Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469

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Expert Systems with Applications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/eswa

A mobile business information system for the control of local and remote
workforce through reactive and behavior-based monitoring
Sergio Ros-Aguilar a,, Francisco-Javier Llorns-Montes b
a
Engineering and Architecture Department, Pontical University of Salamanca, Madrid, Spain
b
Management Department, University of Granada, Granada, Spain

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: This study analyzes the viability of using employees smartphones following the BYOD paradigm as a
Available online 29 December 2014 valid tool to enable rms to control effective presence (primarily of remote labor force). We propose a
model for a Mobile Presence Control Information System with which to demonstrate experimentally
Keywords: the viability of unifying three elements that have only been examined individually in previous studies:
Workforce control the consumerization of ITs, the real geolocation capabilities of personal mobile devices that employees
LBS can use in the workplace, and the exclusive use of Mobile Web technology to obtain universal location
Behavior-based HR control
information without the need to install native apps. We also propose a new and specic methodology
BYOD
Consumerization
to analyze the precision and accuracy of the location data obtained by smartphone geolocation services.
We developed a prototype of the Information System proposed and demonstrated its validity under dif-
ferent real-use conditions, obtaining valuable information on the accuracy and precision of the location
data from real devices (based on iOS and Android) under the conditions of heterogeneous connectivity
representative of workplaces. This research enables us to establish a new framework for the requirements
needed, on both quantitative and qualitative levels, for the accuracy of the mobile location systems that
can be used in Presence Control Information Systems, particularly those related to control of remote labor
force.
2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction and denition of the problem
It is now commonly accepted that companies must use Infor-
mation Systems to gather and organize all information at their dis-
posal to help the companys business strategy to succeed. The
increasing competitiveness of current market forces companies
to pursue deeper understanding of the cause-effect relationship
of their actions on protability, making it necessary to have spe-
cic information that guides their process of improving competi-
tive performance (Bradley & Nola, 1998; DAveni, 1994; De Assis
Lahoz & Camarotto, 2012).
Performance measurements related to time, quality, and pro-
ductivity complement nancial measurements and permit the
introduction of improvements in operational processes. Analyzing
the importance of time as a key factor in the performance of task
completion, Ballard and Seibold (2004) identied ten dimensions
of time in the workplace. Among them, lack of punctuality and
absenteeism can be regarded as the most persistent obstacles
Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: sergio.rios@upsam.es (S. Ros-Aguilar),
(F.-J. Llorns-Montes).
affecting business competitiveness (Campbell, Ganco, Franco, &
Agarwal, 2012).
Early detection, evaluation, and rapid intervention are crucial
when managing tardiness and absence in the workplace. These
measures help prevent infractions from becoming a serious prob-
lem for the competitiveness of companies.
Such detection usually requires investment in Information
Technologies, among other tools for the acquisition and implemen-
tation of Control, Access, and Presence Systems. These items are
often expensive, due not only to the initial costs (equipment for
physical identication using card reader technology or biometric
identication) but also to maintenance of the equipment and soft-
ware that form the systems back end, not to mention the possible
cost of integration with pre-existing Information Systems
(Kauffman, Techatassanasoontorn, & Wang, 2011; Sen, Raghu, &
Vinze, 2009).
This kind of system has also proven to be ineffective in extend-
ing control to mobile workforce, which in numerous private service
sector enterprises may represent a high percentage of the staff,
depending on the nature of the business. In this case what is
needed is proof of presence at places and times established in
lorens@ugr.es
advance (Kumar & Pandya, 2012).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eswa.2014.12.030
0957-4174/ 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 S. Ros-Aguilar, F.-J. Llorns-Montes / Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469
Implementing support for the mobile workplace by introducing
Mobile Information Systems (mobile devices and applications
engineered for the mobile environment), which enable control of
the spatial and temporal dimensions of mobile work, grants not
only a competitive advantage but also labor productivity growth
to companies (Yuan, Archer, Connelly, & Zheng, 2010).
An analysis of the literature shows see that a variety of research
based on large-scale studies demonstrates that location-based
queries are already a signicant part of the total communication
data sent from mobile devices. These results support the idea that
such services are already sufciently familiar to users of mobile
devices, making their use easily translatable to the workforce,
including both employees present in ofce and those away from
the workplace. (Biancalana, Gasparetti, Micarelli, & Sansonetti,
2013; Ghose, Goldfarb, & Han. 2012; Pan, Nam, Ogara, & Lee, 2013).
Some of the studies reviewed question the validity of the accu-
racy of the data obtained with location systems based on mobile
devices. For example, Pulido Herrera, Kaufmann, Secue, Quirs,
and Fabregat (2013) indicate that the global positioning system
