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4.7.

1 Types of Plate [12] [13]

There are three principal cross-flow plate types which are used in plate columns.
They are classified according to the method used to contact the vapour and liquid.
They are as follows:

1. Sieve Plate also sometimes called perforated plate: This type of plate is
the simplest type of cross-flow plate. The vapour passes the holes in the
plate and the liquid is retained on the plate due to the vapour flow. In
occasions when flow rates are low liquid weeps through the holes and this
reduces plate efficiency. Usually the perforations are small holes however,
in some cases larger holes and slots are also made use of.

[13]
Figure 7: Diagram of a Sieve Plate

In this design, a plate column will be more suitable. This is because the flow rates in
this process are large and these will require a large diameter. In cases when the
diameter is large it is possible to have plates or trays.

When selecting the plate type many factors are considered including cost, capacity,
operating range, efficiency and pressure drop. Of the three types sieve plates are
the cheapest and are satisfactory for most applications. The operating costs of sieve
plates are the pressure drop is lower compared to the other types of plates. For
these reasons the selected type of plate for the distillation column is sieve plates.
4.3 Key Components

In distillation column design, the key components which are to be separated should
be identified. The light key is described as the component that is desired to be kept
out of the bottom product, while the heavy key is described as the component that
is desired to be kept out of the top product. Alternatively, the light key is described
as the most volatile component in the bottom product and the heavy key is
described as the least volatile component in the top product. In this case the light
and heavy keys are as follows:

Light Key: Benzene (A)

Heavy Key: Ethylbenzene (B)

4.9 Vapour Pressure Calculation

To determine the vapour pressure of the components the Antoine equation must be
used. The relative volatility can then be calculated using this information.

B
A
Log 10 ( P) = T ( C ) +C

For benzene,

2726.8
( P )= 13.78
160+217.57
ln

P= 704.88 kPa

For ethylbenzene:

3259.9
( P )= 13.97
160+230.92
ln
P= 278.93 kPa

4.9.1 Relative Volatility

From the calculated vapour pressure for each of the components the relative
volatility can be determined. The more volatile components are called light, the less
volatile are heavy. The components separated in a tower are called light key (more
volatile) and heavy key (less volatile). The relative volatility in multicomponent
distillation is always computed with respect to the heavy key:

Pa
=
Pb

A = Light Key

B = Heavy Key

Therefore Relative Volatility:

Pa 704.88
= =
Pb 278.93

ab = 2.52

Practical reflux ratios will lie somewhere between the minimum for the specified separation

and total reflux. The designer must select a value at which the specified separation is

achieved at minimum cost. Increasing the reflux reduces the number of stages required,

and hence the capital cost, but increases the service requirements (steam and water) and

the operating costs. The optimum reflux ratio will be that which gives the lowest annual

operating cost. No hard and fast rules can be given for the selection of the design reflux

ratio, but for many systems the optimum will lie between 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum

reflux ratio (Sinnott, 2005).


Underwood equation is used to calculate the minimum reflux ratio (Rmin). This equation
assumes that the feed enters at its boiling point, where q=1.

x D AB (1x D )
Rmin =
[ 1
AB1 ]( xF

1x F )

Rmin : The minimum reflux ratio

ab : The relative volatility = 2.52

x_D : The mole fraction of benzene in the Distillate = 0.995 (obtained from HYSYS)

x_F: The mole fraction of benzene in the feed =0.8973 (obtained from HYSYS)

0.995 2.52(10.995)

0.8973 10.8973
1 )
Rmin=[ ]
2.521

= 0.65

Reflux ratio = 0.65 x 1.5

= 0.975

The minimum and theoretical number of stages

The Fenske Equation and Gilliland correlation are used together to calculate the number of
theoretical stages. The minimum number of stages required at the total reflux can be calculated
using the Fenske equation. The number of theoretical plates required can then be estimated using
the Gilliland correlation, figure 11. The Gilliland correlation is a relationship between the reflux
ratio, the minimum reflux ratio and the minimum number of stages. Normally the separation
required will be specified in terms of the key components, and the equation can be rearranged to
give an estimate of the number of stages.
( n+1 )m =
log
[( ) ( ) ]
x LK
x HK D
x HK
x LK W

log AB

AB : The relative volatility = 2.52

x LKD : The mole fraction of benzene in the distillate = 0.995

x HKD : The mole fraction of ethylbenzene in the distillate = 0.0001

x HKW : The mole fraction of ethylbenzene in the bottom = 0.831

x LKW : The mole fraction of benzene in the bottom = 0.16

( n+1 )m =
log
[( 0.995 0.831
0.0001 0.16)( )]
log 2.52

Minimum number of stages= 11.7 stages


Figure 2: Gilliand correlations (Seader and Henly, 2005)

RRm
Onthe X axis :
R +1

Where:

R: The Reflux Ratio = 0.975

Rm: The Minimum Reflux Ratio = 0.65

By substituting the values,

0.9750.65
0.975+1 = 0.164

From the x-axis of the graph, the curve intersects at 0.39

( n+1 )(nm +1)


theY axis
n+2

To find the theorectical number of stages,

( n+1 )( 11.7+1)
=0.39
n+2

N= 20.46

N 20 stages
ErbarMaddox Correlation

The ErbarMaddox correlation is an empirical method which can also be used to


determine the number of theoretical plates. These relate the number of ideal stages
required for a given separation, at a given reflux ratio, to the number at total reflux
(minimum possible) and the minimum reflux. Their correlation is shown in the figure
below; which gives the ratio of number of stages required to the number at total
reflux, as a function of the reflux ratio, with the minimum reflux ratio as a
parameter.

