curves, ia accordance with the, author's experience, are given in Table 24. It is possible to work safely to thee valves, but they cin still be subject to slight corrections if very compechen~ sive, systematically clissifed works observations are svaihble TThe chacacteristic curves can be used to make suitable ccacved scales or templares of plexiglass (Fig. 167), which Simplify gceatly both in-work preparacton aad in pars taking the comect dimensioning of pads (Fig. 168) aed even with enrved sections they are easy to manipolate by colling on (Fig. 169). at. Owe exp ‘pre Sap StanaxD Conve Forn Cas Bs Umo For Vay Dusen ‘Wats Taksnatesseev. 1 ip Ont Necbeeany vo Deteesck ta Potst OF APP iz LPS S oe Appecsinate formula ¢,.y_] Approsiniate formule “Applicabls «0 (doch) em iq ~ 1072 Vs + +7 Vk vnalloged pletes, aad ba with a bide ato feo 14 1351 Vel 2 18 Vos walled bare 125, high alloy alstes Sh high alley hor rom 12 eh ‘bp cig Hag = 1.605 Vega 3 | 4+250 Vee ‘enalloyed bars #2, high alloy plates Sid high alloy bors Bom 424 wi ower eaing das = 1782 Vlas 4 76Vew nalloyed bare 421.5, bigh alloy tes 123 wid owom antsPlsehee Develepinen tad Sinica a aso he B) Yep costing: unaloyed and cloy bars +15} i Seale Fh f Te> eccting uraloyed beret) Bottom casting:high clay potes ond bars |] Seale op coating unalayed bars '2 high aloy plates orto costing uralioyed plates and bors ba Fro. 168, Paling 2-0 ie wig a ered Se % Fi. #67, Corved plexiglas roles foe dnwing pads (y eoutery of oe Lad, Bente; * 6.5. Casting Sound Tubes ‘The segregation zone in tabulac castings displaced inwards, due to the smaller heat-conducting jnteenal surface. The position of this segregation zone ‘can be described muthematiaally accoccing «© severil suthoss; of these the farmala after Stein and Bohlen‘ fives good cesalts both for light and heavy wall zhick- nesses (Fig. 170), ie.t where x is she diameter of the segregation zone dis the intecnal diamctce of the ewe, D ite exrernal diameter and IV its wall thickness. 3) ) the following equations aee obtained by transposing: sagt log og £=) mt tg ates? ap ae i et \ Par a = stn oh women ae P io. 172: Valid only when the outer moold and cis core eoosst pf the aime moulding material (jo: cxumple, pace sed) Which can Le sepretented os aomogems (Figs. 171 and 172. ‘These equations and aomograme are valid only when the outer mould and the core are made from the same moulding materi. On the other hand if the outer mould is made, for example, of dey quartz sind and the core of zircon sand, the segregation zone is displaced as a sesulty this aspect is teewted in Chapter 10, Section 4 | “The practical importance of these nomogeams, which | ate very simple to use and require no mathematical know- f ledge, may be illustrated by the following examples: Bicwirez | Pe “The axle joucal for aa cece locomotive, 28 in | Fig 17), is to be made sadingrapilr cue. Adj ae | | q ‘Fic 473: Ane jou for elessieleeomntive (Conv ter Br.) tL Ys ely wea heaves mos athe erect | Ein anc would meal forex: ges)isting Soon Tubes LEED cerns Pia. {74 Daawing of the mont important crossaections of the ole journilofaa deste locamove, to this, according to Fig. 174 (eft half) the tubolic padded in accordance with the Stein curves oot the curved scale. Both the acual casting and the Hing would then solidify withoue shrinkage exvi However, iis aot necessary for the metal i the padding. to be sound. According to the right half of Fig. 174 che internal diameter of the the is 2 ~ 296 ram, ic. the delivery, and which must be ftee from porosity. This is enclosed by a. defec tive zone which ia extimased to be ata distance of about ‘Simm from the segregation centre 2, so that the segre- ition zone = 304 mm. ‘The ratio x/d— 147, giving a wall thickness. of sm 6 man froin Fig. 17 tion (42) eads to the same resul. diameter of che isting rezd sae contro} solution of eq ‘The observed zone of the centerline shrinkage cavity jaa tube produced in this way is limited by the cooling the end faces, and runs out into the feedee top. The tube casting itself remains outside be head at the segregation 2oac. The feeder head can small cot much seullee by thie method (Fig. 175). Fis 17Saand by Atl josenal of az cle focomotie ia she sees cnnroa. Tubular component cst sound by meaas of sper padding Exaweee 2 “As shown in Fig. 476, all by the usual inside padding an machining. Figure 177 show: the feeding relationships regation zones formed removed during final Fic. 1700Fis. 1760 ‘os, 176. Dutieg the fina aching of sho poss elindee t the sexeation one ws cr corresponding to Fig.174; only the nomogram of Fig. 171 (oatside diametes 28 the initial dimension) was utilized, With padding, ierespeétive of the method used, the position of the segzegation zone can be displaced by hhot material, i. by ingates, which can lead to foundey sexap oc ceptir work, and this must be taken carefully into accoant. | CHAPTER? | \ INCREASING THE THERMAL GRADIENT BY MEANS OF MOULD ' HEATING PADS BREAKER CORES OR WASHBURN CORES 7 General Thermal Conditions Relating to Breaker Cores and Mould Heating Pads Iwpoatanr For Practice IE the feeding ‘neck, as ia Fig. 478, is constricted by fa thin wafer core (a brealer or Washburn core), the Feeder head caa be knocked off, The method hae achieved importance for small castings and alloy sterls, as the costs of removing feeder heads aze high. Even with iczelconvaining, ductile steels breaker cores are e20- ‘nomic, although in this case the feeder cannct beknockea Fie, 178 Neched dows ingnt, afer Washburtt2,Generil Therma! Conditions Relating, Tame 2s fi) Pasicleae Diseestione oF Bezaxen Come T Dishehaped Breaker) sealer cores Me |Mo| 7 won} Seger | facsomd ads) | peer heads =| + [ae] * co Breaker Corer id Monld Hlning Pads 7 off The coms of removing the head (chiselling off, sawing, grinding or buming off) acc less than with Full ingates because of the constriction Breaker cores were invented by Washbum*"® in USA, and have been in wee for more than ity yeacs. Experience and trials extending over many yeats have cstablisned theit dimensions very accurately. Even very slight deviations from these dimensioae always lead to the production of secepy the applicability of Washburn cores depeads on a very strictly limited special set of theumal eoaditone, ‘According to Fig. 179, @ metallic and a noa-meuilic Anon meee ae ons | 42 6 oma | 40 * +0 i ths fe aleves Bs 125 se 130 8 | 00 ve D | 105 151 | 76 & | no 1 | 80 @ | us usr | 84 © | 2 te | 92 6 | 135 200 | 10 a | 85 am|a |e [as] | ss ant |r| ss | 150 | 8 | 265 250| 126 | 50 | 30 | x | as 26 i | a0 | os | 8s 2% | s80 | 102 | 395 30 70 | 190 | 106 | a0 | 4s air 7 [am | 115 | 200 | 8 Sse ge | 2 | em | a0 | 355 & | 2s | 0 | as | st gas| 10 [at [an | an | am | o sor | 20 fos | 252 | uo | 2m | @ 348 | at [or | a6s | a7 | oss | os Feeder head exnaot bekacched off feeanas SEemopil eine fay fer ea Pie. t79, Nota in the sjstu, castiog~breaker cone blind Heer = the opening 10 can alo be eqlace by « sectangyle tape “withthe samme modslns(eloued from equation 5. The cores are sian for both types af Bod Feder tend (ats Dand HP). amr 25(b). Wasuonx Conus voxTzeoen Heats Water Cax Bu Kuoentey Ore (Unatzovan Sreat), Samarra to Reptce “Bali of curva of the wardazd beer coset) 7 ¢ 7 Z Mel Mele | + | 4 7 | 8 | asen | adem | 210mm | trom | wont Gin be placed on toca stapes wih ameter co | en |om| mm | am | mo | am [fon] = [Fem] © [Rom] 1 [fom] w [fom] wo [fom] to a woo] = | = 4o0}| 900 | — | = | 290 | 40 | 190} a a gen] | — 100 | 0 | — ann | 40 | 100 | a0 ro go] =| — | | 400 | oo san | ann | amo | 200 var | a | a far feo fia] = | st | san ~ | a0 | 0 | 20 = The sei of eorrtuce cneespond tothe lof sadstd chs Ta oder to prevent confusion with sills a pete dat, senda lccker cones are denated by lave cae leters 20, for camp, denotes core for curvatures fram 400 t0 6) 2, opealog 2) =.ss Thera the Thema Grote by Meso sl etn Pak ocnedtng saree cam be distinguished, The ter is Crombecionot = 2 gay cys eee ee cided “The nommetlic sexe ast bebave £0 Mfsdane of malic fhe polat of wew of raoliog eoliiiedion like hot neck a ae oe sok if the metalic nesk isnot to freeze. No cooling tact therefore oceur atthe ron-meallic nec, ie. the ore plate must atti a temperate of a least {480°C Sefoee the moment when the liquids point of che me~ tlle ingate is tesched, The amount of he requeed for this purpose must be obtained only from he supeshent of the ata and aot irom its hes of fusio LE the hatter store the case, the ste] would begin to spl, losing tagent heats This cannot be allowed to oven. “The non-metal: neck mast be eaedlted ins sill vay to the meal neck determinations this is best done by using Fig. 7. The vales found fzom expetence agree feasonably accuntely with the sequiroment tht the mo- Gall must be stepped op in accordance with the ratios Me: My: My 444212. @ (ale, My and 2 being the modal of the eating, gate snd feelor head respective), ‘The factor cling the feck and feeder moduli rates in practice between 1.05 and 14 ‘Dimensions for beeaker cores ate piven in Table 25; the dimensions of the blind feeders ae contained ia ‘Table 19. ‘The fallowing relationships were detived from the sizes which were tated in practice: [Beaker core tickness Ty ~ 0.095 D = 056 Me 6) Breaker core opening N= 059 = 254.Me (17) 300, + 20 200 1 10 = 100 oe iM Feeder bead diel. mim in which Dis the diamecer of theblind feeder (Fig. 180). At th 0) ie Beiter 8,2) Fic. 181, Posible applications ofpclingard moulé-hestiag pads epmated from the cating. According 10 fecence between heeaker cores and mould heating pads (Gnteoduced in Germany by Roth) which are also se- purnted feom the casting by a “‘non-meralic™ bor steel surface ige 181 these io ap fondemental dite 7.2. Calculation of Washburn Cores and Mould Heat- ing Pads on the Basis of the Thermal Conditions (Tae applicability of beaker cores can still be under- stood by the practical foundryman even if this section is not read) Figure (82 shows the hese conducting celationships of a wales core or a mould heating pid, As no solidiica~ ooh a th as es a 9 toc id hee 8 (aay so 40s0 e076 wo sovomTorzITIO Dialer of opecingH,a 300) 2s 200) 150] Et] Fava bed Beatie Og ts ie as 20 2530 Breer core thickness and hight of enstcon, mim ‘Pa, 180, Relauchip; Feeder head dlsweter, breaker core oper ing, breaker cre thidencs ad sonst height. Fro, 163, Hest conducting eontitions ith corey dimensioned pli cue (or water eon) aly supesicat Hs fonducted to te plate care for wales «ore (When rllifenion commence the temperate ofthe plzt core fas altady reached 480°C, s0 shat no best of whifenéoo cant hetaken up,Calculation of Wackbues Coeos 2 tioa, aad therefore no cooling, hes place at the wafer core, ceystal growth takes place only from each side of the neck. In this way each of the 1Wo plates loses one ofits two cooling eatfaces, to that the plte volume re- rains unaltered, The modulus of a plate which cools nly on one sid i ZA | Mypny diane a0) = Vdd 62) Uy, compaced with that of a norma! plate: en 9 MER + Mecte nna ot ~ ‘pi ears ocean yeas mon WN beating pads, and is equal vo the plate thickness 2. No AN | : fauthes increase of snodalvs caa be atained, becsuce the effec: of the pad ie orly to retard cooling, and not %0 hake Seer ae CL aitglin ence nae yeceiie nie donor of heat, but om the conteary takes supecheat from | the steel, co that it can never become hotter than the | steel. The pattern of che temperature gradient om heating | pads is shown ia Fig. 185 Tomperature gradien! Casting —core—tostioo | metre | ane wmmmcmm | operon: 4 : casting of solidification soloieation } | ww | z Re Reyiv ene | £ So NEN es 9 2 RIA aN ay 8 Age 5 ‘ S MNS. = g 2 =< : S : SNS y ‘ i Fis, 183. Temperstare gradient wich comely dinenscnt heat ing pads cocling sustaces eaabe omitted (Fig. 184). Thefollowing | ‘The action of the heating pad ceases In eve1y cae formslae apply when the exothermie pad is placed on | ——.