(GPS) is generally a signicant aid but that it is not precise enough
to locate a person. They do not, however, study either quantita-
tively or qualitatively the requirements for accuracy and precision
that would be valid for locating a person, particularly for use in an
information system for behavior-based control.
The study by Subbu, Gozick, and Dantu (2013), on the other
hand, indicates that the GPS system employed in mobile devices
is being used widely for locating people on the street, but the
authors conclude that the system does not work inside buildings
due to the weakness of the signal and to interference, whereas
the alternativeWiFi-based mechanismsare available every-
where. Neither this study nor that of Pulido Herrera et al. (2013),
which refers explicitly to the presence of multiple sensors on
mobile devices, considers (a) the possibility of integrating data
from multiple sensors into the location services of the mobile
device, and (b) the quantitative study under real conditions of
how combining data provided by different sensors to improve
the quality of the position obtained in current smartphones would
contribute to this accuracy.
On another order, Song, Kim, Jones, Baker, and Chin (2014) indi-
cate that locating the appropriate mobile application in an app
store could become a difcult task for users and that ease of app
discoverability is becoming a serious problem, both for users and
developers of native applications and for the distribution stores
themselves. Their study does not tackle the real possibility of pro-
viding location services using web applications instead of native
apps, since web applications are universally available and indepen-
dent of manufacturer or brand and model of smartphone.
Heitktter, Hanschke, and Majchrzak (2013) conrm this
universality.
Nayak, Swamy, and Ramaswamy (2013) indicate that the use of
location-based applications on mobile devices has increased the
risks to individuals privacy, and that monitoring an individuals
location and then integrating the data registered would enable
one to reconstruct a prole that violates the fundamental rights
of the user. The study by Li, Zhu, Gao, Chen and Ren (2014)
explores the danger of exposing a smartphone users location data
and indicates that the current focus is to develop mechanisms that
protect privacy in location-based services. The study does not,
however, tackle the possibility of permitting users explicit and
nonintrusive use of these services.
With all of the conditions presented, we believe that it is extre-
mely important to study the viability of creating an Information
System for the behavior-based control of workforce that enables
non-intrusive use of technology for obtaining employees locations
from their own smartphones, regardless of the devices make and
model.
3463
For this reason, our study proposes, rst, qualitative and quan-
titative references for the quality of location information required
in different environments to control the presence of remote per-
sons, doing this by examining the strictest regulations in effect
related to location-based services (primarily emergency services).
We also analyze whether it is possible to full the conditions sug-
gested by these references using real smartphone-type devices, by
testing the accuracy and precision of the location data obtained
using the integrated location services under highly heterogeneous
conditions representative of physical work environments.
Finally, we propose an Intelligent Mobile Information System
for Presence Control that uses only reactive, terminal-based loca-
tion technologies in order to make the process of obtaining and
delivering the workers location explicit and non-intrusive through
use of a non-native mobile web app that guarantees universal
access and contributes considerably to reducing overall costs.
1.1. Opportunities
In the current economic context, it is of vital importance for a
business to improve its competitiveness by rationalizing the neces-
sary investment to achieve it. As highlighted above, having a
Mobile Information System that permits rational and non-intrusive
control of the workforce provides a direct and effective means of
achieving such improvement.
Two unique situations have been detected that can allow small
and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) to implement a presence
control Information System for both local and remote workforce
at very reduced cost and with minimal infrastructure:
(A) The current maturity of mobile location technologies, using
different transparent positioning mechanisms (A-GPS, GPS,
WiFi and Cell-ID).
(B) The growing BYOD (Bring Your Own Device) trend, which
allows employees to use their own mobile communication
devices (smartphones, tablets,. . .etc.) in the business as a
complementary tool that plays a double role as both per-
sonal device for private use and provider of access to the
companys Information Systems.
This paper builds on these foundations to attempt to ascertain
whether it is feasible to implement an Information System for
the behavior-based control of workforce that makes non-intrusive
use of technology for obtaining the employees locations from their
own smartphones, regardless of the devices make and model.
The study rst analyzes the viability of using employees smart-
phones following the BYOD paradigm as a valid tool for companies
to conduct presence control (primarily for remote workforce). It
then proposes a Mobile Information System for Presence Control
using exclusively terminal-based reactive location technologies,
meeting cost minimization and universal access criteria.
Subsequently, the paper proposes qualitative and quantitative
references that meet criteria for the location information accuracy
required in different business remote workforce control scenarios.
Finally, this study discusses the results of testing the accuracy and
precision of location data using real devices (iOS and Android)