The following calculations have to be carried out in order to determine the number
of stages:

R
theY axis :
R +1

Where:

R: The Reflux Ratio = 0.975


Substitute in values:

0.975
=0.494
0.975+ 1

Rm
thelines of constant :
Rm +1

Where:

Rm: The Minimum Reflux Ratio = 0.65

Substitute in values:

0.65
=0.394
0.65+ 1

The Nm /N value can be obtained from the graph in figure 2.

Nm
=0.59
N

Where Nm = 11.7

Therefore, substitute in the values and rearrange to obtain N. Where N is the


number of theoretical plates.

11.7
N= =19.83 20
0.59

The values obtained for the number of plates are only preliminary value. The actual
number of stages cannot be determined at this point as the plate efficiency is not
yet known. The plate efficiency will be calculated at a later stage of the report and
that will be used to calculate the actual number of stages.
Column diameter

the liquid and vapour flowrates are required in order to calculate the diameter. The flowrate is the
principal factor in determining the column diameter. It is important that the vapour velocity is
lower than that velocity which would cause entrainment.[23] There are various steps which will be
needed to calculate the column diameter for the distillation column. A number of calculations
will be carried out in this section to determine the column diameter.

The chosen plate is a sieve plate. Certain specifications have to be put in place in order to
calculate the diameter of the column. The following specifications were made based on heuristics
and column standard design:

Hole Diameter 5mm

Tray Spacing 610mm

Plate Thickness 5mm

Hole Pitch 15mm

Liquid flowrate calculation

1. Lo = RD

2. V = Lo + D

3. L = Lo + qF

4. V = V + (1 q)

Whereby

R= Reflux ratio= 0.975


D= total distillate flowrate = 404500 kg.hr / 5180 kmol/hr

F= total feed flow rate = 408800 kg/hr / 5220 kmol/hr

Q= Feed enters as saturated liquid= 1

1. Lo = RD

Lo = 0.975 x 404500 = 394387.5kg/hr

Lo = 0.975 x 5180= 4941.7 kmol/hr

2. V = Lo + D

V = 394387.5 + 404500 =798887.5 kg/hr

V = 4941.7+ 5180 = 10121.7 kmol/hr

3. L = Lo + qF

L = 394387.5 + (1 x 408800) =803187.5kg/hr

L = 4941.7 + (1 x 5220) = 10161.7 kmol/hr

4.13.2 Vapour Density

The ideal gas equation will be used to calculate the vapour density for both Methyl Ethyl
Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol.

PV=nRT [25]

Where:

P: is the Pressure in Pa
V: is the Volume
n: is the number of Moles
R: is the gas constant
T: is the temperature in Kelvin
MP
=
nRT

M
The relative molecular mass , Mr = So therefore :
n

( M 1 x 1+ M 2 x 2) P
=
RT

The column pressure is assumed to be operating at atmospheric pressure. So the pressure


will be taken as 101325Pa.

Distillate density

P = 101325 Pa
Benzene MW = 78.11, x= 0.9997
Ethane MW= 30.07, x= 0.0003
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 438.15 K

Substitute the values into the above equation.

[( 72.1 x 0.9997 )+ ( 30.07 x 0.0003 ) ]101325


= =2.005 kg /m3
8314 438.15

Bottom liquid density

P = 101325 Pa
Benzene MW = 78.11, x= 0.127
Ethylbenzene MW=106.17, x=0.7285
Diethylbenzene MW= 134.22 x= 0.1437

R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 438.15 K
Substitute the values into the above equation.

[ ( 78.11 x 0.127 ) + ( 106.17 x 0.7285 ) +(134.22 x 0.14370) 101325]


=
8314 438.15

3
=2.964 kg /m
4.13.3 Liquid Density

The liquid density for distillate and bottom liquid was obtained from hysys simulation:

Distillate density: 747.1 kg/m

Bottom liquid density: 706.1 kg/m


4.13.4 Flooding

Flooding occurs when the vapour flow is excessive and this causes liquid to be entrained in the
vapour up the column. The excessive vapour flowrate also cause an increase in pressure and this
backs up the liquid in the downcomer. This causes an increase in liquid holdup on the plate
above. The maximum capacity of the column can be reduced severely depending on the degree
of flooding. Flooding can be detected by a sharp increase in the column differential pressure and
a significant decrease in the separation efficiency. The following equation is used to calculate
the Liquid-Vapour Flow (FLV) factor.

0.5
L
FLV * V
V L

FLV: Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor

L: Liquid molar flowrate = 4941.7 kmol/hr

V: Vapour molar flowrate = 10121.7 kmol/hr

v: Vapour Density = 2.005 kg/m^3

L: Liquid Density = 747.1 kg/m

The Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor will be calculated for both the enriching (Top) section and the
stripping (Bottom) section.
Substitute the values into equation:
0.5
4941.7 2.005
F LV = ( 10121.7
)(
747.1 )
F LV = 0.025

Assuming a tray spacing of 80cm (0.8m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection and
cleaning. From the calculated FLV the corresponding K1 TOP value can be obtained. From figure13
it can be seen that the corresponding K1TOP value is 0.11.