= —whariie arstabgrowih eeiches the inner plate wall. the sneaces , Boe ¢ +b Bach of the plhtes of Fig. {82 acts asa heating pad for the othe: ceystl growih ends in both plates sina taneously. It follows that platelike castings and she ascociared pac muse be equal in thickness if ts desived to double the modules. No fucthee increase ia ciudulus is obtained by en- lncging the pad beyoad this minimum size; such an x= lurgemcntschescloze selersand uneconomical Theeria lies an essential cifezence compared with the metallic picding of crosr-eetons ‘Bare have more cooling surfaces than places, but the The following is true according to Fig. 182 o the ‘rmullyonlyoncotthe basis of she thermal conditions at a casting tempestare on busicconsiderstionsare the same ey cen ener)90 i of 1600°C (eapeshese = 420°C), an ammount of sapeshene Gihich is nocessury and customacy for emall parts: 4x Hee? ¥ put % Genet 120 = Lx A emt X Grant X Cun * 180. 64) “Allowance has already been made for the fact thar ball he wapecheat from each ofthe two plates escaper eeted, bat the core is heated from two sides. The following ‘valucs exn be substirared: steel sand specific heat C 0.20 025 specific gavityy 1.0 16 for oll sind, rammed aa ce = 0275 dine 025 63) ~rhesupectest goes ino equation S0) st finer fonction, wedlan a siaple ecatonship exists between superiest 3 Fairing dheckees, in accordance with Fig. 185 129 sco 1540 hsz0 Costing temper soo uso o 0 20 at Core thickness 95 1h of he plaie bistnoce of the casting 1a, 185. Restionship: snpesbeattidnes of breskse ore ‘The corcestness of the above fommulse can be checked feom dimensions which bave proved stistaccory in pras- ties. According to Fig. 180: T~0093D on {sce also equation (45) re modulus of the blind feeder head 2 = 1.5-D 's M~02D 8) ‘Thus the blind feeder solidifies in the same time at a plate of thickness d.- 4=2M,=2¢02D=04D 69) rhe relerad eating ba the nds | © chresponding toa ple thickaest An2iie- 222 p=nyD 12 creas the Theta! Gradest by Means of Mold Heating Pate Hf the mean dy is used for the calculation qed au Sth 0550. © then accoudling to equation (67) D = 02654 (t), whieh is in good agreement wth equation 3). This Jrovecat she samefimethe need ck {xing essperarore BF 1880-1600°C for Washbuen cores. fuds heae balance is only approximate, howeven be cause the core also Joses heat feom the end fices. This fhe lose tende cowards a Himiting value which is always onstant as Jong 2s the superheat remain the same), 25 fhe thickness 7, the dimensions. of the nor-metalie Fngate # and b and hence the size of the end ince a2 AL cigorously liked ro the modulus, To, compensite for the beat loss, which is similarly bound up with che fnodulus, a metic ingnte is required, the dimensions ‘of which are again linked with the medalse; this is also xpresied in the zesults obtsiced in pracee. 4, Caxeonarrow oF INTERNAL FEEDERS (he pasta foondeymin can still understand the vse of internal feoders, even if this section is omitted.) Toveenal feeders in tubolar castiogs, as in Fig. 180, representa special cvse of Keating core, as the whole Sf the superbeat ofthe feeder flows nto the central ore Hieac se diated only theoagh the external sueface of fhe evbe, and the modulus of a tube with an esternal lamer D and wall thickness wis: Ane NTT, WHY, WY y (02) ~ ee [iit spent tae, 186, Thermal conditions in tatersal faders ioskde roby autos| i i (Ga the Prices of Washuen Cones o SS Berane ne = My AD Me © Sian Due to the fact thar the behaviour of the core is silac to that of hot steels the mabe and feeder act as if they ‘were 8 uniform steel mase with a modilus: Mg tip 2 silins Reavis 0) Daagwn se @) ‘Most tubular hadlies wheve internal feeders are applicable faldl vhs requirement, Tt should be mentioned chis, hecanse of the danger fof metal penetration at the core, internal feeders should only be ated up to.a diameter of sbowt 150 r=. ‘Theinternal circumference of the tube isa (D 52x, 46 that the total external and internal p of the tabular heating core is 2x3 Yaar * Gaets ®120 055 = 5 x fant ® Cana * 1480 ©) aD af -s © a5 $= (D- aw das @) wm Dis @ swhenee @) > 2 1600 20 seo seo ¥ {isco E Sw - ; | bea a ft tt soo 8 0, t Leno a a eT) Wall hichrots = ofthe ternal core a Ye of ue wo Pichness: W Teo, (87. Relationship: supeseat to eave wal hichaeufeobe wall ‘thickets in ter fede, Figure 187 gives the dependence on superheat, The feeder diameter is given by a 45 per cent of the external Glameter of the tube, of = 2.25 times che wall thickness of the tube, The diameter of an external feeder head ‘would he about 3 times the wall thickness; this external {feeder Would be about 18 times the weight of an equally cffoctive internal fesder. 7: On the Practice of Washbuen Cores, Heating Pads and Internal Feeders Inortanr For Practice As Waskbam cores are subjected to high steesses from the steel flowing theongh them, inegeained quartz sand with $-6 per cent of oll2s binder isused as novlding iatetal, with a drying tempesature of 220-250°C. Well- ‘burned cores mas beable to scratch soft wood —2 cheap, rapid mothod of testing. To prevent the penetration of {25 into the casting due to the sand filet eifect of the ‘ore, with motal which is ease too hos, she ges perme- bility should be low. For this purpose 25-30 per ceat fof quartz powder should be mixed with the core sand. This is always necessary with hollow cores (cubulat internal feeders). The eil addition mast also be increased ‘when necessary. Breaker coree aad heating pad parting coves should be standardized as far as possible, and can then be ordered as shaped) ftcclay picves, (Cheap fireclay qualies are snfficient, provided they ate dense and strong. All types of isulating fireclay are too weak) The diameters of round bodies are Collected into groups and desipnated by lower cise letter. In addition, daa on the selevany Aismerer of blind feeder head are required. For exarrp £100" sgaifes a breaker core which can be applied I a at 7 a f Stet eee, in disigas of sandardzed beetker cons ba2 nce she Tena Gea! by Mens f Mout Heng Tae eo atl eval bodies 6 $80-740 mm diameter with #18 HE case of mas-peodced articles with complica feeder he1d dlameres of 100mm conndana which would be dscorted by ataching 2 feeder M ea, bncaker cores aad eating pads ae often the 008 (dy = 2em; Mem ME 166emt, T= 9ST ceonomiel method of FE ‘The manatactre of co nf 0. 2 oo a 10. x 7 | 20: HE m+ 0.48 Wat for ty Oe 2 Oe DE yo, 222 Inereaee in toe modulus sings #2202 The geome ev: mt bo offre singe He Di? wh Increased ty this foetor sill inter amet,De Tre steel femoereina, *¢ f oat nao 1550__ 1630 i + ' AYA 1530] 1590. i -f-o20 —- 50) 10 A T 2 By 6 i ®: 21 20 f 8 8 Me a aie 2 20 a 9 4 4 048, 80 a} 7 500) Le 048 PE ! 1b (02 106” 108" (08 10" 12” tH gs 0 a met The geomeirica! modulus must be Increased ye tr Fo 22. lnerge inthe module of hollow eat st onder, SS= D, vithamol een ameter Trae sie! lemperoire, *C SD 1580 \ isso | 1339 TT ia 4 — 7 eee Valet for rings pO or oz toe 108 108 we Te 4220 Tht gromtrcal mec rust be iee0ord by < ths fer I Fig. 24 Ince the mode oll el ind | H=2D. 1 . dhe tnevease of modus ia thes with a-emall cove aig 747. CHECKING THE CatcoLanons on Tusutar ne lee saic0d the module increase in te CASTINGS BY Martine Tar Sorsoretcarion Tne \ cease of tings. In otdee to ake the ciageams easier to. _‘Bated on the medulus instease in tubular cistings follow for the pracceal foundrvman, the size zatlos of (Gee Fig. 220) she soliifcaion time of these vubes was tubes and sings ae shown to veile in eeventl positions, determined feom equation (8) for different amounts of t | iL eae - ee ‘The Heating 6f Thin Sccions of Mosiicg Sand tor402 oz as 065 ase 10 nceasag the Theemal Gradient by Means of Mould Heating Pact 133 saat ace Th ithe > ae w -Fre.208, ompasinon of the ciletated nd actual soldat times in cast tel ees, sapecheat and visoor ratios of intemal diameter to tabe thikaess, ‘The results ase represented ia Fig, 225 "cis logical aad ae known long ago thatthe heating eff increases as the casting temperatuce of the stel Tpecoues highec. ‘The size of this effect con be seen lealy ia Bg 225. A solid cylinder with radius r as limiting case) shows no theoresieal increae in solid cauioa time aad very lies increase in practice, competed svieh 4 plte of will thickness =r, With a zatio of 17 ip we 0.65 the inczease in solidification eimeis am fam, Howerer, the iagee the core dismeter and the Terme caunle 10, 225. Messurcnant of the eoklietion ee EF hollow evlindsts, Aarangemert of dhe erme eoople, thinace the sprroundiag ison wall, the more plate- like the abe wall becomes and che smaller the acca- invlstion of heat: the solidifiction time agnin becomes shores. “American measurements gave a entve at about 60 to 75°C supechest which agrees very well, except for the 2ex0 point. Que own random sample measnrements ‘were algo in excellent agceement with the calcalated ‘aluge, and have been plotted in Fig. 225. The expert mental layout used for these mearurements is shown in Fig. 226,The Honing of Thi Steions of Moulding Sand 03 This measure of agceement makes it probsble chat ‘the original assemptione on which the calculations were: based were correct, 74.8. Rusrextiow of Hear 1 Juxerions While the flow of heat from the sigion of stored heat ean be acglected ia closely adjpoene plates and tubes, Jt must be taken into accouat ia junetious. Only L-junc tHons can be ealealated with xessonable accuracy from the stored heat aloze, after making certain assumptions bused oa s heat Bow model, while thie method gives solidification times for I’ and ++ junctions whieh are two long, Jn Fig. 227 a heatflow model is assumed for Ljunc- tions with a wall thidkacss w; in which the direction of boar enw Aenne Wee Fo 237. Heat Sow siodel af £-juuetion. ow is vertical to the walls. Ara distance » the amouat of heat contained ia a plate element #1 dx is opposite +o the inside of a sand clement in the form of a strip (aere also termed che cose) 2 das Tho inside portion of the superheat (S, = 5/2) will fisse be conducted 10 the sand, 18 a result of which the send element will be heared to a terpperattace tor 25 the core will then tale up the hext of solidification until the romperatuces ate equalized, TE we wubetivore ar— ng 965 the eat balance is Sw Xd % das X Cas XS = Tine X Cat % Yet X BX 8 From whlch Teer = 1085 X Ty X 1s (85) On absorbing the hest of solidieation (ee — Year) % Gana % Yona % Me AX «= (Fntas 12) % foes Xe Xe APD feoim which: 1350 + 016 % 167 x36 FAS + OAS io) ‘The value of t, dececmined in this way gives in equa tion (76) the proportion of hear of solidification. ab- sotbed, which is equal to the effective cooling portion of the coce surface, These proportions, which are a fune- tion of the superheat and of the distance x (or Xm) give parallel straight lines in Fig, 228, having 4 slope ofmne = 271. tect oop le ene srk Ox. Tio. 288 Cooling efetirencie of the inser do of Z janeions fee disance ‘This disgeam chows immedicedy ae whet distance 2° (orn,)the cooling action is once more equal taper eat fie the distance a which the hea: storage