CLASSIFICATION OF NC SYSTEMS:

The classification of NC machine tool systems can be done in four ways:

1. According to the type of machine: Point-to-point versus contouring (continuous path)
2. According to the structure of the controller: Hardware-based NC versus CNC
3. According to the programming method: incremental versus absolute
4. According to the type of control loops: Open-loop versus closed-loop

1. Point-to-Point and Contouring:

Point to Point positioning:
In PTP, the objective of the machine tool control system is to move the cutting tool to a predefined
location. The speed or path by which this movement is accomplished is not important in point to point NC.
Once the tool reaches the desired location, the machining operation is performed at that position.
NC drill presses are a good example of PTP systems. The spindle must first be positioned at a particular
location on the work piece. This is done under PTP control. Then the drilling of the hole is performed at
the location, and so forth. Since no cutting is performed between holes, there is no need for controlling
the relative motion of the tool and work piece between hole locations. Figure 1 illustrates the point to point
type of control. Point-to point (PTP) is also some times called a positioning system.
Positioning systems are the simplest machine tool control systems and are therefore the least expensive
of the three types. However, for certain process, such as drilling operations and spot welding. PTP is
perfectly suited to the task and any higher level of control would be unnecessary.

Straight cut systems:

Straight Cut control systems are capable of moving the cutting tool parallel to one of the major axes at a
controlled rate suitable for machining. It is therefore appropriate for performing milling operations to
fabricate workpieces of rectangular configurations. With this type of NC system it is not possible to
combine movements in more than a single axis direction. Therefore, angular cuts on the workpiece would
not be possible. An example of a straight cut operation is shown in Figure 2. An NC machine capable of
straight cut movements is also capable of PTP movements.
Contouring NC:

Contouring is the most complex, the most flexible, and the most expensive type of machine tool control, it
is capable of performing both PTP and straight cut operations. In addition, the distinguishing feature of
contouring NC systems is their capacity for simultaneous control of more than one axis movement of the
machine tool. The path of the cutter is continuously controlled to generate the desired geometry of the
workpiece. For this reason, contouring systems are also called continuous-path NC systems. Straight or
plane surfaces at any orientation, circular paths, conical shapes, or most any other mathematically
definable form are possible under contouring control. Figure 3 illustrates the versatility of continuous path
NC Milling and turning operations are common examples of the use of contouring control.