under heterogeneous connectivity conditions and workplace
premises
1.2. Granularity in control of the workforce
The use of monitoring technology can often lead to unwanted
effects and behavior (Stanton, 2000), and continuous monitoring
with mobile location technologies in particular increases such
effects (Weckert, 2005). In this context, it is reasonable to expect
an Information System designed to avoid these behaviors to use
3464 S. Ros-Aguilar, F.-J. Llorns-Montes / Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469
non-intrusive and reactive location technologies, thereby avoiding
continuous monitoring (Ghose et al., 2012; Kumar Madria,
Mohania, Bhowmick, & Bhargava, 2002; Zhou, 2011).
To quantify the level of demand of accuracy suitable for locating
the workforce, this study reviewed existing international regula-
tions on the subject. It found that the United States Federal Com-
munications Commission (FCC) E-911 mandate concerning the
precision of the location of calls from mobile devices to Emergency
Service E911 is the strictest and most specic set of regulations
(Table 1). These regulations also provide a methodological frame-
work for verication processes regarding compliance. At present,
E-911 is the only regulation set that clearly quanties the location
accuracy required. The Information System proposed here will thus
adopt the most restrictive location accuracy values from the afore-
mentioned regulations as a valid working quantitative reference.
2. Information system and prototype
Considering all conditioning elements, this paper proposes an
Information System specically oriented to business use for behav-
ior-based control of remote workforce, using smartphones under
the BYOD paradigm and focusing on universal access (device
independence).
A fully operational prototype of this Information System has
been developed. It consists of a mobile web application with a con-
trol panel serving as a balanced scorecard and SaaS (Software as a
Service, on the cloud).
This prototype fullls a double purpose of (i) serving as proof of
concept for an Information System for the control based on behav-
ior of remote workforce using a mobile web application, and (ii)
allowing an empirical analysis of the current feasibility of its use
under real conditions, using the strictest geographical location
accuracy requirements obtained from mobile devices to emer-
gency services established by the FCC for compliance to begin in
2019 (FCC 2010).
2.1. Description and components of the information system
The proposed Information System for the behavior-based con-
trol of remote workforce consists of two discrete functional
components:
The rst is a Mobile Web application to be accessed by the
workforce using their smartphone mobile devices to clock in when
arriving at the customers facilities or other installations deemed
appropriate (Fig. 2). This application also allows employees to sub-
mit remarks concerning clocking that will be registered in the sys-
tem at that moment (Fernndez, Fernndez, Aguilar, Selvi, &
Crespo, 2013; Zhou, 2011).
As to design, this study takes into account the various factors
that affect customer perceived usability, as identied by Ho
(2012) and Lee, Lee, Moon, and Park (2012). Technologies such as
HTML5 and JQuery Mobile were chosen as the most cost-effective
for companies and involve lower development costs because they
require just one code base (only one production line) and can be
deployed in almost all mobile devices that have a browser and
Internet access (Heitktter et al., 2013; Oliveira, Noguez, Costa,
Barbosa, & Prado, 2013; Zhu, Chen, & Chen, 2013).
Table 1
Mobile device location accuracy requirements from which emergency service E-911 is requested. Source: Adapted from FCC (2010).
Location type Required accuracy
Mobile terminal based 50 meters for 67% of calls and 150 meters for 80% of calls
50 meters for 67% of calls and 150 meters for 90% of calls
Secondly, a Control Panel Web Application for control of the
remote workforce, accessible from any Web browser, allows real-
time queries regarding workforce clock-in processes, including
georeferenced information in maps and individual historical anal-
ysis of such processes for each employee. This individual historical
analysis is in line with behavior analysis in the context of ubiqui-
tous monitoring (Moran & Nakata, 2009; Pan et al., 2013).
The proposed Information System has a clientserver three-lay-
ered software architecture (see Fig. 1). This Information System
was also modeled by taking into account the system proposed in
the general model of location-based information system Location
Aware Mobile Services (LAMS), tailored to terminal-based and
network-assisted physical location of mobile devices. Since a core
principle of the proposed Information System is ubiquitous access,
all server components can be deployed on the Internet or within a
corporate intranet as services provided using HTTP (Web). They
thus remain accessible even if the corporation has perimetral secu-
rity solutions or trafc lters (in this case, HTTP trafc is not usu-
ally restricted).
All components used in the Server and Database layers in this
Information System are open source software (LAMP platform:
Linux OS, Apache Web Server, PHP, and MySQL database) to mini-
mize costs involved in deployment of the proposed Information
System.
Another benet of this approach involves scalability; both ver-
tical and horizontal scaling of the LAMP platform are well known
issues, and several proven architectures are useful when one must
accommodate an increasing workload.
3. Location data analysis methodology
An empirical analysis is performed to determine the location
accuracy obtained with mobile devices using the developed mobile
web application and thus to verify feasibility for business use as a
mobile device for behavior-based control of the workforce and
effective application of the BYOD paradigm.
Although the accuracy of conventional GPS receivers is well