region enc. ‘Att = 40°C this cegion lcs withia 2, — 042 (with a ‘yall thickness of 100 mam, for example, this would coe- scepond to a distance of 42.mm from the inside edge of the janction). By simple trigenometrial calculation of the boundary line itis posse to determine the meta. affective surface area within the heat storage zone; the results ate reproduced in Fig. 209. - fo" ” 1 2 as}—|— i i | 2s £ Te / a Gy = ons ; | & ‘20° 40° 80° 720° Swen Fee, 290 Limi of the segion of hea stenion in Ljunctions,108 Soeteasig the ‘Thermal Gridiert by Mears of Moul! Heating Pode ‘AG civ cooing pocntage ot her toe Fyosauyti- Mean cooling casey ofthe inner surfir of Line: tions ie the overall het reventne gion. epien of cirinished Poot Fiat he hot retin rin Fes (ordiew® newt Extent at heat erin in the eo renin regi owen A 2. (1 A-properton of tho lective ioe coulrg surface ic, 230. Geomeny ofthe Ljunetion. Figuee 230 shows the geomexy of Ljunctioas and the inside (gebinetical) aroperticn of che suriace area Torche tal volume. The thermally efecive junction is tiedted ta che heat cetainiog zone, # conditions sierlae to those obzained with » at plate prevail ontsie this region. wt ‘Taste t6 BuNb Faxepex Huan wit PExETRATION CORE ] 7a ee Vis of cg VP a aloe |e | |» Se eee a ees a # | 32 | = 3 z = = oh a8 | fad es Smee seal esitasleesPeeder Heads “tance 17, Haneseuextcan FEEDER Hus” Vinx fakin yolame of eating 7 (welP) for a dhvinkage of: alvlow a % &% 7h oan | Telly) wll. echt) tae [ent | tae ert) ct Lote ape] = ees Bar] ©] ony 2 | OF . SB) e] 2 Te S| ab | te | we | es] et | es |e | xs WB) 23) Joo | 1s] te | San | ay | tm I oe) 3 | ® i | San| in | 235 1h | 1 | ; | B| 8 $0 | fa] fe | 435 $5] 59 | 2s fe 7 | é| So | to 35 | Sh | oo pe Try Sm] 70 S70 | $8 lie | a) Sf] ae 3] te |. 8 SB] 8] 3 $8 lam |) o ai] a] te a0 ts Le | | 3] so 1s | edge en. By muchicg wie me shined “cooling pai” the rik of frases Koning herween the bill is @ | tesened. Each of te four suis cf contct has 4 diferent rads of ( Gunvatre | coeur, aking the cls unre Curature »_| Sly applies Hesagonsl chile abearbing lager amounts of bet fore tassive es Fic. 253b. Cautmon types of siaedaed chil. Hollow channels at junctions are especially dangerous fc this respect aud the ase of (staadacdizd) chills o6 shown in Fig. 25} conateriets the hot spor camsed by the sani flr elect by ferming a solide surface ove the danger of cracking can be minimized (Fig. 254). The formation of shinkage exvty in the hot centre of the junction cannot always be prevented inthis way, bss Can usualy be made ioce or see heemles. ial2th By she we of ler chills the waco jonerion ele Shoald be reduced ooly toa diameter coresponding to that of th weil cede. The tik of enicking it reduced by eliminricg the Trot spor ‘Figotes 285-257 show arrangements of chills and cool- ing patteras at intersections with the aim of lahibising the Formation of sheiakage cavities. £-and Tjunctioas can be made satisfactorily sound; this can only be Required cooing curve | Cite a nto uncon y oT Sowa el sa | | Cooling a Tjunstion by means of an a hil ett gator Fic, 255b. Casting soond juscien and reducing rik of raz by ring etended cle Defects cnsied by exten ellen justin‘Measare Agsont Ceacking Ten by the Use of Chills et spat de tthe ‘conducion of Meat fe the Sond eninercee inthe cee Junctin recessed cle decreases ora isk 0! Steioge sant dines but pel enely eroves By weahering" ie cera Cio the Junctions almost corp~ lately restr, No weohoning of the corrosion, 08 the tross-secton can be consceed {a Be sold and tee from coutes Rio. 2ite, Resolving junctions a Aimast comely | eget | ele - a Noturatcotog ~ io. 28a, Aitenstive ncthods of epeiag Z-fnetons by meaes oF chille Ba Fie, 250b, Making sound toss cating The rer ait haem sian fet tee, Cros ation 3) eal fod x esiton nth wel Mang relay xed cto, ofr Krist! Bylot intemal hills (Chapter 1) oer wt sh senf esha Tl lace ain e aio be ma sic send LLILLL ELE. » Peon 2$7a.aad b, Attaching fle cil zo 08 co redoce the sie Eg i iwi lon hats ct ro th sd il Get rome ee, be gat son te eng ie ‘reir : pened ls il wih a igh tral pig. Dis mt fo, ‘oti mae net) bed ge ost ai ad Faint ino tf onto he age of16 Tooreag the Taeoal Grades by Estemal Cootog ros. 2874, dade, Ue of let chil Rie. 257d (Cong Segre) ro, 2576 fros.as7dand e tie of Gillet ails 10 produes sound fois. Flangeblad i eokine 2010 achieved ac + junctions Ly che use of insulating pieces'® or internal chills, However, the residual cavity does not impair the strength of ioterscetions cooled on four sides, ‘ hhecanse the exvity is formetl in the acutesl ass Tes especially important with external chills 3¢ T-jone tions that che chills are not rammed as ia Tig. 255¢, bor must be pl mast be accurately dimensioned, 2s junctions are usually formed by Siting cores later, so that che position of the junction cannot be seen from outside by the monkder. ‘The dimensioned patteras are then marked out with an. indelible celoue (aot with chalk!) ‘The method showa in Fig. 255¢ is sles, where tions are evolved by setracted walls. If tis is practicable in cpecifc exses from the point of view of moulding se ac the corsect position. ‘The patterns ‘ Jtatioa with the engineet is recom mended. Occasionally very unfavourable + janctions an be resolved to Functions, the T-jvactions being. trade sefe by the methods shown. Consiceable increases. in strengch axe possible by this technique. eeckinology, con ‘The connection whee] cim-wheel dise also rept a junction. With suitable disc thickness the feeder head fo he cim can be omitted (Fig, 258) if the junction conled as shown, ros, 2586 and Janstan whee! dc-wheel dite enol by cls Se whole weal i od bya single tie feeder heed.| | ‘Messures Agsinst Cracking Taken by the Use of Chis “7 83. Porosity at the Point of Attachment of Chills 85.1. Ponostry Causev By Camis JE “worm holes” ocear at the surface of contact (ig. 259) and are driven deep into the casting ¢ clon gated blew holes, the cause ean be porosity of the chil- Fics, 28)a and b A eet wos eeied ont br plosieg 2 shot Hasta aut sealed illo the sine eatng» The gabe tthe ened cl Jel to the formation of vorboles oe the suace of eestng ‘The pones ese ap dO am ep. Z YB ie Fic, 20, The air inthe pores of the edi expands in conti: with the liga stead forme wholes extening far into the eating liselé Cig. 250). ‘The air entrapped in he chill surface expaace considerably i contact with the liquid stee] and penetrates into the casting. Another very frequent ceuuse of porosity ie a residue of uct o* scale on she sarface of the chil, whic ceacts with the carbon ia che see! acconing to FeO +C+CO + Fe o Fe,Oy + 30-7500 + 2Pe so that Inelly refined, low-carbon stee! is formed. Be- cause such steels are readily welded, the chills often become welded on at these positions (Fig. 261) which should always act as a waning sign: Pros 2614 and h Wels-on chills lien signify mamtshietory Clearing ofthe cls, leading w perosty. Beesuse of the ais gap which is formed, the chills be- come scaled to a goiter ut lesser exten: each time they ace used, and they rust be tand blasted afer each oper2~ ton, Tumbling is not sufficient, as the scile is only polished without being removed. Large chills can be ‘ground clean. The bright seriace is then protected ageiaat fucther rusting by applying a coat of varnish (before ramming into the mould). Because they evolve gas, tac Incquere are ro: as mdsiactory as aluminiam beonze, such as is used for “silvering” furnace tubes, ‘ere, and which i suspended in an alcoholic solution cf resin in the proportion of 1: 5104 &418 ‘octet the Them! Graizt by Teena Cooling 1g chills ase not be made as lov-grade, defective castings. they mustbe ied methodically Figure 292shows a dill layout forming a sicpped wedge which can be fed bya single feeder head. Individval chills ora line of -Y¢ ‘ic, 253, Chile of erent sass can be eat coger to fom lopped seand. Hack strand eopetente stepped wedge which Ci be fd fiom « ingle ead, Several oc strand enn be attached ‘to one feeder bes ‘hills can abo be added to other castings, according to the space available ‘The maverial used is stee], ashigh in carbon as possible sosto be resistant to wear; such steel chills xn often be used indelinitely. Cast iron as aot proved satistactory, as oxidation peneteates into the Inttioc along the gov phite phates and lends to pososity after repeated nse. Graphite and silicon carbide ean also be used for chills: sefetenes will be made to this Iter. bs tN Recoontzie Ponosrry Anene row Tie Morten Ster1 332 i vr wor Practice [A badsfctory casting technique and fe-clss metal ace sssociated with the production of gobd quality sel castings. Defecsadsing fxom stecl quali are olten nat | fecogaized at such, and a misdirected attempt is made to eliminate them by improved moalding technique. ‘The author found tha porosity in sel castings (ex | cept for cavities or miczo-porosity associated with sheink- tage) is caused mainly by oxygen, so tht ic disappears ‘vith astsfactory devaidation teatment (the addition of laminin). | ‘Dasiag so¥elfcation the residual iguid between the crynlites becomes enciched ia ferrous oxide aad carbon 8a resale of segcegation processes, This seeidvel liquid tee ir diplaced towards the interior dasing slow salidi- fiction, and equalization of compesition with conse (quent dation ofthe hacmfelimpasiis i posible. With ‘pid slidication sepcegution i zoreeracd, che residval Liquid is wrapped by the quickly growing denies and she equalization of composition by dlfusion becomes tnotedifcal, The rection: FeO LC C04 Ke ‘commences, and peripheral blowholes (pinholes) are formed at positions wher solidification ie rapid. “All sach locations (edges, comers, thin plates, ete), ave puticularly exposed to this Ginger with insuffi ently deoxidized stesl, became their rate of solid tion is AL times greater than at the remus positions (Fig. 263) “The rate of rolidiication at chill surfaces is about twice the mte ara corresponding area of sand (Figs. 2 tie ry Fie 6%, Mie anid gree o\— oc pduloal byon oe he ‘comers oF seg res 26a and bs When the ael meting practiceixncsetisictoey. porosisyoccus preferentially eal postions with ahigce ot rumbes, etMeasures Aguinet Cracking Taken by the Use of Cills of potesity cin alto be 0 that sbarply defined zon the radiographs illustrated formed at thete positions (see ply delineated sre of porosty ender x sing cil Povey sat ata fond on the sen esting 2 thin sects with high ste of elidideetion Te. 265h, Statply dliscated sente of pocesiy underneath the Tie fange ala Showed porosity she ae pacts ofthe edge ware no chile vere atached, Careful examination of such castings almose always ‘als porosity ia other positions, Due to the thick chilled skin under the chil, Blowholes are often found several mma below the surface, are act visible feom the asside, and appese chiaing in the form of slvercwhite blowholes (Fig. 266) similas 10 the subcuts- neous blowholes found in simmed eteel ingots. sone at the susficr of aall ether postions (edges) which oh slain sate is, 265. Pose dachenect of the cil Porosity ean ales be ose Ta some ceses the use of chills has led to modifications ia melting practice and aa impcovement ia steel quality. Porosity of this Lind is often attributed to hydrogen withour further examination being mde, Undoubtedly the steel can become charged vith hydrogen as 2 zesult cf faulty melting, peectice, sach 25 an inadequate boil, the vse of damp flases in the finishing period, prolonged tolding