Stripping Section (FLVBOTTOM)


0.5
L' V
FLV *
V ' L

Equation 6: Liquid Flow Factor


FLV: Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor
L: Liquid molar flowrate = 10167.7 kmol/hr
V: Vapour molar flowrate = 10121.7 kmol/hr
v: Vapour Density = 2.964 kg/m3
L: Liquid Density =706.1 kg/m3

Substitute the values into equation 6


0.5
10167.7 2.964
F LV = ( 10121.7
)(
706.1 )
F LV = 0.065

Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection and
cleaning. From the calculated FLV the corresponding K1BOTTOM value can be obtained. From
figure13 it can be seen that the corresponding K1BOTTOM value is 0.105.

The flooding velocity is then calculated using the following equation:


0.5
L V
U F K1
V

Equation 7: Flooding Velocity Correlation [28]

Where:

UF: Flooding Vapour Velocity


K1: A Constant
L: Liquid Density
V: Vapour Density

Enriching Section Flooding Velocity


0.5
V
U F K1 L
V

UF TOP: Flooding Vapour Velocity


K1: A Constant = 0.11
L: Liquid Density = 747.1 kg/m3
V: Vapour Density = 10121.7 kg/m3
Substitute the values into equation 7
0.5

u F top =0.11 [ ( 747.12.005 )


2.005 ]
UF TOP = 2.12 m/s

Stripping Section Flooding Velocity


0.5
V
UF K1 L
V

UF TOP: Flooding Vapour Velocity


K1: A Constant = 0.1
L: Liquid Density = 820 kg/m3
V: Vapour Density = 2.495 kg/m3

Substitute the values into equation 8


0.5

u F BOTTOM =0.105 [
( 706.12.964 )
2.964 ]
UF BOTTOM = 1. 61m/s

The flooding condition fixes the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate efficiencies a
higher vapour velocity is required, the velocity will be normally 79-90% of that which could
flooding. In chemical engineering design a flooding velocity between 80-85% would be
effective. [29]

Column diameter

The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapour flow-rate.
vapour velocity must be below that which would cause excessive liquid entrainment or a
high-pressure drop. The equation given below, which is based on the well-known Souders
and Brown equation, Lowenstein (1961), can be used to estimate the maximum allowable
superficial vapour velocity, and hence the column area and diameter.

4.13.5 Maximum Volumetric Flowrate


Taking 85% flooding the velocity at flooding is as follows:

Flowrate in the enriching section (U V,TOP) = 0.85 2.12 = 1.802 m/s

Flowrate in the stripping section (U V,BOTTOM) = 0.85 1.61=1.368 m/s

To calculate the area for the top and the bottom of the column the maximum
volumetric flowrates are used. The maximum volumetric flowrate is calculated using
the following equation:

V Mr
U max =
3600

Where:

Umax: Maximum Volumetric Flowrate


V: Molar Vapour Flowrate
: Vapour Density
Mr: Relative Molecular Mass
Maximum Volumetric Flowrate in the Enriching Section

V Mr
U max =
3600

Umax: Maximum Volumetric Flowrate


V: Molar Vapour Flowrate = 395.109 kmol/hr
: Vapour Density = 2.427 kg/m3
Mr: Relative Molecular Mass = 72.1

Substitute values into the above equation:

10121.7 78.11
U max =
2.005 3600

Umax = 109.5 m3/s

Maximum Volumetric Flowrate in the Stripping Section

V Mr
U max =
3600

Umax: Maximum Volumetric Flowrate


V: Molar Vapour Flowrate = 10121.7 kmol/hr
v: Vapour Density = 2.964 kg/m3
Mr: Relative Molecular Mass = 106.6

10121.7 106.6
U max =
2.964 3600

Umax = 101.1 m3/s


4.13.6 Calculation of Column Diameter
The following equation is used to calculate the column diameter of the distillation
column:

d=
4 A

Equation 9: Column Diameter

d: The diameter
A: Area

Enriching Section (Top) Diameter

Area:

109.5 2
=60.76 m
1.802

So the diameter is therefore calculated to be:

d=
4 60.76

d = 8.79 m

Striping Section (Bottom) Diameter

Area:

101.1
=73.9 m2
1.368

So the diameter is therefore calculated to be:


d=
4 73.9

d = 9.7 m

The largest diameter is selected to be the column diameter of the entire distillation
column, i.e. Dc = 1.693 m. From the diameter calculated it can be seen that the
diameter is greater than 0.6m. Therefore, it would be suitable for the column to be
designed as a tray design.

Column diameter Dc = 9.7 m


Column area Ac = 73.9 m2
Downcomer area Ad = 0.12 x 73.9 = 8.87 m2, at 12 per cent
Net area An = Ac -Ad = 73.9 8.87= 655.49 m
Active area Aa = Ac - 2Ad = 73.9 17.74 = 56.1 m2
Hole area Ah take 10 per cent Aa as first trial = 5.61 m2

The Weir length (lw) is calculated using figure14.