documented for various devices (such as PNDs), study of the accu-
racy of devices with Assisted GPS (A-GPS), usually available in
smartphones like those intended to be used in the proposed Infor-
mation System, is less evolved. Due to hardware limitations, worse
performance concerning location precision and accuracy is
expected when using smartphones than when using conventional
GPS devices (Zandbergen & Barbeau, 2011).
To study the feasibility of using location data obtained from
smartphones by means of a web app in the proposed Information
System, sets of GPS location data under real conditions were col-
lected. The location data obtained were compared to a real known
location (truth point) to obtain an absolute accuracy
measurement.
3.1. Instrumentation and data collection
The GPS location data quality tests were performed using two of
the most widespread smartphone mobile terminals currently on
the European market: Samsung Galaxy S4 and Apple iPhone 5.
These devices are also highly representative, since they belong to
two of the most prevalent smartphone groups (those corresponding
Date regulation goes into effect
Already in effect (since 18/1/2013)
Scheduled to go into effect on January 1, 2019
 S. Ros-Aguilar, F.-J. Llorns-Montes / Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469
Fig. 1. Information system architecture for behavior-based control of the workforce.
to the Galaxy and iPhone trademarks), groups that have the biggest
market growth and are evolving through constant improvements
to their hardware specications.
Samsung Galaxy S4 uses a Broadcom BCM47521 GPS receiver
chip with active suppression of sources of interference. The device
used in the tests has an Android v4.4.2 Operating System. The
Apple iPhone 5 uses a Qualcomm WTR1605L transceiver chip,
and the operating system used was iOS 7. Both mobile devices reg-
istered geographical positions as decimal degrees in the WGS-1984
datum, GPS original geodetic reference system with direct equiva-
lent to the European ETRS-89 used in most topographic or carto-
graphic applications (IGN 2013). In both cases, the tests were
performed with the GPS circuits activated and using network-
assisted mode (A-GPS). WiFi-based location mechanisms were also
active to help increase the accuracy (Soria Morillo, Ortega Ramrez,
Alvarez Garca, & Gonzalez-Abril, 2012).
The tests were carried out strictly during standard business
hours, at random times between 8 h and 17 h, times representative
of daily workforce activity times on workdays. No value of Hori-
zontal Dilution of Precision (HDOP) was taken into account to com-
plete the observations and no planning of eld mission prior to the
test conducted, in order better to reect workforce use of the Infor-
mation System under real conditions.
The geographical coordinates of this point (446737 m,
4114616 m UTM zone 30S, European Datum 50) were obtained using
a topographic grade sub-meter accuracy professional GPS receiver
Topcon Hiper + with 10 mm + 1.0 ppm horizontal accuracy, properly
calibrated and using a Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS).
The mobile devices registered location data in WGS-84 format
at intervals of 3 min, generating data sets of 25 samples each. Data
were gathered on different days in 10 sets of samples, totaling 250
measurements for each study group.
3.2. Data analysis
To assess the accuracy of both devices used in gathering the
data, the variability in the data were contrasted with a previously
determined real value corresponding to the observation point
(truth point).
To determine the possible normal distributions of the data sets
(variable: accuracyplanimetric or horizontal error), several tests
were conducted: KolmogorovSmirnov, Ryan-Joiner (similar to
ShapiroWilk) and AndersonDarling (see Table 2).
3465
Once again, the result is proven similar for the three tests con-
ducted, which provide p-values of less than 0.05, thereby conrm-
ing with 95% reliability that the hypothesis of normality for
horizontal or planimetric accuracy is rejected for both data origins,
Galaxy S4 and iPhone 5.
After verifying that horizontal error distributions (for accuracy)
are not normal, the non-parametric MannWhitney U test was
used to contrast whether both data origins had the same distribu-
tion. The result obtained was a statistical value W = 49337.4. This
test is also statistically signicant at 0.0000 (p < 0.05), thus also
rejecting the hypothesis of equal distributions of horizontal error
(planimetric accuracy) for both populations with 95% reliability.
The data analysis shows that the average values of the precision
variable and the accuracy variable differ signicantly for both
mobile devices.
It has also been shown that deviations are signicantly different
for both data origins. Distributions are different not only in preci-
sion but also in accuracy for both populations (Android and iOS
data). Both mobile devices provide data of sufciently high quality,
and the mean of their values is close to the real value, but a greater
data dispersion in found for iOS devices.
4. Results
Fig. 3 shows the horizontal error (in meters) of all samples col-
lected. As demonstrated above, this result conrms that the vari-
ability of location data collected by the iPhone device around the
well-known spot (truth point) is greater than the data set collected
with the Android device (See Fig. 4).
The data collected will thus be analyzed quantitatively, calcu-
lating the horizontal accuracy by taking the root mean square of
the errors (RMSE) of each data origin, rst for each component
and then by calculating the planimetric or horizontal value
v v
u n u n
u1 X u1 X
RMSEX t exi RMSEY t
2
e2 1
n i1 n i1 yi
q
RMSE RMSE2X RMSE2Y 2
4.1. Accuracy results for the android device
The planimetric RMSE error value obtained is 17.44 m for the
horizontal component (XY). This value means that, for 67% of the
3466 S. Ros-Aguilar, F.-J. Llorns-Montes / Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469