after the boilieg pesiod wader an inzciive slag. frequent opening of the farnacz door in the finishing period, - Siding ange chil spfaces into several smell ODES AS cng ocull pee chill eustace area 16 diminitbed yi) Tue length of the chil should be sbowr three rssay. By svg ge hl into several smaller one Fe 2 eT of dr soe sel ape at che micices see OE decile cm be dimiiiied sod she danges of enlang beech rede co fone times that of tie thickss of the wall 10 1 xo ed; the dimensions of the andar chill were 24, jaated with this in mind. The bulls of monn material Wsreoun the chill should be approximately equal i= Jango be chil, bat in exceplomal cases bal the chill lenjth is suficiet, vere thermal expandion of the meral at the buffer is peoved when insta ofthe usal moslding ein CF frtsny) a taeda) of Higher thecmal conduesiity, (> are iccon, silicon caxbide) 1s applica this also has he llect of accelerating cooling (Fig. 272). The distance Pests che ells ean then be teduced. For more dest see Chapter 10. ‘ig ape erent See "rear Mong stoi wth agen hiling ation See toe si or cracking ot ths ends of the cil cat sous ty te vse of fing cil, ae rchiting om coatractoe pall"The position of the chills on the easting must be such that the existing, substantial contsactioa stresses are not Intensified. The contraction of sing castings requires 2 corresponding callapsibility of the internal core, This depends or the capid bucning-out of the organie eon stitveats of the sand. Chills incorporated in this type of core first store up the heat, Ke. the sand buens pletely in their viciairyand docs notyield} this intensifier the contraction stresses acd ear lead to tears (Pig. 273) 273. Fomation of hot teas due w eins of els ts ts: ‘cone Remedy. “Lint wars atthe ein of sie Ceeuaion of station te in He nce cae dt Donne end grees of cracke ion of rection ing blast lb mteials (fe ewer. I or tan) nd ts. Tadividual chills in the cose ace harmless as a ule; chairs of chills aze better incoxporated in the mould (Figs.244, 245). Hf they caanat be avoided in the core, then straw rope, ete,, must he placed behind the chills (Figs. 27}, ie: 27} Peoveoting the foctation of hot tears by teanseting the thle cf cls tthe cts or below. roving he fori af bot darby irenrng te ain of tlle tbe ode oe ol. Precise te formation of ot tae by renin th obo fills to the one, Tak we ‘lean the eve or tall ‘bering ale octesing the ‘Thera Gradient by Extemat Cooling rest caret Fio.236 Fouoatioa of hot tee on chills which re campo borwea projections sidge ot, Uf lle beau procs cents (ore otha fhe ll on™ aiid, actale lets matte ep” rg etal Chills should not be chraped in, cither by unsttisfac~ tory ramming (Big, 275) or by projections Fig. 276)s otherwise tears are uaavaidabie. Iris an advantage to ram in the chills rather than insert them subsequently. 8.42, Cracns at THE Point oF ATTACHMENT OF TH Crct, ATPRISUTABLS To THE STEEL. ADVICE ON THE CownoL oF THe Sreiacaxinc Process 10 Panvent Sven Ceacks Iurortant FoR PRACTICE Beaute ofthe nny impos contained int, espe- claly sulphur, Besemet scl Is Yexy suscepuble to hot tein, However, even snlactnl deslphocaed eas from the decee ae fumace stow ines 4 marked teanleney to he hath without any recogaizable ote ‘ated tthe chemical composition ‘According co Felts fm theory, ferns oxide ant imanganove oxide segeaste atthe gran boundaves of the erveales, forming a low-atength layer at which the eating ercks ever Guing sokdeetion. The Haut connen peodacts also act inthe sire direction, i they nd noe ime septate ia che lal ox they only form in the mould duzing easing, According © the tniho?s experience, porsiy and swcepebiy 0 hot Cracking or offen tonne rogetber, which alo indcatss Siatiacrocy deosidation of the steel "urs worked co follows were mse es Hable co po duce oe tats: Pevesfns at alow eamperatoce, ond shag Of (phosphoes elisination); eal reSning sas hgh 2 tebpemmere 15 pombe, wih the wisimeryediioo Seoceor onpgen, Ataboat O-0.14% C the bat sbould tor peboled vifdrously, and shoe ror bread bos {Riera Wore up «white sag with carbon ony, shen peedeoxitie by 4dlioas ide in ta folowing 10 racer alutiniur Cimemese compete) silicon and wMganese Hole for as shoet tee 2s posible. Befose tapping add seen and mangiocse a2 zoqsized, and sean fromerie amin (I-42 ep AI, The csting seme of sipod Fiugj$: Fontan of Base oo chile as Tanuing a coneomusnt hoPrincip of Cslevlting Fateral Chills should contin 0.095-001% AL, By working the hese J this way the bath aot over-efined,abigh proportion of the oxides is removed a5 CO, the reminder being teassfocmed to a htnrese foem, sad the aluminium cor tent is acjosted tothe value vbete hot or cold cracking. is last Ukely and the sendeacy to porosity ie duced (Chains of chills can thevelore be wed succsssfally wie steel of a satiefactory quality. With Bessemer steel the use of individual standaed chills of notonal width loses to cracking, bus here alo artical end zones can be formed with stocl chills with an approximasely xee- ‘angular esos ASSESS Thiuse of moviera opeeting tech~ higues in the mouldiag shop also involves examining the relationship of steelmaking factors to the tendency to crack formation 85, Principles of Celeulating External Chills (Gections §.5.1-85.8 aced not necessarily be studied by the practical Foundeyman.) 55.1, GENERAL ‘The time taken for 4 casting co solidify should be reduced by the use of chills. Part of the supetheat and the heat of fusion must therefore be taken up by the chills, and this absorption of heat must also take place ‘daring a certzin time—up to the end of solidifeation, Blots conditions auuat be falélled. A stady of Sections 85.2-8.5,7 is desieable fora bew=r understanding of the subject, but it ie not absoluely neeessaty, Section 8.5.8 summarizes the resus, withost ‘going into the underlying principles in deesil Tin: Avpare's1 Repucrion 1¥ VOLUME A casting with the volume [7 shoul show the same Aininished solidifeation time as a casting with the swvllee yolume 1’. The amount of heat comespoading to thediferencein weight — (Vp — V) x 7 x (45) should be taken up hy the apple chills, Hence the chills produce an appacen: zeduction of volume. According to the heat bulinee: amouat of heat to be drawn’ df (keal) "Yen = mount of hear to be absorbed (Kcalikz) @ Ve — Vib + 5) = Wen * ten X oH feom which Patty vy ESD 09 te ore opi he eleon we tare Va . (05) heads neconing to Nila HEAD yy Mo Me en) 125 ‘Ar an average superheat temperature of 1550°C and an asqumed cll emperatute of iy = 600°C atthe com pletion of solidifcatio, we obtain with sufficient ac on ‘The corsespontling, samerical values canbe read oF from Fig. 27. car om Ma Bg Sg 15, 95, 25 M, (om) —— Wegntof cls o¢ a fimetion of M, aad A, 85.3. THE ARPARENT INCREASE oF SURFACE Axa A-asing with a volume ¥q and a surtace area y should have the same seduction ia sclidification time ssa casting with the same volume 75 nd aa increased susfioe atea 4,. Henc: the application of chils should produce an appateat inccease in surface area to. A, due to the more rapid xemaval of hex compared with the sind mould, Tocke and Beigas® cect a steel bll of 450. mm diam ‘ter in various mouldiog auterials and dececmined the solidification times (cf Fig. 305, Chaptee 10, page 140) ‘The timer in steel or copper moulds were 4 min, and, averaged 16 min in sind moulds. ‘According to Chvorinav® the solidification times are recat 28 follows; Ee ss) ng for ove cae 4 (ie) (few) “16 (win) na fe fora whish Magn) = 2 Mana ) By casting in closed chills, therefore, the modulus Mf Js reduced to half of the cotresponding value for sand moulds [As the ball had a diameter of 150-51 in both cases the volume remained vnakered, and the apparent in- crease in surface ares can be determined as124 eccessing the Thermal Gadient by Externtl Cooling fora which: Ana Ta2 0 Castingg of the ball in closed chill moulds therefore produces an apparcot doubling of ies surface aren. Traut $54. THE Taaxsves o Heat ar rae Pomt op Appuicamiox oF TRE CHILL ifis weltknowa that an airgap is foned between the shriaking casting and the chill which makes further transfer of heat more difficult. Continuous transfer of heat takes place only where the ehill Ties close aginst she esting "The advance of the solidified wall was measused oa ingots of Thomas steel); the zerults az shown ia Fig. 278, Because of the forrmation of an air gop the JMO ria of od + —215V7-007) gr asynen 5-278C 7-060) 3717-088) 0 DB ew me arson ti celrcon 0 1 2 30 40 50 eatin tne 8 10,278 Advance of slidieations im an ingot of Thomas ste tea fonction of the thickness cf the at gxp Lecwees. gor ond und, (Vales from So anal Fy, 1985, pp. 124-727.) | Ree vals fr snd ae Kreck. solidified zone neae dhe base of the ingot becomes nich thicker in a given time than at the top. ‘Figuse 278 also shows che advance of solidifcarion = cl the casting with good end with poor conmet with the ‘ould, The cusves show good agreement with ths sesules published by other authoro-2, Ix must be assumed that che value of s-will fall still forther with an increased aie gap, and wil approxieuce to the values for sand, feapecally when the chills are arranged in tbe uppet secdon. Pelici@?? also reported om the effect of the aie gap + between the easting and chill, and hoids the view thar the taunsler of heat thea takes place by eaciation, as it does in a sand mould. “According to Fig. 279, therefore, the cast steel ball se i pt ores ca Ayaan? pe iy eer a oe Est 1.275: Formation of ait gap in th ball experimen, with 3 con ‘jue unentnactor) hea tennfr in the upper pat of the cil ‘will Wein yood contact with the lower half, while an siz gap is formed atthe vpperhalf. Theaccelecited rem Of heat to the chill mould is thus largely duc vo the con- tact in che lower pact ‘iv icassamed thar the apper half of the ball behaves thermully like a sind mould, then the total sudface area of the sphere becomes 4, ~ (rucbiee area of the sandslike apper part) + (eorhuce ates of the effective half of the chill) = Awa + Aca and Ang — Aen = If the factor of the apparent incsease of the area of con tuct of the chillis designaved by, then Ay = Als +3 Aas = Ast $I Aas Jo (ion) Asraity ia : uty cc and from eqeation (100) For sieel ia the chill =3 (aoa ‘The scfice aten is apparently increased three-fold at chill contact sustaces without an air gap. "According to the thickness of the air gap produccd, tan infinitely large namber of transitions esiste between Chill coamnce sasfaces wich are apparently doubled and trebled. Practice shows, however, that only fwo eases hneed be distingvished for s zeliable cileulation, aamely swith and without an aic gap.ING THs Paevious Cau CaLcuLarions: punaunnTs RePonTEp z¥ Beawor, Bisior pW ‘AND PELUNI® The above-named authors cast slightly tapered ingots of vations metals into sand and chill moulds.The solidi- Jication times orthe progress of solidification were detes- SRE «i sitet chi sie 2), Raperimceal layout, aes Brand Baop and Peli, Anas Toil gomeria sme ar of Ara of te part ofthe ina ee agree ‘ted ls A= Gato em Fraga ~ 2710 cm" Ava Gs port ob the Ings Sed By oile Faia = 3500.60 ined in the ustall vay by thermocouples; che expe snearal layout eaa be seen from Fig, 280, ‘Because of the ingor taper no alr gap is formed at the surface of contuct with the chill Ar chowa in Fig. 280, Pncipes of Calenlating External Cals 425 sand sutlaces ace aso present in the moulds Steed vith chills, namely: 1. The bottom seriace of the ingot: 2. The surface of the feeter head (from