Q1:Differentiate between overhead and

underground wiring?
Ans:

Overhead System Underground System

1.The size of conductor for same 1.The size of conductor is quite

amount of power large in
is small underground system.

2.The amount of insulation is less as 2.Very high degree! of insulation is

overhead required
lines are open to atmosphere and as the underground system is laid
hence air provides under the
the necessary insulation. ground hence area is very compact.

3.Heat can be dissipated easily in the 3.Heat dissipation is very difficult

surroundings and. hence
as overhead number of insulating layers are
lines are open to atmosphere. added to the cable.

4.Overhead system is very cheap as 4.Very costly, because a number of

no insulation insulation
coating is used over the conductors layers has to be used to provide
i.e., the conductors sufficient insulation.
used are bare
conductors

5.Faults can be detected easily 5.Fault detection is very

complicated.

6.Maintenance work is very simple. 6.Maintenance work is very

complex.

7. It is used for long distance 7.It is used for short distance

transmission. transmission
or distribution.

8.Public safety is less. 8.Public safety is more.

9.Faces problems due to interference 9.No interference with the

with neighbouring communication lines.
communication system.

10.They are liable to hazards from 10.Not liable to the hazards from
lightning discharges. lightning
discharges.

11.This system cant be used near 11.It can be used near submarine
submarine crossings. crossings.

Q2:Skin Effect?
Ans: Skin Effect

The phenomena arising due to unequal distribution of current over

the entire cross section of the conductor being used for long
distance power transmission is referred as the skin effect in
transmission lines. Such a phenomena does not have much role
to play in case of a very short line, but with increase in the effective
length of the conductors, skin effect increases considerably. So the
modifications in line calculation needs to be done accordingly. The
distribution of current over the entire cross section of the conductor
is quite uniform in case of a DC system. But what we are using in
the present era of power system engineering is predominantly an
alternating current system, where the current tends to flow with
higher density through the surface of the conductors (i.e skin of the
conductor), leaving the core deprived of necessary number of
electrons.
In fact there even arises a condition when absolutely no current
flows through the core, and concentrating the entire amount on the
surface region, thus resulting in an increase in the effective
electrical resistance of the conductor. This particular trend of an AC
transmission system to take the surface path for the flow of current
depriving the core is referred to as the skin effect in
transmission lines.
Why Skin Effect Occurs in Transmission
Lines?
Having understood the phenomena of skin effect let us now see
why this arises in case of an AC system. To have a clear
understanding of that look into the cross sectional view of the
conductor during the flow of alternating current given in the
diagram below. Let us initially consider the solid conductor to be
split up into a number of annular filaments spaced infinitely small
distance apart, such that each filament carries an infinitely small
fraction of the total current. Like if the total current = I Lets
consider the conductor to be split up into n filament carrying current
i such that I = n i. Now during the flow of an alternating current,
the current carrying filaments lying on the core has a flux linkage
with the entire conductor cross section including the filaments of the
surface as well as those in the core. Whereas the flux set up by the
outer filaments is restricted only to the surface itself and is unable
to link with the inner filaments.Thus the flux linkage of the
conductor increases as we move closer towards the core and at the
same rate increases the inductor as it has a direct proportionality
relationship with flux linkage. This results in a larger inductive
reactance being induced into the core as compared to the outer
sections of the conductor. The high value of reactance in the inner
section results in the current being distributed in an un-uniform
manner and forcing the bulk of the current to flow through the outer
surface or skin giving rise to the phenomena called skin effect in
transmission lines.

Factors Affecting Skin Effect in Transmission

Lines
The skin effect in an ac system depends on a number of factors
like:-
1. Shape of conductor.
2. Type of material.
3. Diameter of the conductors.
4. Operational frequency.
Q3:

Ans: R Value per-inch

Q4:Define Proximity effect?

Ans: Proximity effect (electromagnetism):

In a conductor carrying alternating current, if currents are flowing through one or more other nearby
conductors, such as within a closely wound coil of wire, the distribution of current within the first
conductor will be constrained to smaller regions. The resulting current crowding is termed
the proximity effect. This crowding gives an increase in the effective resistance of the circuit, which
increases with frequency.

Explanation

A changing magnetic field will influence the distribution of an electric current flowing within
an electrical conductor, by electromagnetic induction. When an alternating current (AC) flows
through a conductor, it creates an associated alternating magnetic field around it. The alternating
magnetic field induces eddy currents in adjacent conductors, altering the overall distribution of
current flowing through them. The result is that the current is concentrated in the areas of the
conductor furthest away from nearby conductors carrying current in the same direction.

The proximity effect can significantly increase the AC resistance of adjacent conductors when
compared to its resistance to a DC current. The effect increases with frequency. At higher
frequencies, the AC resistance of a conductor can easily exceed ten times its DC resistance.

Effects

The additional resistance increases power losses which, in power circuits, can generate undesirable
heating. Proximity and skin effect significantly complicate the design of
efficient transformers and inductors operating at high frequencies, used for example in switched-
mode power supplies.

In radio frequency tuned circuits used in radio equipment, proximity and skin effect losses in the
inductor reduce the Q factor, broadening the bandwidth. To minimize this, special construction is
used in radio frequency inductors. The winding is usually limited to a single layer, and often the turns
are spaced apart to separate the conductors. In multilayer coils, the successive layers are wound in
a crisscross pattern to avoid having wires lying parallel to one another; these are sometimes referred
to as "basket-weave" or "honeycomb" coils. Since the current flows on the surface of the conductor,
high frequency coils are sometimes silver-plated, or made of litz wire.

Q5:Define galvanization?
Ans:
Galvanization:

Galvanisation (or galvanizing as it is most commonly called in that industry) is the process of
applying a protective zinc coating to steel or iron, to prevent rusting. The most common method
is hot-dipgalvanizing, in which parts are submerged in a bath of molten zinc.

GALVANIZING METHODS

Hot dipping in molten Zn. (HDGI)-thick coat Continuous sheet galvanizing(run a sheet/wire through
molten Zn or Zn alloy ) thin coat done before forging and can withstand bending and reshaping.
(done without bracing) Zn paint or Zn spray thin coat, weak bonding with steel surface. Electro-
galvanizing thin coat , strong bonding better finish.

Q6:Define Vulcanization

Ans: Vulcanization:
Vulcanization or vulcanisation is a chemical process for converting natural rubber or related
polymers into more durable materials by the addition of sulfur or other equivalent curatives or
accelerators. These additives modify the polymer by forming cross-links (bridges) between
individual polymer chains.