In order to machine a curved path in a numerical control contouring system, the direction of the feed rate
must continuously be changed so as to follow the path. This is accomplished by breaking the curved path
into a very short straight line segment that approximate the curve. Then the tool is commanded to
machine each segment in succession. What results is a machined outline that closely approaches the
desired shape.
2. NC and CNC:
NC: The NC systems which were produced through the sixties used electronic hardware based upon
digital circuit technology. The CNC systems, which were introduced in the early seventies, employ a
minicomputer or microcomputer to control the machine tool and eliminate, as far as possible, additional
hardware circuits in the control cabinet. The trend away from hardware-based NC to software-based
equipment brings an increase in system flexibility and an improvement in the possibility for correcting part
programs using the CNC computer.
The digital controller in hardware-based NC systems employs voltage pulses, where each pulse causes a
motion of 1 BLU in the corresponding axis. In these systems a pulse is equivalent to
1 BLU = Pulse (1)
These pulses can actuate stepping motors in open-loop control, or dc servomotors in closed-loop control.
The number of pulses transmitted to each axis is equal to the required incremental motion, and the
frequency of these pulses represents the axis velocity. In the computer the information is arranged,
manipulated, and stored in the form of binary words. Each word consists of a fixed number of bits, the
most popular being the 8-bit and 16-bit words. In the CNC computer each bit (binary digit) represents
I BLU=Bit (2)
16
Thus, a 16-bit word can, for example, represent up to 2 = 65,536 different axial positions (including
zero). If the system resolution is, for example, BLU = 0.01 mm, this number represents motions up to
655.35 mm.
The main difference in the operation between NC and CNC is in the way that the punched tape is read. In
NC the punched tape is moved forward by one block and read each time the cutting of a segment is
completed. During the production of each part, the tape is read again. In most CNCs the complete tape is
read one time only and stored in the computer memory before the cutting starts. During the machining the
control program of the CNC uses the stored part program to command the machine. By this method, tape
reading errors are eliminated in CNC.
3. Incremental and Absolute Systems:
An incremental system is one in which the reference point to the next instruction is the endpoint
of the preceding operation. Each piece of dimensional data is applied to the system as a distance
increment, measured from the preceding point at which the axis of motion was present.
An absolute NC system is one in which all moving commands are referred to one reference
point, which is the origin and is called the zero point. The position commands are given as absolute
distance from that zero point. The zero point may be defined as a point outside the work piece or at a
comer of the pan.
The zero point may be a floating or a fixed point. A zero floating point allows the operator, by pushing a
button, to select arbitrarily any point within the limits of the machine tool table as the zero reference point.
The control unit retains no information on the location of any previous zeros. The zero floating point
permits the operator to locate quickly a fixture anywhere on the table of the NC machine.
In incremental system both the programming method and the feedback device are in incremental form. A
typical feedback device is the rotary encoder which provides a sequence of pulses, where each pulse
represents 1 BLU
Absolute systems may be subdivided into pure absolute and absolute programming systems. In the pure
absolute we mean a system in which both programmed dimensions and feedback signal are referred to a
single point. It therefore requires a feedback device which produces position information in absolute form.
Since this device is expensive the pure absolute system is mainly used for rotary tables which require
precise positioning control. Most of the so-called absolute systems are not equipped with an absolute
feedback device but with an incremental measuring device, like an incremental encoder, interfaced with a
pulse counter which provides the absolute position in BLUs. Since most absolute systems are of this type,
henceforth the term absolute system will refer to an absolute programming NC system, in which all
programmed dimensions refer to a single starting point.
4 Open-Loop and Closed-Loop Systems
NC systems, may be designed as
An open loop control
A closed-loop control.
The term open-loop control means that there is no feedback, and the action of the controller has no
information about the effect of the signals that it produces
The open-loop NC system is of digital type and use stepping motors for driving the slides. A stepping
motor is a device whose output shaft rotates through a fixed angle in response to an input pulse. The
stepping motors are the simplest way for convening electrical pulses into proportional movement, and
they provide a relatively cheap solution to the control problem. Since there is no feedback from the slide
position, the system accuracy is solely a function of the motor's ability to step through the exact number of
steps which is provided at its input.

Figure 4 An open-loop and a closed-loop digital control for a single axis of motion.