the soliili- ‘cation point of view the feeder head forms part of the casting and auase be incleded in the calculation (of the volume and area), : 3. The intecface upper side Of the tiser/air which due to the swewa send should be calculated approni- smacely a5 a sand suace sand and chill guslaces aro ne The dimensions of shows in the diagram ‘The suctice ates is apparently increased y times at the surfaces of contact of the chills due to the cooling action. Theapparent total surface area with ebill moukded tastings is therefore: Ac Anes +9* Anan 105) The modulas of sind moulded castings Me = Volt the moot rctnseet ey clas u, = = 408) Ae Aan FI The solidification times T were mexssted; accoeding vo eqoation (8): a-|e-/e ted from equations (105) 0 (10) Moll aes HO) y oe Asses (108) inthe pee ete: LOTR, « 6210) — 2710 7) 3500 Table 26a gives y values for various grades of steel and shows thar the mean value of y=} caleulated in ~ the previous sextion is correct, “Tana 2, pVauuns woe Vomovs mazes or Suan Eepedeetal ibs afer Brandt Bop and Palin) Dlivelcalcdatoee ee Ssllicaion toe Apeeenennes A ama hl eanect fae by he % Bs ‘sete Stel ype VE | ee Tor sent | win | F7 | gpptemnmicn | Si so fae | os | ce | ni | mulls | semenea if: ae 7 | oe Ty Boel oss [oi ows [— [- [a | @ a 2s 013 | osy fost fizz | 27 | 4 | os 30 20 _ sso] 04 | as | or 305 200126 Ineresing the Thetmial Gradient by Paternal Cooling ‘According to Tig. 279 the apparent ring the formation of the si gap at chil eackaces can abo be elewlaced with the aid of existing experimentst results. "The lower lal of the ephere is apparently increased bby,yas a result of good coetact between the chill oald and the casting. ‘The upper ial of the sphere bebaves from the solidification point of view Tike sand moulé, dae to the formation of an air gap. TE Ay is the geomeutcal suctaes area of the sphere, thoappareatly inressed total surface area dve to eiling actoa's: “The factor of apparcn hille with aie gap formation is: 0) anew a7. Cununive Errvcr ox tax Contact Ficss oF Gants Piacko on Saurus Basco Saris, Ar 4 FUNCTION for tmz Postsiow oF THE Camis 18 ze Movin E] sea | coins |B] seces | ceten wee | iL Phtelike ertinas Bt Memes AR nae i ded (or ot) go “Ths values frotn Table 27 also'stow very goodagree; ment with the results of the calculations ia dhe previous section, As the experimental conditions according to \ ‘Locke, Briggs and Ashbrook® aad acoocding to Beard, Bishop snd Pellici®® arc completely citferent and iv dependent of eich other, but the clevlations derived Fromthem sill provide concordant resus, the equations ) derived here are corzect within the limits of accuracy required ia pructice tna secon ar fests 85.6, CatcuLarion OF THE Necussaity Crm I Cownacr Sunraces: Se -Accoading to the (schematic) Fig. 281 the actual total -zorface area of 2 cisting consists of the sand area plas te chill area: Ay = Agana + Acs ©) 1 f Chilcott sere pay eis \ Fee 281, Theemul coniiions 02 4 pantaly cooked elinder chenatc. Tt strc fete ar = Ags Eb rs) + oe of oll ell ora) bre Ay Ay Ags +3 Aas = ® @ as M, aa © sherefore® Conuintiper f Celeaating Ester) Chill sar Fic a me is ee tin ees egutin (ai) ci oes 5 ———— ; Hail Aan = Sa with air pap ie) =< i. | | E i : \ 7 2 | EE } q a oom EO ie 282, Canter snfces of chile withost the formmtica of 20 segs SERRE 3 Je F1e.285 Contr mutase wiht ormion ofan rsp Shrunk-on chill surfaces (for example on the inside surlacet of cings) and on chills in the lower section are calculated by meas of equation, (111), while equa tion (112) is used for chill sucties which have shrunk, away. The nomograms of Figs, 252 and 283 are derived from theie equations. Chills in the top part are comparutively inefiective because of the sizeof the air gap; their use is-associared swith increased uncertainty, especially with medium aad large castings. For this reason they have not been tested, 10,284. Plate, party ecole on she underside by cil, 95.7. Masnerx Coote Acriow on Sores Baste Fe ea i ee 7 AT a aoe ers rea neae ere 1)— 28 ded modulus My — attached to (113) Hence muxiinum of hf the cross-section ena be cooled at the ateas of contact of the chill. With chilis placed at che side, in accordance with equation (112) a4) Ie is fecquently nocetsury to feed luge, eyes, ete, on tastings at positions where ic is impossible or expensive. to place a feeder head. Table 27 gives a survey of the resinable cooliag effect oa varions pasts of this kind, in celationship ta the postion in the moula, Stein? determined experimentally the dimensions of chills for feeding eyotand lags. The results are compared fa Table 28 with the formulie given cbove, and show a wide measure of agresment. The results deviated ia only ‘one cose; this was possibly caused by the slope of the mould duriag casting, with the consequent formation of an ale gop.108 Jacreaing the Thee! Geadient by External Cooling “Temes 28, Companios of rue Exomnces tat RESULTS Aniza SHEN AND LINTING AXD Tuowe Oorasonn By Ta Gantt Caretzasions SS Teale needing co: Tapetincot Galealton eae td ee Accra sufice= 32 Wade Appacently inctensed Aung = 192 225048, v VolumeY= a= 0554 Ipedasd Module 39+ 8) bia Mgaue BEE fs 4 safeey Bes Mouae = Aggas 30 2449+ 9 vo. bat B @ ff palaces a) ozsbte+ 8) Tbe a Ase cs By slanting theese Y ie the cating, fozaion of ae gap & pesente, and i b> Peet |: be0 0} tr cass| (thea dhaniag fiom Fey btoae 104 a, dos ‘avalter senfiatly) 85.3. Came Domexsioxs From equation (113) My — i, hh 2 D=046d re) and us) which comes very close to the value given by Stein with D=05d a0 For phiclike cxsings with 2 thickness 4, acl cow tact fae (without airgap) of Any anda chil bickness D, wehave: Venu = Aa d= Vy 0 © My Want = Aan * D= My x we from (equation) 97 = Ay x dx 74. y= nd isa Fosther confirmation of the heat trassfer hypo- thesis. ‘Thickening the chill eyed this amount does not prodare an intensiicd cooling efloct. Nonetheless it is Tn advantage from the point of view of moulding tech~ nology to kesp the chill thickness, ater Pellini, wn Dad Jn practice the influence of an eventual superhest fs compensated in this way, erpecially by steel flowing "The condition of the thermal balance according (0 equation (92) will therefore Be fullled in most eases, bat Sor the aecestary cooling effect In acconlance with equations (111) and (112). ‘The available cooling surface py is determined br the type of casting. Ln the ideal case the whole surface fuse af the pact of the easting in question is availa Bearing in mind the tisk of cracking, however, chills shoul not lie too elose together, especially with large parts, Acconling #0 the wall thichuess, an inteeval be- tween chills of yp tothe wideh of a chill may be neossary to mie up the cistigg stain through the moulding sere Duater. Ta quch an unfavourable ease, therefore, only ball the surface area of the costing is availble for artaching hills The masimam cooling efect is therefore governed by the type of eating, and is calcalated from equations (414) and (112): jus) aad 19) 8.5.9. Senmary Inrontast ror Practice ans cast in chills solidify more quickly, aad thus exhibit the eome, shortencd solidification time as another Gastiog equal in weight but with a substancaly larger Siiac aa (hence a soiller mocualvs). Therefore, the farce aren is apparendy inereased by suachiag chil “Kecording to the postion of the chills on tho casting an ts gap ean be preuced wea conrracion commence®y ae emnacecastnglchil’ Becbaxd”=b8-himae~ = (Gig. 285). Jn the ease where an ait gap Is fosmed UP Specent lactase in suctae aca is double, and without sere gap thee times, that of an equal stad suse. Yowien 2 — ie out of ells, showa sehesutiealy. The lay ‘pa Sees ant actually skew all he eh’ indfntd here Beyoad a certaio minimum size the cooling accion of chill cxemot be further increased by thickening it The ner should be esperially warned against attempting couliag action by vsing too thick Ta chill ‘The standard chilly skowa in ‘Table 26 are so: dimen. sioned that theis cooling action is adequate for most purposes. 8.6. Operating Practice in Cooling Heavy Cros-see- tions by Means of Chills “Dirorraxt Fos Practice “A heavy‘ cross section (or example the rol in Fig.286) should be so strongly cooled by attaching. chills thas it tan sil be fed satisfactorily (ence with 4 safety factor (of 1.) to 1.2) by a smaller adjacent cross-section. Because Ge the danger Of cracking, the whole of the erasr-séction ‘cannot be covered with ehills, and the following 1a thumb cre be used: Cooling by mesos of chill is passible only when the ccoseaeetiog feeding liquid :netal hus a medalas which fe ar least sixty-six pee eent of that of the cross-section. to be cooled. ‘Tuble 29 gives the maximam cooling effecr on simple basic shapes, The difference in modulus of the efoss- sections ean be 28certained very quickly, so that it cn be decided without further calculation whether chills ‘be used for cooling. IF cooling is insufficient, a oneacction supplying liquid metal COpeating Practice ln Cooling Henry Cromrsectione by Means of Chils Y| YA ear As la=50 cI 7 weak ont tne coy Inthe wat! wos toeroted kize: ioq | 4, ob Ym soul of which ws cooley elle ‘EAS oder head with arial cod zone at the oper shor lly! can solve the problem, and the metal can be left om the casing, Starting with the casting, the wasimor chill contact sndaseand the inital modulus Mg, the reduced modulus tan be determined at once with the help of Figs 282 ad 263 (or equarions 448 and 119). If chills wit and rthout an air gap are attached to the sume cross-section, The procedure isa Follows: fist detesmine the reduced tradsioe without air gap; this now becomes the initial vpedulas for determining the modulus associated with the foemation of an att gap, and is therefore substiuted ja the second determination for My Averoatively, the casting, the chill contact suefaces, the sumber of standaed chills which ctn he attached eclenlated from the dimensions of the casting: ci Serval-chillyete) are known; itis also known whet fermed or nor. The wotal eroled 4} an ait gap will be130 Tecteasing the Thera! Gradient by Exsemal Cooling | Tunes 29, Cacconamtens 1 Coxecnion wise FIG. 290 Roth’ described the cooliag of a heavy einer base By means of the skeich and the incorporated scale i quently to check his experimersall was possible subs “The joice an te imagined as te sdpecntsiuation body. determined values with the formule shown hese; *he se revults were almost completely ia agreement (sce Fi hed thle). toe Oe as gon apctethtos of Ge one bee vwith its (0 = 4008 eat and flee Vg= VA = sStem sme sundae of che adicesecros-section 15 x 51 is only 5m ‘Ree joi roils wuliee te modglas mt be edzeed fiom, S84 t0 4.5em. | Chill calculation | atl underneath A= 5 det ~ 309 emt iho {Sr gan, hence 2 » 4D = HO Ga arto Ye ule ; chill atthe side, vith ale gop: Ay 62.40 thane t ah = 6 em co be added | “Apparent faces in sutice sees 90:4 620 = (280 ‘Appurentiyineteaied area! 425 + 1222 — S248 cmt ie redaced eodulie = Yi Agge = 235520/5088 ~ 43.0 ios ab7aandb, Cylinder base cone with chil. After Rott! Abiry Table lo Pig. Cabention of te i parecer of xed ie ba A, Coeaation of et weightage Rat SAE det; Asam = S05 dens Bigs = VIA = 157 bn ‘Metin tp wo ve muta out = 125 tn etn toch th tad Bee fed thy be eels ‘Mew ee tl ne 0 Nets het Mie = 10 ig fale oe option OF tok Nall Vows My Maus 7 oss Seed with toll wags of Wey, ~ 17008 3. Coleen of the meses et ett a, eier Wise Tis frac wit ong (ection 113, hich che susiace of also krowa, Va Ms | sorface area on the casting by the casting is apparently. inczessed Mp. sos(ts7 — 1.05) 3 Gooling suriaces with an ais gap ace: simply added to a Mar Mr 25 the genmerieal area of the casting, while toed ty gus ajar of etal mas 3% $n 18 dnt po oi without an ais gap azo doubled and then added. ju af wll gitg Aux 120 da. Tos (nbrepn) sala Piguce 285 was calculated by this method, Sten siwel ok ponent th He re of hs praca! x,Operating Practice io Costing Hey Two fucther examples drawn from the author's €= petlence are shown ie Figs, 288 and 280 with the appro- priate auxiliary tables, The toggle in Fig. 28) was cuoled Inox ie the feeder bead dimensions and in- craue the yield, An unusual feature of the caltulaion, js that the simpler decermninasion of surface arvajperi- suctace area hers was selected instesd of volun ir .