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There are three principal cross-flow plate types which are used in plate columns.
They are classified according to the method used to contact the vapour and liquid.
They are as follows:
1. Sieve Plate also sometimes called perforated plate: This type of plate is
the simplest type of cross-flow plate. The vapour passes the holes in the
plate and the liquid is retained on the plate due to the vapour flow. In
occasions when flow rates are low liquid weeps through the holes and this
reduces plate efficiency. Usually the perforations are small holes however,
in some cases larger holes and slots are also made use of.
[13]
Figure 7: Diagram of a Sieve Plate
In this design, a plate column will be more suitable. This is because the flow rates in
this process are large and these will require a large diameter. In cases when the
diameter is large it is possible to have plates or trays.
When selecting the plate type many factors are considered including cost, capacity,
operating range, efficiency and pressure drop. Of the three types sieve plates are
the cheapest and are satisfactory for most applications. The operating costs of sieve
plates are the pressure drop is lower compared to the other types of plates. For
these reasons the selected type of plate for the distillation column is sieve plates.
4.3 Key Components
In distillation column design, the key components which are to be separated should
be identified. The light key is described as the component that is desired to be kept
out of the bottom product, while the heavy key is described as the component that
is desired to be kept out of the top product. Alternatively, the light key is described
as the most volatile component in the bottom product and the heavy key is
described as the least volatile component in the top product. In this case the light
and heavy keys are as follows:
To determine the vapour pressure of the components the Antoine equation must be
used. The relative volatility can then be calculated using this information.
B
A
Log 10 ( P) = T ( C ) +C
For benzene,
2726.8
( P )= 13.78
160+217.57
ln
P= 704.88 kPa
For ethylbenzene:
3259.9
( P )= 13.97
160+230.92
ln
P= 278.93 kPa
From the calculated vapour pressure for each of the components the relative
volatility can be determined. The more volatile components are called light, the less
volatile are heavy. The components separated in a tower are called light key (more
volatile) and heavy key (less volatile). The relative volatility in multicomponent
distillation is always computed with respect to the heavy key:
Pa
=
Pb
A = Light Key
B = Heavy Key
Pa 704.88
= =
Pb 278.93
ab = 2.52
Practical reflux ratios will lie somewhere between the minimum for the specified separation
and total reflux. The designer must select a value at which the specified separation is
achieved at minimum cost. Increasing the reflux reduces the number of stages required,
and hence the capital cost, but increases the service requirements (steam and water) and
the operating costs. The optimum reflux ratio will be that which gives the lowest annual
operating cost. No hard and fast rules can be given for the selection of the design reflux
ratio, but for many systems the optimum will lie between 1.2 to 1.5 times the minimum
x D AB (1x D )
Rmin =
[ 1
AB1 ]( xF
1x F )
x_D : The mole fraction of benzene in the Distillate = 0.995 (obtained from HYSYS)
x_F: The mole fraction of benzene in the feed =0.8973 (obtained from HYSYS)
0.995 2.52(10.995)
0.8973 10.8973
1 )
Rmin=[ ]
2.521
= 0.65
= 0.975
The Fenske Equation and Gilliland correlation are used together to calculate the number of
theoretical stages. The minimum number of stages required at the total reflux can be calculated
using the Fenske equation. The number of theoretical plates required can then be estimated using
the Gilliland correlation, figure 11. The Gilliland correlation is a relationship between the reflux
ratio, the minimum reflux ratio and the minimum number of stages. Normally the separation
required will be specified in terms of the key components, and the equation can be rearranged to
give an estimate of the number of stages.
( n+1 )m =
log
[( ) ( ) ]
x LK
x HK D
x HK
x LK W
log AB
( n+1 )m =
log
[( 0.995 0.831
0.0001 0.16)( )]
log 2.52
RRm
Onthe X axis :
R +1
Where:
0.9750.65
0.975+1 = 0.164
( n+1 )( 11.7+1)
=0.39
n+2
N= 20.46
N 20 stages
ErbarMaddox Correlation
The following calculations have to be carried out in order to determine the number
of stages:
R
theY axis :
R +1
Where:
0.975
=0.494
0.975+ 1
Rm
thelines of constant :
Rm +1
Where:
Substitute in values:
0.65
=0.394
0.65+ 1
Nm
=0.59
N
Where Nm = 11.7
11.7
N= =19.83 20
0.59
The values obtained for the number of plates are only preliminary value. The actual
number of stages cannot be determined at this point as the plate efficiency is not
yet known. The plate efficiency will be calculated at a later stage of the report and
that will be used to calculate the actual number of stages.