GPS signal propagation and shifting HDOP values. These conditions

and values were intentionally unplanned in the tests conducted.

4.2. Accuracy results for the iOS device

The planimetric RMSE value obtained was 33.74 m for the hor-
izontal component (XY). This value means that, for 67% of the
observations made with the iOS device, the accuracy will decrease
at 23.31 m. In this case, the value for the iPhone 5 device using the
mobile web application is 2DRMS = 46.62 m.
It might be concluded from the samples taken in this test that,
at a 95% condence level, the accuracy obtained with the mobile
web application using the GPS of the iPhone 5 device falls within
a 46.62 m radius of the real location value in an urban environment
with demanding conditions for GPS signal propagation and shifting
HDOP values, which were again intentionally unplanned in the
tests conducted.

5. Verication of compliance with FCC rules

The FCC proposes a method for determining whether a set of

location errors demonstrates compliance with the accuracy
requirements of location data, using order statistics. The FCCs con-
dence intervals for accuracy standards can be selected with 90%
condence based on the number of samples (FCC 2000).
Generally, when

 the number of measurements is n,

 the rth and sth largest measurements are xr and ys, respectively
 x and y are the percentiles associated with probabilities p1 and
p2, respectively, then

the probability that x is less than xr, while simultaneously y is less

than ys, is given by the formula
confidencex  xr ;y  ys ; n; r;s; p1 ;p2
X
r1 Xr1   
cn cn  i i
p1 p2  p1 j1 1  p2 nj
i0 j1
i nj

In this particular case, p1 = 0.67 and p2 = 0.95.