$——s10-« ic. a88, Wheel eating. Rim cooled by chills soa fed by ce hob ses haa (on nm le) theowah the whes! dis, Sand etebecs “pete lnod by the severe cil ei Tobe 9 Mi w6ft= tent Vw yeas Mam U0 Mg ace isle ME — 2.3 ripe als with ot ie ge “ecntig fo egiaton (72) a: Fu@h— My _ 21400629) a, Fas die abet lf of he vie foe (47.0 ex) mete ke ete wt ‘hie a canter ily 60 (Pat 26) me epi, ace of ech ‘Bad fom Fig 28: |A very interesting example of the cooling of a press stand is illustrated in Fig. 290. The casting is highly sessed, and must be @ hundred pet cont ulessonically ane of the eacefolly esleulated chill dimen- sions (se Table 2 iments and problems same procedare sound. By theee techaicil movlding require: deale with by one and the Tio aig, Masive tgs, heap chiled on eeonemic grout ‘Note tne small fede head Assitiey Tale “The tne wee iced 10° cig poring, v0 sas Beth il wold fo Mh wget Te ei et cre aut approxi te he restos beri rl Caercctonl aca Ay = 95 ¥ 18 = S14 Pergo rosncton Py 203 4 18)~ SSen Midiie y=]? = $c IM, a opal 25.23 Aion oon (41), be: AMM) Hats 25 ai, 28 ees ech are to Be ebtaded on lob of cxf he orp, web bm te the mene chm, Ar tt tnd ilar des Tab eaten af th wag mas ome, A ate fer Wad ‘scared fa Table 7 or be ain (Wate, ~ 1308) Fie. 290 (1) (Cooney Sabie Boe)} 42 tncreasing the Theat Gradient by Fatcenal Cooling with the formation of shrinkage cavity. The defect is prevented if chill J is either omitted or displaced. ‘The base of « eylindss is be ease sound by the use of ehils (Eig, 2013). Atuching a Inge bowlshaped, ‘cher bspaced, feeano (ret teat 7X30 Fre anta Cate apd incret postion of tbe als om a | ee Fie a eo se Onl odes fad 17 0. We oly ie ing th tie ead of te em ode) wel ate wget be pred dl ts ea fe bed ae nerves of + =a | ¥ Fie. Page hosing | Tomas ection of re ir ile Te | A gat feed all (te ila fora ba bese toch err) 2. Goal oferta el i te somes tas ext tag rae of bik 5 tie of Bs mars Tri egret a of tests i Fee ae af } For tty we To 87. Shrinkage Cavity Due to the Incorrect Placing. fae of Chills . If the interior of a amssive casting exhibies shrinkage Ae ae om cavities in spite of cooling with chils, the diessioos hich have been given segacding dimensioning of the aire ace: hill contace surface, chill thickness and che miaimam ‘cross-section which can be fed satisfretorily cannot have sonnet {Gran fallowed-cocecrly: In this: section only the. con-- 73st cnn te el les Eieg OF he feed setion by, the chile ll be ue. Meee em dered Chills were placed ona bush (Fig-2948) im order 10, ug Cores . | oe UI pace econ and 1 Res ste caning om [he eee MEE ne aT al tlre Se central feeder head. However; thc chill masked J con- hrm nse oft tig, The oid mat ony pled rind the I, tit eles the feeding ection, 20 that solidifies prematacely peso ol oet Ure of Coatouced Chile 63 conton chill, in spite of additional cooling of the eentel portion hy an iateenal chill, gave rise 1o severe shrinkage Cavities from the corsitiction of the feeding section ‘This defect wes eliminated by a suitable reduetion in the size of the chill, IE the wall thickness of the chill moold is ¢mall in comparison with the casing cross-section —when casting sn ingct, for eximple—then, according to Fig. 292°” 2 Desh of tanseyoiine ss, mm x a a ita 15.292, Chill wal thicksess and transerselie 2one 09 ingots, ‘Neer Bardacbaves™, the chilling effect i exerted to 3 oF 4 times the thickness of the chill movid, ‘This must nor give the misleading impression that « plate cin be cooled completely with ‘chill of threo-times the thickness (Fig. 293). We know Fic. 273, Supposed enoling efeee due t9 filse intrpreston of eBandeabauerdagem | Eee wit rime ei ie of ame he pit shes) ‘ems of sn af the late sob teed. The sesier fess dot eve af trsng tect a nce by ran of os ll that in the Himiting case only half of the plare can be ‘chilled, and chata thin chills sufficient for chis porpose (ck Chapter 7). Steprwite cooling of 2 steel casting can Only be achieved by stepwise placing of the chills, as in iy, 294, when the heaviest chill has 2 thickness of half that of the plate. ‘The remaining chills are thea so thin thar ic is difficale o ebvain reliable results with them ia practice, Cooling from two sides—as in elongated end zones—is far more reliable, and is independene of the chill thickaess. nin enn 4p><] les aS 4, Kneorreet and core stepped chili cvaesctens, Lorre Ci tage tn aft las of ho plate a ail sable cl rire has dnc of da ofthe mf of woes, Stgped rg cave be adhiae by epinnasm loft pe. ores ie thc of bs ane il sol 0? sed > the som dle re ab peered cise. Te bill chr i 00) mal ith tis pe of np lla. The hls ae afer plant ban erect seen Spd dling eit Ip plein elle oto thee se sac ware nei (Ser Figs 2648 nb 88. Use of Contoured Chills Ever standard chills follow che shape of the exsting, and in this sense they are in fact contoured chils. B a systemutic classification ia DIN Genran equivalent ‘of Beiish) standards of similar castings which cecar frequently, contoured chills wish a wide range of eppl= cition ean also be manvfactnced® Exams : “The staadinis for ceive bogie wheels are abstracted ia Table 30, and the standard chill tables 34 and 32 a2 Getived fcom it, Figures 295 and 296 show the wiels tmanufactuced inaccocdance with theve standards or their moulds, “The “historial* development of the molding tech~ siques for bogie wheels is shown in Fig. 207. In this fase the use of chills aot only inciesses tke yield, bur tlso lowers the machining cest, “in the sprocket wheel centre (Figs-298-e), the pen ve machining of the teeth was prevented, and 232 ky of steet were also saved, “Very mastivp parte of manganese steel can often be rade only by the use of els (igs, 299, milling rel Small crusher jaws of mangensse steel can be monlded fn eyatheric bentonite sand, larger ones can with ad- vantage be made in magnesite, ztcon or olivine sr. Ui standard chile as in Table 33 ace used, a cheaper quartz rioulding sand can alo he employed154 ecressing the Theta! Gadiat br Hatenal Cres sramuz ,Soaxanv on Samancazen Crasmpocts WIPES a Noa a | iam De | \ srnmuar ats Canue Duong ron SeanpAnDlteD CHINE DOSE ws stig for weet #1200 rue dioneer of th ehil come!) [06 2008. ofan FE sik ofr mm sani so Sesser Wioras ov. Suawpany Contes 708 “Caawe Boots WIESS ice ropa ands Midandctng of ce BE whieh was cad Fi hae we of oscused lle A smal it ee io fod teense ros seesor138 Ue of Contoured Chia alley Ries cooled with ells, and Fics 206. Moule of «ane 9 rll, ae Teer Beds hc remainder ofthe erosesection fed bY See osenpto with how part. Sirinase ey ie Seba Hemet, with etal creo 08 ein ond es) asi a) Wb ri foe oa io ond 69 One len fe che ere ram led by ema sli oder tng be gow pie iD136 ; Fic, 299, Cistng of @ ming roll of 14% manganite sel i eal CHAPTER 9 INCREAS! THE THERMAL GRADIENT BY MEANS OF COOLING FINS 9. Ceneeal Discussion of the Action of Cooling Fins Cooling fins bave been in use for some sme, he. in siecooled cylinders for motor cyl, ee “A cooling fia represents 4 hin plate with a very shor sclidideation time, which forms part of the exsting (ig. 300). Te must be acted in this connection that + ie. 300. Pate cone on one side by pins, mfasuzable cooling efect it oaly obtsined when Moise tn $9.25 Meaning 420) Hf the mndolus of the cooling fin is bigher than this value, the fia forms a junction which remains liqa! tren longer than the origimil casting. ‘This undesired Ctiect, acting in the opposite discetion, ins been estab: fished by the author by measurements of solidificttion vh sufficient distance swat cemaia between the fins 19 prevent ceambling of the sand ridges and hot spots at the sand comers (sand file effec) which woald tend to couateract the desized cooling effect. As shown by the ecale dexwing of Fig. 300 and by works trials, this disrance should amount tw about 44 ‘The saullesepossible cooling, fn thickness d, raking ato account practical requirements, lies betwee 4 ancl 2) mmm according «0 the eating: “Theze is ao point in making fine too thin om heavy cross-sections cist in a steel which is not rery uid, a5 they will aot zon aad will be inciective. “The we of cooling fins affers the following, main ad vantages compared with chills 4pfect on the Modulus of the Prior Sliifestion 437 A. They are aot susceptible co sctess cracks and pores: jy, even with poor-quality steele such as Bessemer steels 42, Occasional comabisation of cooling and strengthen- eneetcioe ing ribs. ‘On the other hand, cooling ins bave the following disadvantages: Fe oso an a, : tat = Mocs 4, The fos often do not sun satisfaciceily, especially Mee Maoh (Pate) with cooler mera and when the Gns do aot Te in the Gizoction of fow of the liquid stele. the casting peo cess is less reliable. 2, Tk the finned patterns are not made of metal: often more difficult and costly to earve the firs by hand Gin the sand mould). 3. Increased dressing costs. Man” My (Oat) 4. Curvanare of the casting with Tog fins, due to the 7 contraction pall of the fins. “The necessary waske inspection and care in operation sre about the same whether chills or fins are used. ‘9.t. Effect on the Modulus of dhe Prior Solidification ‘of Adjacent Crose-sections on Wedge Plates with Fo. st Soieion pn of wage le wih enclngos_Astached Fins, Determination ofthe Mfodulus on Soldigention geomesrs ates Caverinor®. Wedge Plates ‘The following method of caleslation for castings as ia Fig. 34a is almost completely accurate and has tIready been given by Chyorinov®!: “The further advance of the solidification front from a cross-section 2 which has slseady solidified proceeds lin che ditection of the arcow. The progress of soliditi- cation X in the direction of ihe atrow, according to Section 2.2, is equal to the thickness of skin JC at the cross-section 2, znd is given by XakIT @ Because the modalue of a plate section is equal to half the thickness of the place, the skin thickness in this 4 Termoeovoes X=, (ey) Fic. gntb, Cooling of a wedge pice by scans of fin aached tl one Font sie, Cakslaton and fee seks ace Cvernes®- es) : 3 5 4 Ls Wonk Sohieton tom inn, tale or ME se # i Soltero me, e cele jor Mase ea Lis Soba ve in, . “ x | iw ectied Medien) Comied mdoles = 5 Maes138 Increasing dhe Theeral Gridiont by Means of Coofing Fine Because of the growth in the disection of the areow, the colidifiition fronts of exess-section $ are “forced buck”, Le, curved, and seal up prematurely, so thee section } solidifies ia the same, shoeter time T, 28 er0ss- section 2. The modulus of che eross-section is therefore less, and must be corrected: Ts AF the wedge angle & of the plete is smal, thea approx es Ty My (comected) = M, (422) Hn My As =e) = Merete’) 5) eee Mie ran Ho Mg tom sg ao (1~ 