Ad
theY axis : 100
Ac

8.87
x 100 =12
73.9

lw
Weir length (lw) = D c 0.755 9.7= 7.32 m

WEIR Height

The volume of liquid on the plate is determined by the height of the weir. It is also
an important factor in the determination of plate efficiency. Plate efficiency
increases as the weir height increases. However, this is at the expense of a higher
plate pressure drop. For distillation columns which require a vacuum lower weir
heights are suggested as this reduces the pressure drop. Recommended weir
heights are typically in the range of 6 to 12mm for vacuum operation. For columns
which operate above atmospheric pressure weir heights are generally between
40mm and 90mm. It is recommended that weir heights of 40 to 50mm are used. In
[31]
this case the selected weir height (h w) is 50mm.
Weeping

Weeping occurs when the flowrate in the distillation column is low. Due to this the
pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. As a
result of this, liquid starts to leak through the perforations (holes). Dumping occurs
as a result of excessive weeping. This will mean that the liquid on all the trays will
crash through to the base of the column. This in turn results in a domino effect and
the therefore the column will have to be re-started. Significant pressure drops and
[27]
reduced separation efficiency indicate the presence of weeping. The weep point
occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes becomes excessive. The vapour
velocity at the weep point is the minimum velocity required for stable operation.
The vapour flow velocity at the lowest operating rate must be well above the weep
point when specifying the hole area. The minimum design vapour velocity is given
[32]
in equation 11.

[ K 20.90(25.4d h)]
[ uh ]min = 0.5
[ V ]

Where:

uh: The minimum vapour velocity through the holes


dh: The hole diameter
K2: A constant, which is dependent on the depth of clear liquid on the plate
(obtained from figure 15)

[33]
Weeping Check

K2 in equation 11 is a constant value. In order to determine K 2 the depth of the crest


of liquid over the weir (h ow) must first be calculated. The Francis weir formula can be
utilised to find the height of the liquid crest over the weir. The Francis weir formula
is given in equation 12.

2 /3
L
how =750 w
l l w [ ]
[34]
Equation12: Francis weir equation

Where:

how: Weir Crest


Lw: Weir Length
Lw: Liquid flow-rate

l : Liquid Density

Firstly, the values required to determine the weir crest must be calculated.

The maximum liquid rate ( L):


803187.5
L' = =223.1kg /s
3600

The minimum liquid rate at 70% turn down:


= 0.7 x 223.1
= 156.1kg/s

Maximum how:
2 /3
750 [ 223.1
706.1 7.32 ] =92.28 mm of liquid

Minimum how:
2 /3
750 [ 156.1
706.1 7.32 ] =72.73 mm of liquid

At the minimum liquid rate: hw + how = 50 + 72.73= 122.73

The K2 value can now be determined from figure15.

[35]
Figure15: Weep point correlation

The corresponding K2 value at 74.312mm is 31.1.


Now the minimum design vapour velocity can be calculated from equation 11.

dh: The hole diameter = 5 mm


K2: A constant = 31.1
v: Vapour Density = 2.964 kg/m3

Substitute values into equation 11:

[ 31.10.90 ( 25.45 ) ] =4.80 m/s


[ uh ]min =
[ 2.964 ]0.5

It is important to calculate the actual minimum vapour velocity. This is calculated as


follows:

Minimum vapour rate


Efficiency
Hole Area

0.7 223.1
=27.83 m/s
5.61

It can be seen that the minimum operating rate is well above the weep point.
4.14.4 Plate Pressure Drop
In the design of distillation columns the pressure drop is an important aspect. There
are two causes of pressure drop: as a result of vapour flow through the holes and
due to the static head of liquid on the plate. The total pressure drop is the sum of
the dry plate pressure drop (h d), the head of the clear liquid on the plate (h w + how)
and residual losses (hr). Residual losses account for other minor sources of pressure
losses which may occur. The residual loss is the difference between the
experimental pressure drop and the sum of the dry plate drop and the clear-liquid
[36]
height.

4.14.4.1 Dry Plate Drop [37]

The pressure drop through the dry plate is calculated using equation 13.
2
u
hd =51 h
Co [ ] v
L

[38]
Equation 13: Pressure drop through the dry plate

Uh: Maximum vapour velocity through the holes


Co: Orifice coefficient. It is a function of plate thickness, hole diameter and the hole
to perforated area ratio (obtained from figure16).
v: Vapour Density
L: Liquid Density
The maximum vapour velocity through the holes (U h) is calculated as follows:

MaixmumVolumetric Flowrate
U h=
Hole Area

101.1
U h= =18.02 m/ s
5.61

Assuming from the graph:

Ah A h
=5.61=0.1 100=10
A p Aa

The corresponding Co value can be obtained 0.84

Now the dry plate drop can be determined by substituting into equation 13.
2
hd =51 [ 18.02
0.84]
2.495
747
=78.39 mmliquid
4.14.4.2 Residual Head [39]

Many methods have been developed to estimate the residual head which have been
a function of liquid surface tension, froth density and height. As a result of the
correction term being small the estimation is not justified. However, an equation by
Hunt et al (equation 14) has been proposed to find the residual head.