From this expression, the upper bounds of the percentiles can
be determined, nding pairs of values (r, s) for which the desired
Fig. 2. Login screen requesting the users credentials to access the Information condence level of 90% is achieved (Table 3).
System. As stated in Table 1, the strictest accuracy requirements estab-
lished by FCC to be met in 2019 are 50 meters for 67% of the sam-
Table 2 ples and 150 meters for 90% of terminal-based samples. If the data
Results of the normality tests of samples for accuracy from both data origins. do not meet these criteria, the data set is rejected for not achieving
Data origin device Samsung Galaxy S4 (Android) the proper standards. In this case, a data set of location errors
obtained using the mobile web application (developed as part of
Normality test Statistic p-Value
the proposed Information System) under real conditions were
KolmogorovSmirnov 0.081 <0.010 tested using the methodology proposed by the FCC for assessment
Ryan-Joiner 0.882 <0.010
AndersonDarling 3.927 <0.005
of compliance with accuracy requirements (FCC 2000).
To this end, the data tables were sorted in ascending order of
Apple iPhone 5 (iOS)
accuracy for each observed location error, and for each 100 sam-
Statistic p-Value ples obtained. According to Table 3, the sample must satisfy the
KolmogorovSmirnov 0.157 <0.010 following expression:
Ryan-Joiner 0.904 <0.010
AndersonDarling 7.721 <0.005
accuracy74 < 50 m and accuracy100 < 150 m
or
accuracy75 < 50 m and accuracy99 < 150 m
observations made with the Android device, accuracy decreases at
13.26 m. In this case, the value for the Samsung Galaxy S4 device is
2DRMS = 26.52 m. 5.1. Android device verication
It might be concluded that, at a 95% condence level, the accuracy
obtained with the mobile web application using the GPS of the Sam- First, the verication process was performed with the samples
sung Galaxy S4 device falls within a 26.52 m radius from the real loca- obtained using the mobile web application in an Android device.
tion value in an urban environment with demanding conditions for The results show that:
 S. Ros-Aguilar, F.-J. Llorns-Montes / Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469 3467

Fig. 3. Horizontal error measurements for both devices.

Fig. 4. Control panel - tracking remote workforce.