28 Af, being the modulus of the cooling fin, Chvorinoy hiawelf has checked the securscy of chis equation on 4 wedge plate, according to Fig. 30\b. ‘Aboct 20 years later Pelini® carried out the expeciment strated in Fig. 3022. As the edges of 9 plate solicify first, & weege- shaped plate remains, the sloge of which in this case amounts ia ecoss-section 2 to: (i= 375 x tat = 53m Heace the setual modulus ean be caleulated by she Chvorinoy rule (equation 125). Figuse 3026 shows the modulus of the uncooled aed fn-cooled plate on the basis of the acroal solidiicaton mes messased by allied. Theoe values agree slmas? completely with those calculated from equation (125), a tam | a hanna estan | Pins Pesoom Checking the cooling ezuaticn after Chvorsou® hy elit’ experimental eats", istence @ fom ond 0 pote rim Tie. 30 ea TET 7 cose pte | [= ~-osts one rate pom 7 Melis, on Etfectve ching ight be con ‘cecve cling heh ho tn o5'2 mutpe 2°” the thchess ¢ ah Ching min Fm i oa 75 ik i, ag aod | Litt a PR enne somate ek ! \ ; + [AU “Abvnce of sfc brn) nth cata plane of te plete io. joke. Accelented advance of soldiicten om 2 plate due vo the aeachent of a evoling Sa. After Palin, e€ ety accucate equation (125) is only true for plates swith cooling fins arched at the ead face. Fins attached at the very long sides produce “chilled junctions” (Fig. 309) che toliiieaion time of which is affected by severtl other influences (Sand filets, effect of the cooling rakarasistng suitable fr cola purses io, sue Longitadi aod zapnensecocling fis a pnctions, ‘ins, te). Appeopeinte method of calealstion are not aonllable at present; suiwble experiments should be devised. Experiments have shows (Fig. 03) thie end zon even extended end zones, emalso be produced by ool fus as showit fn Figs, 244 and 245. Here again, there a present no simple method of calculation which is fellable in prectce, s0 that swinble expesiments are again indicated “The modulus ofa tapered wedge pate (with the exer section of an elongated tsiangle) ie also csleulated by eqontion (125) Ie is ) and onary piven cross-section 2 ata disuunes (measused along the slant side) of Zy from the apes ws Y a= A Digerene Heat Removal Rates of Vasions Moaltiog Maeras 39 Fis 30a Generston of atic and exeaded end zones by tach of coulg fins on = gear sm. Joating cegurements in an eanarerse fag, et by and. 4 Mao @ whore fa the plate thickness ae che cross-section in «question. Then: My a= Milt = Esumple: tapered wedge plate 100 em long, wedge thickness at this length 40 em. Af, = S em Mf, ~ 095 Mf, ~ Mt, ® jue: with elongated wedge plates beyond a eadio of = 4:5 Practically no ceduetion of the modains occurs due t0 the action of the previously solidified peal: * : CHAPTER 10 INCREASING TH 2 THERMAL GRADIENT BY MEANS OF MOULDING MATERIALS WITH A CHILLING ACTLON soa. Different Heat Removal Rates of Various Moulding Materials, Defecis Arising from Theic Use In order to determine the cooling times in various moulding materials, Locke, Briggs and Ashbrook 3 gut fundamental and extremely imporsant mer- sarements on steel spheres of 6 in. diam, According to Fig. 304, the spheres were cast in shells ade of various moulding materials, The results arc shown in Fig. 05 und dhe mecsurements were plotted by the anther on @ Chvorinay diagram (Fig. $06), enabling the soliciiea- tion tines to be read oF dicecily ss-a fanction of the modilos.140 erating the Theemal Graizee by Means of Coctiag Fiat [epson tr rt) Themocane + Fic. sot, Eaperimenalarout afer Locke Bulggeand Achbecok! af eaten | Sette si Gente Silicon eb » ognesite BIDS ziscon NS “ec ag \ Thy ® quart tna 1S un cacomseeons erth-+60% quant sand n ‘eronnt an] 50% catomsczus carts = org unt ind fore “ Caper or sat tt Se Sie Negros = essing mater Se ee Sic 00, nie Fic. 3H Soldalon tes of cave steel pane se a function Of ‘he sailiiation sedalus Mane eke oelding cater A main field of application of high heat conduesiviey sanuls isthe Gilling material becweea two chills (Fig.272, sect, 8.4.1.) with the object of reducing the zisk of hot tears by the rapid formation of 4 solid ekia of steel. Compositions of these materials aze given in Table 34. ‘These sand mixes must not be adopied uncriticaly, but should be used only as a guide, to de-zdjuseed hy real to the prevailing operating conditions. High-carbon chilling materials (for example, graphite, coke, silicon ‘earbide) frequently cause a slight carbon pickup in the upper layers of the steel casting) thie i ually ave hhermiul, because of subsequest cecarburizarion while annealing the easting. Tunen 3, Coxvostsioss o- Hicu TustwaL Coxpverirry Marenaes, xrram Loe, Tnigas avo Asnxoox®, Kerstanxovais axo wnou tu Avenon’s Owe Reriutmce Goolag naiezake Darin pnw by wetze |G, ai = rey a] Bee | Gere | na Base tei so | mo | wm | to | wo | to 0, fad (810) Betoite 5 a5 | sas | 3 Mae starch binder 2 | os os 2 Destine i | ta ts far | 3 | Wares 7 Weer ‘ x |i 4 ane fo late Rema a | kad ‘The data mensly repeeseat EE | BES | ‘these materials are soughly equivalent in theic aperitif be 5 S22 | cing ston dhtcted prvoaaly ia sean. fa | 283 se wit cpering const 26 | 227i Cleultion of Moulding Maesals with a Guling Action If the cathon-conttining materials ate aot dense (Le phees af graphite of silicon cxtbide) bat are granolar Fartnerctone: pores; the very Gaid eeale (FeO) whieh is always formed on solidification penetrates occaslonally toto the pores, and the following ceactions tke ple: FeO 4 C>Fe + CO @ and 3Fe + C+ FG, of C dissolved in Fe. ‘The iron material peemested i this way can thus con- cise oveasionally of geaphitic grey east iton, a pheno imenon which caa also be observed in starch-containing, sands}: TBecanse the meting pine of ferrous oxide is 1450°C and thar of grey cast icon about 1280°C, penetration alsa occurs after the steel has solidified. Depending on the position on the casting Ge. sand filets, cto), steel peaeication which is diffeult to dress our, oF mixtures (6! FeO) and grey izoa in the foren ofa shell which breaks of exsly can occuc, The carbon monoxide proshced ‘often peacreates into the casting. with the formation of swormholes” o¢ porosity on the viscous surface of the conting. Te is therefore recommended that mixtores of this type shoald be made-25 compact as possible ie. with a very high proportion of fines, which will reduce the ‘wolume of pores in the sand. 19.2, Caleulation of Moulding Matetisls with a Chill- ing Action is desicable, bur aot absolutely necessary For the understanding of the vse of soch mankding materials, to-seudy this seerion,) The calculation is bused on the principles dicenssed ja Seetion 845, ia particular on theappareatiacrense by a factor of y ia the surface area of the casting, atthe points of application of the ebill or cooling sane (8.5:3.). The ppatensly inceeated surface 1 is ctlculaced from equa tlon 100, which is written, asieg: the normal notation, ss 4) = Teostne mat A, =4x) (29 “which was used 10 plot Fig. 307. According t0 Fig. 284, the troe (geometrical) surface area of 2 casting is Ay = Aga + Acsoting narerat “The apparently increased otal ruefaes is then: ign, = Anas +3 % Acsinamaien — 028) eam equations {22 and 125 we obtsia Aap Ag+ (7D Avon meray (120) ise in the rapid calculation che knows geometrical sae- face area ag s to be added to the cooling susface times ( — This factor is also given by Fig-507. 4 coding to + prsnul dommnusicition fom Prof Drclog: 1k Rovteh, Remeereld. ut "The cooling surface of contact necestacy to obtain the zeluerd modulse I, is, according to equations (111) and (112) My— Me Gry) Aion ; Diagram forthe determination ofthe apparent increase of chill stew using vnnioss Eea = 2.4, = 1.65, é 0.36) with, cast steel, at 2 temperature of 500°C, amo Prngtise = 055 % doaany ile, graphite chills can be somewhat thin sponding iron. chills, Table 35 gives some values for cother cooling watesials | ‘Taser 35. Darh ov rms Tutomses oF Hior-coxmusmary PACKING FoR Vaniovs MATERIALS Srabels dja wall icknes of the plate to be cooked 7 9.82 igen) =p. heat (elie) Ia" ~ temperate (she semen fst gf the plate) D~ mintnans thins of the high-oosdactsty packing, = siding € equation 131, 25 a multiple of fy of he Bighecndc: iri materi “High Geroal cueiviy teil [ibaa ie ai gap Stel cil 46 00, os [Danaea Gaaphie cuit’ eitioor airs Seek are Sifeon exile bide Mmaie back Ramared veeon sel ny ox) | 08 (1) Caleaatd Foes eqoaton (10) fe uncertin, Beaute the © eastat of the brik (which vies between 40 and a) was et given ia the experiments (Valve determined erperinentlly aftr Stent, aed al cvlated sang i 35°C According to Chvorinav'” the various cooling effects for cach ceramic moulding macetial and eae cast metal can be caleslated as follows: In general, according to section 2. MakVT a) where £ is a constant and 7 the solidification time. Experiments have been carried out with the sim of deriving this constant theoretically from the physical values of send aad metal, Up to the present, it has not ‘been possible to obtain a practical result which exn be verified expecimentally. The rescon for thie is thar on the sand side aa infinitely large number of interpedi sages exit between the high mesal/sand interface tem- peraruce on the one hind acd som remperaturs on the other. Each of these Intermediate stages possesses dif- ferent thermal values. In addition the high temperature zones difuse into the moalding sand, so that the theymmal equlihria also change as 4 function of time. (Oa the metal side a metallsand interiace equal 10 the solidas temperature is assumed. This assumption is only approximately trve, and the temperature distribution in the casting itself cannot be calculated accurately for the reasons outlined sbove. Fot the purpose of this book, theeefvre, it would be poiniless to give approximate calculations which are (1), sdsctory revulte thas very extensive and (2), give less ea sicably devised experiments. Hor ths reason the coa- stants é given here were derived diteetly from expeti- ‘mental reaule. 