12.5 103
hr =
L

[39]
Equation 14: Residual Head

Where:

hr: The Residual Head


L: Liquid Density

12.5 103
hr = =16.73mm liquid
747

The total pressure drop can now be calculated. The total plate drop is given in
equation 15.

h
( w+ how )+h r
ht =h d +

[39]
Equation 15: Total Plate Drop

Where:

ht: Total Drop


hd: Dry Plate Drop = 78.39 mm
hw+how: Head of clear liquid on the plate = (50 + 72.73mm)
hr: Residual Head = 16.73 mm

Substitute in the values:

ht = 78.39 + 50 + 72.73 + 16.73 = 217.85 mm liquid


The total plate drop is expressed in terms of millimetres however it can also be
given in pressure units. This is given as follows:

Pt =9.81 103 ht L

[36]
Equation 16: Total Pressure Drop

Where:

Pt: Total Plate Pressure Drop (Pa(N/m2))


ht: Total Plate Pressure Drop (mm liquid)
L: Liquid Density

Substitute in the values:

Pt = 9.81 x 10-3 x 217.85 x747 = 1596 Pa


= 1.596 kPa

4.14.5 Downcomer Design [40]


When designing the downcomer it is important to ensure that the level of the liquid
and the froth in the downcomer is considerably below the top of the outlet weir on
the plate above it. The column is likely to flood if the level rises above the outlet
weir. The pressure drop over the plate and the resistance to flow in the downcomer
may cause a backup of liquid in the downcomer. A diagram of the downcomer
backup is shown in figure17.
[40]
Figure17: Downcomer Back-up

The head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation is equation
17.
2

hdc =166
[ ]
Lwd
L Am

[40]
Equation17: Head loss in downcomer

Where:

Lwd: Liquid flow rate in downcomer


Am: is either the downcomer area (Ad) or the clearance area under the downcomer
(Aap). The smallest value is used.
L: Liquid Density

The clearance area under the downcomer (Aap):


(Aap) = hapIw

hap is the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate. The height is
usually set at 5 to 10mm. In this case it has been set to be 10mm. So:

hap = hw 10 = 50 10 = 40mm
= 0.04m

The clearance area under the downcomer (Aap):


=0.04 x 7.32 = 0.2936 m2
It can be seen that Ad = 0.270m2. It can therefore be concluded that the smallest
value for Am in this case is equal to Aap. i.e. Am = Aap

Substitute the values into equation 17:


2
hdc =166 [
223.1
747.1 0.2936
=1.034 mm ]
The downcomer backup can now be calculated:
hb =( hw +h ow ) + ht +h dc

hb = 50 + 72.73 + 217.85 + 1.034 = 341.61 mm

The downcomer back up height should be less than 0.5 times the plate spacing and
weir height for a safer plate design. This is shown below:

1
hbc <
2
[ ( plate spacing ) +hw ]

1
341.61 mm< [ 0.8+ 0.05 ] =0.425 m
2

0.266m < 0.325m


This shows that the plate spacing of 80 cm is acceptable as the downcomer backup
is less.

4.14.6 Residence Time [41]

It is important to ensure that enough time is allowed in the downcomer for any
entrained vapour to disengage from the liquid stream and prevent the liquid being
carried under the downcomer. A time of at least 3 seconds is recommended.

A d h bc L
t r=
Lwd

[41]
Equation 18: Residence Time for the downcomer

Where:
tr: Residence Time
Ad: Downcomer Area = 8.87m
hbc: Clear Liquid back-up = 0.341 m
L: Liquid Density = 747.1 kg/m3
Lwd: Liquid flow rate in downcomer = 223.1

Substitute in the values:

8.87 0.341 747.1


=10.1 seconds
223.1

It can be seen that the calculated residence time is greater than the recommended
time of least 3 seconds.

4.14.7 Entrainment [42]

Entrainment is a result of high vapour flow rates and refers to the liquid carried up
by vapour to the tray above. It is unfavourable as tray efficiency is reduced. The
lower volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of a higher volatility. High
purity distillates can also become contaminated. In the event of excessive
[27]
entrainment flooding can occur. The correlation developed by Fair (figure18) can
be used to estimate entrainment. It shows the fractional entrainment () as a
function of the liquid-vapour factor (F LV), with the percentage of flooding as a
parameter.

It can be seen from section 4.13.5 that the percentage flooding is taken to be 80%.

FLV = 0.058

The corresponding fractional entrainment () can be obtained from figure18 below.


The () is found to be 0.041.
It is important to ensure that the fraction entrainment is lower than 0.1. It can be
seen that the value obtained is significantly lower than 0.1 and is therefore within a
safe operating range.
Van Winkle et al (1972) published a correlation for the determination of plate
efficiency which can be used for binary systems. Dimensionless groups which affect
plate efficiency are included within the correlation. The equation is as follows:

Emv 0.07 Dg 0.14 Sc 0.25 Re 0.08

[47]
Equation 20: Van Winkle Correlation for plate efficiency

Where:

L
D g : Surfacetension=
L uV

L
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number =
L DLK

h w uv v
: Reynolds Number = FA
L

Maximum Volumetric Flowrate


uv :Superficial Vapour Velocity=
Areaof Column

Area of Holes
FA :Fractional Area=
Area of Column

Ns/m2 (HYSYS)
4
L : Liquid Viscosity 1.841 10

L: Liquid surface tension = 0.01457 N/m (HYSYS)

DLK: Liquid Diffsivity = 3.294 109 m2 /s (HYSYS)

hw: Weir height = 60 mm


L: Liquid Density = 747.1 kg/m3
v: Vapour Density = 2.005 kg/m3
Calculating the unknowns from above:

Areaof Holes 5.61


FA : Fractional Area= = =0.076
Areaof Column 73.9

Maximum Volumetric Flowrate 223.1


uv :Superficial Vapour Velocity= = =3.01 m/s
Area of Column 73.9

L 0.01457
D g : Surfacetension= = =26.29
L uV 1.841 104 3.01

L 1.841 104
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number = = =74.81
L DLK 747.13.294 109

h w uv v 60 103 3.01 2.005


: Reynolds Number = = =25880
L FA 1.841 104 x 0.076

Substitute all the values into the Van Winkles equation:

Emv = 0.07 (26029)0.14 (74.81)0.25 (25880)0.08


Emv = 0.733

Therefore, using Van Winkles equation and actual plate efficiency of 73.3% is
obtained.