Column diameter
the liquid and vapour flowrates are required in order to calculate the diameter. The flowrate is the
principal factor in determining the column diameter. It is important that the vapour velocity is
lower than that velocity which would cause entrainment.[23] There are various steps which will be
needed to calculate the column diameter for the distillation column. A number of calculations
will be carried out in this section to determine the column diameter.
The chosen plate is a sieve plate. Certain specifications have to be put in place in order to
calculate the diameter of the column. The following specifications were made based on heuristics
and column standard design:
1. Lo = RD
2. V = Lo + D
3. L = Lo + qF
4. V = V + (1 q)
Whereby
1. Lo = RD
2. V = Lo + D
3. L = Lo + qF
The ideal gas equation will be used to calculate the vapour density for both Methyl Ethyl
Ketone and Secondary Butyl Alcohol.
PV=nRT [25]
Where:
P: is the Pressure in Pa
V: is the Volume
n: is the number of Moles
R: is the gas constant
T: is the temperature in Kelvin
MP
=
nRT
M
The relative molecular mass , Mr = So therefore :
n
( M 1 x 1+ M 2 x 2) P
=
RT
Distillate density
P = 101325 Pa
Benzene MW = 78.11, x= 0.9997
Ethane MW= 30.07, x= 0.0003
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 438.15 K
P = 101325 Pa
Benzene MW = 78.11, x= 0.127
Ethylbenzene MW=106.17, x=0.7285
Diethylbenzene MW= 134.22 x= 0.1437
R = 8314 m3PaK-1kmol-1
T = 438.15 K
Substitute the values into the above equation.
3
=2.964 kg /m
4.13.3 Liquid Density
The liquid density for distillate and bottom liquid was obtained from hysys simulation:
Flooding occurs when the vapour flow is excessive and this causes liquid to be entrained in the
vapour up the column. The excessive vapour flowrate also cause an increase in pressure and this
backs up the liquid in the downcomer. This causes an increase in liquid holdup on the plate
above. The maximum capacity of the column can be reduced severely depending on the degree
of flooding. Flooding can be detected by a sharp increase in the column differential pressure and
a significant decrease in the separation efficiency. The following equation is used to calculate
the Liquid-Vapour Flow (FLV) factor.
0.5
L
FLV * V
V L
The Liquid-Vapour Flow Factor will be calculated for both the enriching (Top) section and the
stripping (Bottom) section.
Substitute the values into equation:
0.5
4941.7 2.005
F LV = ( 10121.7
)(
747.1 )
F LV = 0.025
Assuming a tray spacing of 80cm (0.8m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection and
cleaning. From the calculated FLV the corresponding K1 TOP value can be obtained. From figure13
it can be seen that the corresponding K1TOP value is 0.11.
Assuming a tray spacing of 600m (0.6m) which is suitable for maintenance, inspection and
cleaning. From the calculated FLV the corresponding K1BOTTOM value can be obtained. From
figure13 it can be seen that the corresponding K1BOTTOM value is 0.105.
Where:
u F BOTTOM =0.105 [
( 706.12.964 )
2.964 ]
UF BOTTOM = 1. 61m/s
The flooding condition fixes the upper limit of vapour velocity. For high plate efficiencies a
higher vapour velocity is required, the velocity will be normally 79-90% of that which could
flooding. In chemical engineering design a flooding velocity between 80-85% would be
effective. [29]
Column diameter
The principal factor that determines the column diameter is the vapour flow-rate.
vapour velocity must be below that which would cause excessive liquid entrainment or a
high-pressure drop. The equation given below, which is based on the well-known Souders
and Brown equation, Lowenstein (1961), can be used to estimate the maximum allowable
superficial vapour velocity, and hence the column area and diameter.