1553. Practical Application and Caleulation of Mowld ing Miverials Having a Chilling Action Iuponranr ron Practice ‘The modalus calcvlition will be curied out oa the basis of Fig. 308 (Bange) as an example. The cast steel ‘flange will be fed without a feeder head from the thinner wall. Because of the tisk of hot teiss, elle exn oaly amtached to the outer aad lower sides, with a moulding Ubofierequal to the width oi the chill. The cooling faction achieved ia this way’ is not sufficiens in icel anc instead of quartz sand 2 magnesite sand is phiced between the chills, Pade ae Gig 29 = 96200 2 [EX] chit cote tone FE) est cat tes The revo srces oe tare by anor legs Pins Mange sti ok ty in yok en mae—_——____— | I Practica Application aud Calestation of Moulcng Mates Having 4 Chili Acton 445 c +. The process of ealenlation can be seen feom Table 36, creased eueface area Ay jsobtsined fromequation (129): ep acicec of volumefauface ata ae calculated the surface of contact of tbe cooling maredal mkipied tke liste” methods Tis meibod ws compared by che factor () ~1) is added to the geometscl tee he muck simpler calewhion ssiog the miGo face A, This factor can be obuined for vious cling Sohinelpeinhery, which gives picially ee some re- sec rom Fig. 307 sales “Two cases were calouted in Tobie 364 nda, an appacentinecease in she eecive chil with nd without magnate, Using magoetits be cooling eases when cooling mate are amached, tices ofthe wall “feeder” can be rence on © oe a oe montane derteucs. ‘The appacony in- alimited extent; ceramic chiling material ae much kes | efierive cooling agents than metal chile | ‘These exlulaed tects ace ennirmed br the exped sneats of Stein and co-vorkers™, who aitsched sel _ Taliep 9, Phacon gy Case sstoe Une 07 Fas. ‘and graphite chills and zircon sand packing to cobulat apaeL SSS Givinge Whle steel and graphite Fekaved almest 3 : the sane ways and the cat tube quality sas good, the Siecon wand packing bad only a slight efeet and the the wse of Stel hill wish sr emp oa Seelelill witout gap to ‘quality of the castiag was much inferior. Mages 20 | Calelaion using the (Galeton using the Ne. No. (aj woljountac acca aio |b) she bee Fore Gh volimutice aes mo | (@) dhe ba Forni Geom sige area: | Geom pr Tages fice ge covered with [loner length 3 phery agcesite ayers wih mage oem ya = 1) = sot? | Zan =) : 2 | $ 2 ae a inside (24 ~ 2092 § 10 Dasemiaailon of apperenty inciesed susie ~ 20 ir) ‘ang ill without magoedte [Sum of owe Ss, $2.64 | Sam of rows $b. 8b, gives appmerelyincresed [ob gives seca 010 emt? Pagp Sten Reduced modulus using enlls without magnestic es pve Me AalPone Medals 42 TC annlss — 248em, Chill calculation area using chills and magcesite feces ie eee Vpau|Sum-of ws $0,898 [Sum of some Sb, 8 $ 0: 4s Gb, 10b, 1b, 120 = Face ab half covered with | Leegih 2> pal Reduced modulus using chills aad magnesite Sask Conte Sas20m ‘Lenath 1b oter halt fevered sich mingne- Tp 608050) ten secs 14 (cll without magnesite) Foce ta other a covered swith rmgoeste ‘Bieknsasd of the housing reibetaage d= BMMp At = nent eee ee eee Foc an oder half evened | Leapth 2b other alt — | : : seit negzeste sotetel seks singe: | Siam Sem . ue fa axe £6 (chill and agnesie)148 Incrssiog the Theunal Geadisn: by Nein of Coolie Fins Tog. Manufacture of Extended Artificial End Zones ‘by Means of Chilling Materials Inevontany rox Practice ‘The layout and eesalts of the experiments by Stein aad comvorkersY are shown in Fig. 309, In theabsence Ginn Stet cit Graphite chit Perel EGE Perden aendrie cence ‘iariouion RI Ootect zanee ony detectebie lrasncy Wheat eniv Fic. 50. Diagramme regrsenaton of she primary rsette oF esl ee, cat in varies et soedacing ener ef stzpped chills ac in Figs, 244 aad 245, it ie understand able chat slight porosity must oceus 2€ the points indi cated in the exntte of the end zone, With stepvise cooling similar conditions eo those found on pacaite ples can be produced! in which che thicker step feeds the thiaaee on. Tn experirsats by the curios (of. Fig. $10) the feeding range was stepped, asd thas extended, by staching Yi We Fig, 510. atecooledinstegs by ataching vrioushearcondveting etre sous cooling materials. In practice the chilling sand packiag can oaly be plied as cores of vativus thick- nesses, hecause fre ramming by hand is roo inzceueste In special cases the possibility of chill cores will be con- sidered. Krestschanovsli% also desesibed the different chilling eects of vations materials, without giving genenlly valid formahe, The feeding range when using mould materials with 4 chilling action (nd metal chills) i: of importance. According 1 sect.3.4 (Fig. 57), the dendrites are shortened on cooled surfaces, ic, tha solidification band becomes sinaller. This corresponds to smaller ow ce- sistances towards the end of solidification, thit is the feecing range becomes greater.» ‘The anchor observed aninctease of fey pes cent in the Jeagths of the sound zones when using.ziecon monlding sand, compared with the values shown ia Pigs. 47 and 48, However, the amount of material observed is too small foe genesally valid conelusioas 1 ke drawn from the results, and the author recommends, on safety grounds, that the values of Figs. 47 and 48 should coatinne to be used unl che results of large-scale tals ace available 105. Displacement of the Segregated Zone by: the Use of Moulding Mcterials with Chilling Action ~ It Js dear with the moze rapid growth of che dendctes at the cooling walls thar rhe segregated zone will be displaced in che direction of the uncooled walls, The stronger the chilling sezion of the moulding. material, the greater this displacement will be. By using chills of steel, copper oc graphite (ll of which ave practically equivalent) this displacement is at a maximum, The amosnt of displacement attainable con be calculated ftom equations (108) 1nd (128). Both these equations dea] with the apparent inercase in surface 2rea caused by chill moulding materials Exarse 1 According to Fig. 14, the positon of the aggregated zones is to be established when one side (b) is covered with chills (©) with magnesite beick (@) with zircon sand. To ealeulite the segregated zone it is appropiate to use equacion (42) after Stein. The distance -¥ of the segregated zone from the uncooled surkace is given by I¥ Atos mae we where ) is the ctor of the apparent surfice increase, which amounts to.y ~ 3 for chills withoat an air gap, and y ~ 2 for chills with an aie gap, and which can be abtiined for other cooling materials feorn Rig. 307. Ia this example, the upper pure consists of quartz sand and the lower portion (without air gep) of the cooling material, The ealeularions are shown in the relevant ables, laphead Displacement of the Segrnted Zone oo 6 cs pe ‘sone. 1 . wea EM ire reese © Was * FIERA Fig, $11. Dipiacrasac of the septegning 2000. — the use of heatconducting mould race. by (6) Tap wid boon gare ods Seested see epost in the 0) Tep cuartg snd, tom cll wie ale gy eaten (05) Aasoe +3° Ais 37 cot ioe 0 etd Py 6 =0867 a ep quart sand ten mga, Pom Fig. 72 © ay op query sent, ttn oo cand Fro Pit 37 2 as ExawPre 2 “The displacement of the segregated zoaes by various amocldiag and core sinds fs 20 be determined For a tobulae coring. First of al the eqeasion (42) derived by Steit® will tne weed Fig. 42) secting with Ate plates. With such shies the segregated zone Ties in the centce of the plates. = a a == eS | cuore eta site ae etiam ees ma Peles cere 7 pcan hi pl ed for, Fin ae ee ieee a i wid ao Tie diameter 2: of the spregated xo it | Xm b+ eve pratt at ol et fue oh te (as) a By placing vicon saad oa one side, as shown it Fig. jlie, the segregated ae & displaced, With ft plhtes, we have X= 00637 where XX is the distance of the seercgate fom the un- {hile surhee, Thie displaced zone is further displaced by encvatace, according to Fig. 15+ 2 Fic 343. Poation of he segregtid thee in tubule bodies uring acon ‘sa red STW446 ‘Tares 57, Posttow or THE Sra nctessing the ‘Thermal Gradient by the Use of Ineral Chis ep Zou x TeDutan | Cases a 1 coat Om d+ 22 md bee a om ‘Table37 names the corresponding factowe fo: establish * ing the position of the segregates in tubular bodies in a generally vali form. For tubes wich small core diameters a further dis. mad temaerez placement of the segregated zone by the action of heat takes place in the sense of Section 7-4, The calculation of this effec for cooling cande would go beyond the seope Of the present work, INCREASING THE THERMAL GRADIENT BY THE USE OF INTERNAL CHILLS CHAPTER 11 i | et. General Twportavt FoR PRACTICE To the exten thatthe expedince avilable lined, the vse of internal chil In tel castings i eke. The Almensons of internal hil fo spec een ave boca coablshed by means of namerase experiment ciel tur by vatioos anthors. The authot has attempted to derive generally appiable formule fom thex tod mt seed maialy on the very tstrocie Special investigations sepocted by Lanzenddrtec!™°, which ave the same fundamental importance ag the sphere experiments of Locke, Briggs and Ashbrook™. Satis- faciory steel quality is also essential with internal chills Figure 3144 shows a chilled lag in which can be seen pinhole porosity ia che capidly solidied edges, similar co that illnteated ia Fige. 221,205 and 226. In the quenched zone of the internal chill the pocosiy is much more pronounced as « cesule of the very mach higher ecte of solidiGcation. Fic. 2140, Bososty ofthe inteea cil efx Ig: Note the porosity zope at the edge of te log, which las uo connceion with the porosity sone of te isterral hil ?Fe is abo important for the chill matetial to be made P of kiled steel, freo from gates, otherwise defecis will as those illastated in Figs. j14b-<. (The Jo true for chaplets| { } | Fic. 51th, An inteenl hill was inserted in the lowes Bangs of thiccrg, ix onder to economize fede stl Large defective gotcs vere found 00 alesanic and cadiogcophie iepacion. Ae renpt co sve de esting by welling fied. cl) ur Gener 7 Mild steels often used for internal chills, which weld ‘on exsily. This is conrec: practice but it must be se foembered that mild steels are often supplied in rimmed iqralities. In the author's experience low-carbon steals Which have been deowidized mainly with lominiam have proved sstisfactory. Yatemnal chills epresert internal surfaces in exsting. slag,and sand pacticks, Foreign bodies such at gases separate preferentially on these suriaces. This precip tation is made mose difficult when the interna! tills ally in the casting (Fig. 3144), In the hor! ib, sr4ch Toten hein che loge of LEW. ‘The his stand “pertain ee etn zontal position it will usnally be found that such foreiga bodies occur o7 the underside of the chil. Titernalehill are to a large extent hatmless when they ace subsequentiy removed by machining (2 this case a selety margin can be lef round the chill, so that che blowholes, ete, can be safely machined owt “The coating applied to interna chills is of import Tis clear that mst, and oxidation ofall kinds, mast lead toa heavy evolution of gas. Condensed moisease (espe ally with greca sand moulds) also leads to blowholes. "Toning has been adopted as 2 means of preventing savecea ebills from rusting bur the tinning peocess must bye earricd out eatefactorily. When this is not done, rus {often found underneath the tin coating. ‘The sin (Sa) forms 8 sepseating layer in she casting: Tn the most fvouralsle case i i floated off by the stect owing past it, and distibused dhrough the metal. Te the most uniarourable ease an Fe-Sn layer with 2 lower curength is formed: With stcels which are poused cold the tin Goally hindees any bonding with the casting. Bie. 3t4e Section taken from the lower fange (340) ached ‘eply with sulphusis sed. The following castes of the defects Sreieeoublebe (9) Tie meer of hcl tot ud oe, hie wel rene Foden were ered ae by eats of tt rales gs ltr (Pe sill tel (mel tel) i a peri ite. Prsamily vic ave ill teria se get sto |e448 ‘o.gtges Beating ing. which i diffe to seach, and wish Siiertin meds ote beri gM = 3m io f nceasing the eens! Ganslnt by the Uae of Toternal Chile The dine Low Eafe whieh greatly 1 "A coppec (Ca) costing has proved fai Stal intecnal chills (ad chaplets). Fe-Ce: alloys Sometimes possess favourable properties. However 6 = copperslating technique is an art which, bas Teen soquired by very few manufacturers of inceceal chills "According 39 the author's expecience, i is b ‘use a chill material which Is been bright ground, oF tt lout has a pecectly clean, sandblastee surface. Sam Ghilis raust be kept in alstight contsinece which are Stored in a dey environment, Bach container mast be provided with a stoagly hygroscopic eansidae (of burnt lime for cxumple). Targer chills ace ground to 4 bright metallic eadisc= before use: nde chills are sometimes galvanize ran extremely brittle e~Za allor withtheiton, the sirength of the casting: y satistactory Wo be fe eben ee bonsing wal Tmaceaiute and incomecty divesioned chil on the doedg wal aad site, Shrinkage tas were forme! ‘subequesly.