14.12 Actual Number of Plates


Previously two methods were used to determine the theoretical number of plates.
According to Gilliland and Fenskes correlation 20 plates would be required.
According to the Erbar-Maddox correlation 23 plates would be required.
Therefore, the actual number of plates required taking account of the calculated
plate efficiency would be as follows:

20
=27.28 27 Plates
0.733

In order to achieve effective distillation 27 stages would be required.

4.14.13 Height of Column


The equation below can be used to predict the height of the distillation column:

Hc = (N+1)*Hs+H+plate thickness
Equation 21: Determination of Column Height

Where:

N: The actual number of plates (stages) required = 31


Hs: The tray spacing = 600mm (0.6m)
H: The distance of liquid holdup and vapour disengagement = 1m
Plate Thickness = 5mm (0.005m)

Substitution of all values gives a column height of: [(27 + 1) 0.8] +1 + 0.005 =
23.405 m

The height of the column is therefore predicted to be approximately 23.4 m tall.


5.0 Energy Balance [48]

Process streams have kinetic and potential energies; however, they are neglected
as they are small. In all systems a transfer of heat occurs between the inlet and
outlet streams. This is shown in figure22.

[48]
Figure22: Transfer of Energy within a system

Input of energy is provided by two means: from the feed (H f) and the reboiler (Qb).
So: Qb + feed sensible heat Hf

Output of energy occurs from the top (HD) and bottom (HW) products and from the
condenser (QC).
So: QC + top and bottom products sensible heat HD + HW

In order to calculate the condenser and reboiler heat load the following have to be
calculated:
Latent Heat of Vaporisation of the Components ( Calculations found in
appendix ##)
Specific Heat Capacity ( Calculations found in appendix ##)

5.1.1 Condenser Heat Load (QC)

404500 kg/hr

Q = 5760000 KW (HYSYS)

Cooling water required

The amount of cooling water required in the condenser will be calculated in this
section.

It is assumed that:

Q h=Q c (heat of cooling)

It is know that:
Qc =mwater C p water T

The above equation can be rearranged to calculate the amount of cooling water
required. This is as follows:

Qc
mwater =
C p water T

Where:
Cp = 4.187 kj/kg.K
T = From the process description in section 4.1 it can be seen that the cooling
water enters the condenser at 26C (297K) and leaves at 42C (313 K).

Substitute the values in:

5760000
mwater = =85980 kg /hr
4.187 ( 4226 )
5.1.2 Condenser Design
This next focuses on the detailed design of the condenser.

There are certain specifications which are put in place in order to carry out the
appropriate calculations. They are as follows:

Outside Diameter (OD) of 25mm


Internal Diameter (ID) of 20mm
Tube length of 5m
Baffle cut of 25% is optimum as this gives good heat transfer rates [50]
The condensing material MEK will be located on the shell side as the shell
side copes better with changes in density. The cooling water will flow on the
tube side.
Pipes are assumed to be arranged in a square arrangement. This is due to the
ease of maintenance such as cleaning. [51]
The recommended minimum clearance between the tubes is 25 inches
(6.4mm) when using a square pattern. [51]
The overall heat transfer coefficient (U) is assumed to be 850 W/m 2 C [52]

Fouling Coefficient of 5000 W/m2 K

5.1.2.1 Heat Transfer Area and Number of Tubes (NT)


Calculating the provisional Area:

Firstly the log mean temperature needs to be calculated using the following
equation:

( T 1t 2 ) ( T 2t 1 )
T LM =
[ T 1t2 ]
ln
( [ T 2 t1 ] )
[53]
Equation 22: Calculation of log mean temperature

Where:

TLM: Log mean temperature difference


T1: Inlet shell side fluid temperature = 134.4C
T2: Outlet shell side fluid temperature = 105.5C
t1: Inlet tube side temperature = 26C
t2: Outlet tube side temperature = 42C

Substitute values into equation 22:

(134.442 )( 10526 )
T LM = =89.11 C
[ 134.442 ]
(
ln )
[ 105.526 ]

We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is
shown below:

Q
A=
U T

From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to
be 700 W/m2 C.
Therefore;

5760000 1000 2
A= =25.65 m
700 89.11 3600

25
Surface Areaof one Tube= ( 1000 ) 5=0.393 m 2

From this information the number of tubes can now be calculated:

Heat Transfer Area


Number of Tubes ( NT )=
Surface Areaof one tube

25.65
NT = =66 tubes
0.393

Square pitch of 1.25do


Therefore pitch (Pt) = 1.25 x 25 = 31.25 mm
5.1.2.2 Tube Bundle Diameter (Db) [54]
The diameter of the tube bundle depends on both the number of tubes and the
number of passes. The tube bundle diameter can be estimated from equation 23.
The constants are shown in table 5.