The closed-loop control measures the actual position and velocity of the axis and compares them with
the desired references. The difference between the actual and the desired values is the error. The control
is designed in such a way as to eliminate, or reduce, to a minimum, the error, namely the system is of a
negative-feedback type.
In NC systems both the input to the control loop and the feedback signals may be a sequence of pulses,
each pulse representing a BLU unit, e.g., 0.01 mm. The digital comparator correlates the two sequences
and gives, by means of a digital-to-analog converter (DAC), a signal representing the position error of the
system, which is used to drive the dc servomotor. The feedback device, which is an incremental encoder
in Fig. 4, is mounted on the other end of the leadscrew and supplies a pulsating output. The incremental
encoder consists of a rotating disk divided into segments, which are alternately opaque and transparent.
A photocell and a lamp are placed on both sides of the disk. When the disk rotates, each change in light
intensity falling on the photocell provides an output pulse. The rate of pulses per minute provided by the
encoder is proportional to the revolutions per minute of the leadscrew.
One of the major properties of a stepping motor is that its maximum velocity depends upon the load
torque. The higher the torque, the smaller, the maximum allowable frequency to the motor. Stepping
motors cannot be applied to machines with variable load torques, since an unpredictably large load
causes the motor to lose steps and a subsequent position error occurs. In contouring systems for
machine tools, the cutting forces load the motors with torques depending on the cutting conditions, and
therefore stepping motors are not recommended as drives for these contouring systems. They can he
applied to laser-beam contour-cutting systems (in which only a mirror is moved) and to PTP drilling
machines, where the loading torque on the motors is almost constant. Industrial robots and contouring
systems such as lathes or milling machines require closed-loop control systems.
Extreme care must be taken during the design of a closed-loop control system. By increasing the
magnitude of the feedback signals (more pulses per one revolution of the leadscrew) the loop is made
more sensitive. That is known as increasing the open-loop gain. Increasing the open-loop gain
excessively may cause the closed-loop system to become unstable, which obviously should be avoided.
The design of the control system and the choice of the types of loop employed to meet performance and
cost specifications, require knowledge of the nature of the controlled machine and adding torques. The
allowable positioning error, accuracy, repeatability, and response time also have to be taken into
consideration where an optimum performance is required.
Advantages of the absolute system over the incremental system
The most significant advantage of the absolute system over the incremental one is in cases of
interruptions that force the operator to stop the machine. Interruptions occur mainly from cutting tool
breakage, but the machine might be stopped also for unprogrammed checking, etc. In the case of an
interruption, the machine table is manually moved, and the cause of the interruption is removed. For
example, in the case of a tool breakage, the operator manually moves the tool holder, exchanges the tool,
and has to return the table to the beginning of the segment in which the interruption occurred. With the
absolute system, the cutting tool is automatically returned to this position, since it always moves to the
absolute coordinate called for, and the machining proceeds from the same block where it was interrupted.
With an incremental system, it is impossible to bring the tool manually, precisely to the beginning of the
segment in which the interruption occurred. Therefore, with an incremental system, each time the work is
interrupted the operator must restart the part program and repeat the entire operation prior to the
interruption point.
In absolute system there is possibility of easily changing the dimensional data in the part program
whenever required. Since distances are taken from one reference point, a modification or addition of a
position instruction does not affect the rest of the part program. In the case of the incremental system, the
pan must be reprogrammed from the point at which the original program has been modified.
Advantages of the incremental system over the absolute system
1. If manual programming is used, with incremental system the inspection of the part program,
before punching the tape, is easy. Since the endpoint, when machining a part, is identical to the starting
point, the sum of the position commands (for each axis separately) must be zero. A nonzero sum
indicates that an error exists. Such an inspection is impossible in an absolute programming system.

2. The performance of the incremental system can be checked by a closed-loop tape. This is a
diagnostic punched tape which tests the various operations and performance of the NC machine. The last
position command on the tape causes the table to return to the initial position. The return of the table to
its initial position is a sufficient test for normal operation of the equipment. This test is carried out at least
once a day. Similar tests cannot be performed on absolute systems.
3. Mirror-image programming is facilitated with incremental systems. Mirror image in manufacturing
is related to symmetrical geometry of the part in one or two axes. In this case, with incremental
programming, the sign of the corresponding position commands is changed from + to - . No new
calculation is required for the positions. Such a procedure in absolute systems requires a variable
selection of the zero point, which is impractical, and therefore full programming of the part is required.
Most modem CNC systems permit application of both incremental and absolute programming methods.