Accuracy74android 19:2 m < 50 m and 5.2. iOS device verication

Accuracy100android 41:1 m < 150 m
A verication process was also performed with the samples
obtained using the mobile web application in an iOS device. The
Accuracy75android 19:7 m < 50 m and results show that:
Accuracy99android 34:2 m < 150 m
Following the FCCs proposed methodology with samples Accuracy74iOS 13:9 m < 50 m and
obtained with the Android device, using the mobile web applica- Accuracy100iOS 27:5 m < 150 m
tion of the proposed Information System under real world condi-
tions, and maintaining a 90% condence level, this study veries Accuracy75iOS 13:9 m < 50 m and
compliance with the strictest requirements established by this
Accuracy99iOS 24:8 m < 150 m
organization.
3468 S. Ros-Aguilar, F.-J. Llorns-Montes / Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469
Table 3
Horizontal error value sample identication for comparison with thresholds
of 67% and 95% required by the FCC for a 90% condence level. Source:
Adapted from (FCC 2000).
Sample size Test sample pairs
50 (x40, y45)
60 (x47, y60)
70 (x53, y70)
75 (x57, y75)
80 (x60, y80) or (x63, y79)
85 (x64, y85) or (x66, y84)
90 (x67, y90) or (x68, y89)
95 (x71, y95) or (x72, y94)
100 (x74, y100) or (x75, y99)
Following the FCCs proposed methodology with samples
obtained from the iOS device, using the mobile web application
of the proposed Information System under real world conditions,
with a 90% condence level, this study veries compliance with
the strictest requirements established by dened by this
organization.
5.3. Discussion of results
The most important conclusion to be drawn from these results
is that an Information System for the behavior-based control of
workforce can always identify the employees location with an
accuracy level that comfortably fullls current and future people-
location requirements of the strictest Emergency Systems, which
at present provide the only reliable quantitative reference to vali-
date the quality of peoples geographical location data in this
context.
This practice also protects the companys investment in imple-
menting the proposed mobile-based GPS Information System.
Due to the evolving nature of technological innovation, mobile
GPS receiver sensitivity will increase still further, providing more
precise and accurate results than those here obtained (Cao,
Wang, & Li, 2003; Elnahas & Adly, 2000; Schiller & Voisard,
2004). Further, both the iOS and the Android devices used in the
verication process performed quite well in terms of power con-
sumption throughout working hours without battery recharges.
This result is especially important when taking into consideration
the battery drain typically associated with the GPS receiver circuit.
6. Conclusions
This paper proposes an Information System for the behavior-
based control of workforce. It denes the architecture and func-
tionality, while always complying with business needs concerning
control and taking into consideration implementation costs. These
results were achieved using open software technologies and adapt-
ing these technologies to give adequate support to the BYOD
paradigm.
A prototype was developed and tested under real world condi-
tions, that is, not by evaluating strictly controlled parameters of a
devices accuracy as in empirical tests but by testing the Informa-
tion System as a whole under real conditions that reect normal
business activity. Under these conditions, compliance with the
strict accuracy demands proposed here as a reference was also
veried.
This studys main theoretical contribution is the unication of
three concepts that previous studies have only evaluated individu-
ally. These are the consumerization of ITs, the real capabilities of
personal mobile devices that employees can use in the workplace,
and the opportunity that new Mobile Web technology represents
for providing location information independently of the device in
use, without problems of app installation, in a model that signi-
cantly reduces cost compared to other technology options.
Our ndings also have theoretical implications for studying the
quality of the location data obtained with real devices like the
smartphone and their validity for controlling persons. In fact, we
propose a specic methodology for analyzing the precision and
accuracy of the location mechanisms available in smartphones,
thereby complementing previous studies that do not include
mobile devices and analyze only topography-quality GPS
instrumentation.
Another theoretical contribution of this study is its develop-
ment of a new reference framework for the requirements needed,
on both quantitative and qualitative levels, for the accuracy of
mobile locations systems used in presence control information sys-
tems, particularly those related to control of remote labor force.
As to practical implications, this study demonstrates the viabil-
ity of implementing a Mobile Information System to control
remote labor force that permits rms to gain competitiveness
while reducing costs and increasing ROI. This goal can be achieved
by adopting the BYOD paradigm, which permits employees to use
their own smartphone-type devices in the workplace.
Another practical implication of this study is its demonstration
that the smartphone location services accessible from mobile web
applications through the standard W3C API are already fully usable
and operational, and that the precision and accuracy of these appli-
cations are no different from those used through native app inter-
faces. We can thus condently propose the development of
universally available location-based devices using only Mobile
Web technologies.
Among the limitations of this study, we would rst indicate
that, in analyzing the precision and accuracy of smartphone-type
location device services, we only measured two high-end mobile
devices (Samsung Galaxy S4 and iPhone 5), which are representa-
tive of the operating systems with the greatest market presence
(Android and iOS). To ensure completeness, this research should
be extended to other systems that are increasing in market share,
such as Windows Phone and, due to their interest as presences in
medium-to-low-end devices with greater potential for expansion
in emerging countries, Firefox OS and Tizen (Courtney, 2013). Fur-
ther, our study does not take into account issues of security, nor
has it analyzed the anti-fraud potential for preventing action to
supplant locations, especially for the case of workers who form
part of the remote labor force (Shokri, Theodorakopoulos,
Papadimitratos & Kazemi, 2013).
Future studies could extend the Information System presented
here in different directions: First, we propose evaluating options
for integrating the Information System with different emerging
technologies for location inside buildings, so that rms can obtain
more accurate location of their labor force inside their own instal-
lations in adverse interior conditions. Other studies could evaluate
the integration of mechanisms that facilitate automatic presence
control, without requiring the workers intervention when he or
she enters the rms own installations, for example using beacons
based on short-range radio-frequency technologies, such as Blue-
tooth LE. One could also analyze the viability of using non-contact
technologies such as NFC to accelerate the process of signing in
when the labor force is inside the companys installations, provid-
ing proof of presence using an NFC tag as an additional form of
authentication.
We also propose investigating the application of antifraud secu-
rity measures to guarantee that the location data have not been fal-
sied, an especially sensitive topic in the specic case of remote
labor force, which due to its unique characteristics may require
implementation of more exhaustive control. In this case, we rec-
ommend using extra authentication factors that include, among
 S. Ros-Aguilar, F.-J. Llorns-Montes / Expert Systems with Applications 42 (2015) 34623469
other data, identifying the BTS/B-Nodes at which smartphones
using the Information System accessed that system.
Acknowledgements
This study has been funded by the Ministerio de Economa y
Competitividad (Spain) through projects ECO2010-15885 and
ECO2013-47027-P
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