1/ n1
NT
D b=d o
( ) K1 Equation 23: Tube Bundle diameter page [54]

Where:

Db: Bundle Diameter

NT: The number of tubes = 66

do: Outside diameter = 25mm

K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are
shown in table 5)

Table 5: Constants required for tube bundle equation [54]

Substitute the values into equation 23:

1 /2.291
66
D b=25 (0.156 ) =376. mm

5.1.2.3 Length of Condenser


The length of the condenser can be calculated as follows:
A
L=
do N t

Equation 24: Length of Condenser

Where:

L: The length of the condenser


A: The heat transfer area = 25.65 m2
do: Outside diameter = 25 mm
NT: The number of tubes

Substitute in the values into Equation 24:

25.65
L= =4.95 m
0.025 66

5.2 Tube Side Coefficient [55]

The tube side coefficient is calculated using equation 25 below. The equation has
been adapted from data provided Eagle and Ferguson (1930).

0.8
4200 ( 1.35+0.02 t ) ut
hi= 0.2
di

[56]
Equation 25: Tube Side Coefficient

Where:

hi: Inside coefficient for water


t: water temperature = 32C - calculated below
ut: Water Velocity - calculated below
di: Tube inside diameter = 20mm
Mean temperature of water:
42+26
Water Temperature= =34 C
2

Tube cross-sectional area:



Crosssectional area= 202=314.160 mm 2
4

66
Tubes per Pass= =33
2

Total flow area=33 314.160 106 =0.0104 m 2

Tube side water velocity:

85980
Water mass velocity=
( 3600 )
=2296.5 kg /s m
2
0.0104

Density of water = 998 kg/m3 [57]

2296.5
Water linear velocity= =2.301 m/s
998

Substitute into Equation 25:

4200 ( 1.35+0.02 34 ) 2.3010.8


hi= 0.2
=9121.63 W /m 2 C
20

5.3 Shell Side Coefficient [58]


Firstly the shell diameter has to be determined. The bundle diametrical clearance is
found from figure24 below. Then this is used with the bundle diameter to calculate
the shell diameter.

Choosing the pull through floating head the bundle diametrical clearance is found to
be 90.5mm.
Shell Diameter (DS) = 376 + 89 = 465mm

[59]
Figure24: Shell-bundle Clearance

In the shells baffles are used to direct the fluid stream across the tubes. They help
to increase fluid velocity and therefore improve the rate of transfer. Single
segmental baffles are the most common type of baffle used. This type of baffle is
show in figure25.

[60]
Figure25: Segmental Baffle Design

DS 465
Choose baffle spacing= = =93 mm
5 5
Tube Pitch (Pt) = 1.25 x 25 = 31.25 mm

Cross flow Area ( A S )= ( 31.2525


31.25 )
465 93 10 6
=0.0 0865 m2

798887.5 1
MassVelocity ( G S )= =25654.7 kg/ m2
3600 0.00865

1.27 2 1.27
Equivalent Diameter= ( p t 0.785 d2o )= ( 31.2520.785 252 ) =24.686 mm
do 25

134.4+105
Mean shell side temperature= =119.7 C
2

The density of distillate = 747.1 kg/m3

The viscosity of distillate= 0.1841 MNs/m 2

The thermal conductivity (K) = 0.102 w/m K

G S d e 25654.7 24.686
= = =3455929
0.1841

Cp 1.587 102 0. 1841 103


Pr= = =0.286
Kf 0.102

From the assumptions it can be seen that a baffle cut of 25% has been specified.
From figure26 the corresponding heat transfer factor (j h) can be determined from
the Reynolds number calculated.
[61]
Figure26: Shell-Side Heat Transfer Factor

Jh = 0.003

The shell side heat transfer coefficient without the viscosity correction term is as
follows:

0.102
h s= 3
3 103 3455929 0.286=12251.8 w /m2 C
24.686 10

5.4 The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient [62]

The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by the following equation:

do
d o ln
1

1

1
di do * 1 d o * 1
U ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi
[62]
Equation 26: Overall heat transfer coefficient

Where:
U: Overall Coefficient
2
ho: Outside fluid film coefficient = 12251.8 w /m C

hod: Outside dirt coefficient = 5000 W/m2 K

hi: Inside fluid film coefficient = 9121 W /m2 C

hid: Inside dirt coefficient = 5000 W/m 2 K


2
kw: Thermal conductivity of the tube wall = 50 W /m C

di: Inside diameter = 20 mm


do: Outside diameter = 25mm

Substitute values into equation 26:

25
0.025 ln ( )
1 1 1 20 0.025 1 0.025 1
= + + + x + x
U 12251 5000 2(50) 0.020 5000 0.020 9121

U = 1380 W /m2 C

5.5 Reboiler Design


This section will involve calculating the heat load for the condenser and also a brief
design of the reboiler required for the distillation column.

5.5.1 Reboiler Duty


The heat needed in the reboiler can be determined from the overall heat balance
over the distillation column. This is given below in equation 27.

QB + H F =Qc + H D + H b Equation 27: Overall heat balance


Where:

HD and Hb are the sensible heats of the distillate and bottom product.

In order to determine the reboiler duty the other parameters have to be calculated.
Then the above equation can be rearranged to find the heat required in the reboiler.
They are as follows:

H F =m C p T

Firstly the specific heat capacity (Cp) has to be calculated for Methyl Ethyl Ketone
(MEK) and Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA). This is shown in appendix##. The feed
inlet to the distillation column is assumed to be 70 C. The sensible heat of the feed
at a basis of 25 C is calculated below.