Axes of NC machines
Most of the NC machines' builders follow the international standard ISO/R841 to designate the axes of
their machines. The following paragraphs explain the principles followed in this standard.
The guiding coordinate system followed for designating the axes is the familiar right hand coordinate
system. A few possible dispositions of these coordinates are shown in fig. 1. One could use his right hand
(as shown in fig 2.) to arrive at these alternate variable positions of the same right hand coordinate
system.
It is convenient though not necessary, in the context of the standard, to classify the NC machines in the
following groups.
Group I: machine tools with rotating tools (i.e. Spindles with cutting power).
Group I machine tools may have horizontal spindle or vertical spindle
Machine tools with vertical spindles are grouped under I(a), e.g. Vertical knee mill, drilling machines,
profiling and contour mill, vertical boring mill, tapping machines etc.
The machines grouped in I(a) could be single column (I(a-i)) (fig3) or gantry type (I(a-ii)) (fig4 )
Machine tools with horizontal spindles are grouped under I(b). Some horizontal spindle machines are the
horizontal boring machine (fig5) and the horizontal spindle machining centers.
Group II: machine tools with rotating work pieces (i.e. The spindle generates a surface of revolution) e.g.
Lathes (fig6), and grinding machines.
Group III: machine tools with non-rotating work pieces and non-rotating work pieces and non rotating
tools (i.e. No spindle) e.g. Shaper (fig7) and planer
Group IV: Machines other than machine tools e.g. NC drafting machine
Designating motions
First of all, the z-motion is designated. This is followed by the x and y motions respectively.
Z-Axis and Motion:
1. Location:
2. For groups I and II machines. the z-axis motion is either along the spindle axis or parallel to the
spindle axis
3. For group III and IV machines, it is recognized as the one perpendicular to the work-holding
surface which mayor may not be passing through the controlled point (i.e. the cutting tool tip or
drafting machine pen tip).
2. Direction: the principle for the machines of groups I and II where drilling type motion can be performed
is that for moving a drill into the work piece, the cutting tool should move in the negative (-) Z direction.
For other machines the positive (+) Z motion increases the clearance between the work surface and the
tool-holder (or a pen-holder in the case of the drafting machine). The designation of Z-axis is
demonstrated in figs3 to 7. In these figures, the column under Z shows the designation of Z-axis for
various machines.
3. When there are several spindles and slide ways: in such cases, spindles, preferably the one
perpendicular to the work-holding surface may be chosen as the principal spindle. The primary Z motion
is then near to primary spindle. The tool motions of other spindle quills or other slides which are termed
as secondary and tertiary motions, may be designated as U,V,W and P,Q,R respectively. Two such cases
are shown in figs 4 and 6
X - Motion
The x motion is the principal motion in the positioning plane of the cutting tool or the workpiece.
1. Location: it is perpendicular to Z- axis and should be horizontal and parallel to the work- holding
surface wherever possible.
2. Direction: for group I(a-i) machines, when looking from the principal spindle to the column the positive
(+) X is to the right (fig 3.). For group I(a-ii), when looking from the principal spindle to the left hand gantry
support the positive x is to the right (fig 4.). For group I (b), when looking from the principal spindle
towards the work piece the positive right (fig. 5). For group II, it is radial and parallel to the cross slide X is
positive when the tool recedes from the axis of rotation of the Work piece. Figure 6 shows two
possibilities of slide and turret placements thereby the positive direction of X- and U-axes.
For groups III and IV, the X-axis is parallel to and positive along the principle direction of movement of the
cutting or the guided point (fig 7).
Y- Motion
Its designation is derived from the already recognized Z and X-axes. It is perpendicular to both x- and z-
axes and + Y is in the direction which completes with the + X and + Z motions a right hand Cartesian
coordinate system. In figs 3-7, this has been demonstrated in the columns under the coordinate system
and y. The first two columns under Z and X-axes shown the designations of Z and X-axes as per the
principles mentioned earlier. The column under the coordinate system shows the relevant right hand
coordinate system (refer fig 1). From the third column, the y-axis designation is derived and is mentioned
in the column under Y.
Rotary Motions
A, B, and C define the primary rotary motions
1. Location: These motions are located about the axis parallel to X, Y and Z respectively. If, in
addition to the above-mentioned primary rotary motions, there exist secondary rotary motions,
those should be designated as D or E regardless of whether they are parallel or not to A, Band C.

motions. All the above-mentioned motions, viz.

2. Direction: Positive A, B and C are in the
directions which advance right hand screws in
the positive X, Y, and Z directions respectively.
In Fig.8 the fingers of the right hand point
towards the positive direction of the rotary
X, Y,Z; V,V,W; P,O,R; A,B,C and D,E are with
reference to a point, the movement of which is
sought to be controlled. This point is generally
the tip of the cutting tool. Often the tool point
may not move in some directions, e.g. the quill
of the spindle of a vertical milling machine
moves in the Z direction but not in the X and Y
directions. In such cases, the work surface is
generally moved in a direction opposite to the
one intended for the tool, e.g. the table of the
milling machine holding the work piece may be
moved in -X and -Y directions. Such movements
of machine elements, say -X or -Y, are denoted
as + X' or + Y' respectively. Primed letters can
thus be used for all the above-mentioned
motions to indicate the corresponding reversed
directions for moving work surfaces. This is
shown in Fig. The various illustrations of the
machines indicate the motions using primed as
well as unprimed letters (Figs 3, 5, 6, 7). It can
be observed that + X', + V', + Z', etc. all indicate
such motions of the slides as result in positive
movement of the tool.