Now HF can be calculated as follows:

H F =408800 1.48 ( 13225 )=64737568 kJ /hr

H B =mC p T

The bottom product is assumed to be at a temperature of 187C. The sensible heat


of the bottom product is calculated as follows:

H B =4339 2.48 ( 1 8725 )=1743236 kj/hr

HD = 0

Qc was previously calculated in section 4.15.1.


Qc = 5.76 109 kj/hr

Now all the parameters have been found the heat required can now be calculated.

QB = Q C + H D + H B H F
QB = 576000000 + 0 + 1743236- 64737568= 513005668 kj/hr
=142501 kW
Heat losses may occur. Therefore add 10% for heat losses:
QB =1.10 142501 = 156761 kW/ 564306234 KJ/hr

It is assumed that the steam which is supplied to the reboiler is at 4 bar (200 kN/m 2)
at a temperature of approximately 190C. The latent heat of steam is therefore
[63]
2144.4 kj/kg.

The steam required is calculated using the following equation:

QB =S h fg

Where:

QB: Reboiler heat load = 564306234kj/hr


S: Steam Flowrate
hfg: Latent heat of vaporisation = 2144.4 kj/kg

The above equation can be rearranged to calculate the steam flowrate:

QB 564306234
S= = =263153.4 kg/hr
h fg 2144.4

= 73.09 kg/s

5.5.2 Kettle Reboiler Design


Section 3.1.1 describes the three types of reboilers which are usually used. In this
design a kettle reboiler will be used. In kettle reboilers boiling takes place on tubes
which are immersed in a pool of liquid.

In order to carry out the appropriate calculations certain specifications and


assumptions will have to be set. They are as follows:

Inside Diameter (ID) of 25 mm


Outside Diameter (OD) of 30 mm
Nominal tube length of 5m
Steam at 2 bar
Overall heat transfer coefficient 900 W/m 2 C

The temperature of the bottom product is 187 C (371.807 K). Superheated steam
of 220 C is used.

The log mean temperature (T):

T Lm =220187=33 C

We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is
shown below:

Q
A=
U T

From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to
be 1600 W/m2 C.
Therefore;

513005668 1000
=2698m2
1600 33 3600

The number of tubes required for the reboiler is calculated as follows:

A
Nt=
d o L Equation 28: Number of tubes

Where:

NT: Number of tubes


A: Heat transfer Area = 2698 m2
L: Nominal length = 5m
do: Outside diameter = 30mm

Substitute the values in the above equation:

2698
Nt= =5725
30
(
1000 )
5
Square pitch of 1.25do
Therefore pitch (Pt) = 1.5 x 30 = 45 mm

The bundle diameter can then be calculated from equation23.

Where:

Db: Bundle Diameter

NT: The number of tubes = 5725

do: Outside diameter = 30mm

K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are
shown in table 5)

Substitute the values into equation23:

1 /2.291
5725
D b=30 ( 0.156 ) =2948 mm=2.948 m

The shell diameter is twice the bundle diameter. Therefore:

D s=2 2.948=5.896 m

6.0 Mechanical Design [64]

This section will focus on the mechanical design of the distillation column. The
detailed mechanical design of processing equipment will not be usually carried out
by chemical engineers. It is usually mechanical engineers who are responsible for
this. However, in this section of the report certain aspects of the mechanical design
will be investigated including; shell thickness, skirt design and weight of plates.
In order to carry out the mechanical design certain assumptions and specifications
have to be stated. They are as follows:

The Diameter of the column (Dc) = 1.693 m


The material of construction for the shell is Stainless Steel (18Cr/8Ni, Ti
stabilised)[65]
The column is operating at atmospheric pressure i.e. 1 atm = 1.01325 bar
It is assumed that the column is designed for 10% above the normal
[65]
operating pressure. So the design pressure will be 1.1 1.01325 =
1.114575 bar. This is equal to 0.114575 N/mm 2
The shell will be insulated with 75 mm of mineral wool

6.1 Shell Thickness


In order to calculate the shell thickness the following equation has to be used:

Pi D i
e= [65]
2 f Pi Equation 29: Minimum Shell Thickness

Where:

e: cylindrical column minimum shell thickness


Pi: The design pressure, 10% above operating pressure = 0.44 N/mm2
Di: The column diameter: 9.7m
f: The design stress = from appendix table 8 at 200C for carbon steel= 150 N/mm2

Substitute the values into equation 29:

0. 44 9.7 103
e= =14.24 mm According to Coulson and Richardson Volume 6 a
2 1500. 44

corrosion allowance of 2mm should be used. Therefore, the column thickness will
be:

e=14.24+ 2=16.24 mm

From the calculated wall thickness it can be seen that thickness is too small to
withstand the pressure of the column. It is important that the thickness of any
vessel is strong enough to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. The
table below gives an indication of wall thicknesses of any vessel. The thickness
should not be less than the values stated in the table.

Vessel Diameter (m) Minimum Thickness (mm)


1 5
1 to 2 7
2 to 2.5 9
2.5 to 3.0 10
3.0 to 3.5 12
[65]
Table 6: Optimum wall thickness

From table 6 it can be seen that with a vessel diameter of 1 to 2m the minimum
thickness should be 7mm. The diameter of this distillation column been calculated
and found to be 1.693m so it is important that the minimum thickness is 7mm.

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