To calculate the area for the top and the bottom of the column the maximum
volumetric flowrates are used. The maximum volumetric flowrate is calculated using
the following equation:
V Mr
U max =
3600
Where:
V Mr
U max =
3600
10121.7 78.11
U max =
2.005 3600
V Mr
U max =
3600
10121.7 106.6
U max =
2.964 3600
d=
4 A
d: The diameter
A: Area
Area:
109.5 2
=60.76 m
1.802
d=
4 60.76
d = 8.79 m
Area:
101.1
=73.9 m2
1.368
d = 9.7 m
The largest diameter is selected to be the column diameter of the entire distillation
column, i.e. Dc = 1.693 m. From the diameter calculated it can be seen that the
diameter is greater than 0.6m. Therefore, it would be suitable for the column to be
designed as a tray design.
8.87
x 100 =12
73.9
lw
Weir length (lw) = D c 0.755 9.7= 7.32 m
WEIR Height
The volume of liquid on the plate is determined by the height of the weir. It is also
an important factor in the determination of plate efficiency. Plate efficiency
increases as the weir height increases. However, this is at the expense of a higher
plate pressure drop. For distillation columns which require a vacuum lower weir
heights are suggested as this reduces the pressure drop. Recommended weir
heights are typically in the range of 6 to 12mm for vacuum operation. For columns
which operate above atmospheric pressure weir heights are generally between
40mm and 90mm. It is recommended that weir heights of 40 to 50mm are used. In
[31]
this case the selected weir height (h w) is 50mm.
Weeping
Weeping occurs when the flowrate in the distillation column is low. Due to this the
pressure exerted by the vapour is insufficient to hold up the liquid on the tray. As a
result of this, liquid starts to leak through the perforations (holes). Dumping occurs
as a result of excessive weeping. This will mean that the liquid on all the trays will
crash through to the base of the column. This in turn results in a domino effect and
the therefore the column will have to be re-started. Significant pressure drops and
[27]
reduced separation efficiency indicate the presence of weeping. The weep point
occurs when liquid leakage through the plate holes becomes excessive. The vapour
velocity at the weep point is the minimum velocity required for stable operation.
The vapour flow velocity at the lowest operating rate must be well above the weep
point when specifying the hole area. The minimum design vapour velocity is given
[32]
in equation 11.
[ K 20.90(25.4d h)]
[ uh ]min = 0.5
[ V ]
Where:
[33]
Weeping Check
2 /3
L
how =750 w
l l w [ ]
[34]
Equation12: Francis weir equation
Where:
l : Liquid Density
Firstly, the values required to determine the weir crest must be calculated.
Maximum how:
2 /3
750 [ 223.1
706.1 7.32 ] =92.28 mm of liquid
Minimum how:
2 /3
750 [ 156.1
706.1 7.32 ] =72.73 mm of liquid
[35]
Figure15: Weep point correlation
0.7 223.1
=27.83 m/s
5.61
It can be seen that the minimum operating rate is well above the weep point.
4.14.4 Plate Pressure Drop
In the design of distillation columns the pressure drop is an important aspect. There
are two causes of pressure drop: as a result of vapour flow through the holes and
due to the static head of liquid on the plate. The total pressure drop is the sum of
the dry plate pressure drop (h d), the head of the clear liquid on the plate (h w + how)
and residual losses (hr). Residual losses account for other minor sources of pressure
losses which may occur. The residual loss is the difference between the
experimental pressure drop and the sum of the dry plate drop and the clear-liquid
[36]
height.
The pressure drop through the dry plate is calculated using equation 13.
2
u
hd =51 h
Co [ ] v
L
[38]
Equation 13: Pressure drop through the dry plate
MaixmumVolumetric Flowrate
U h=
Hole Area
101.1
U h= =18.02 m/ s
5.61
Ah A h
=5.61=0.1 100=10
A p Aa
Now the dry plate drop can be determined by substituting into equation 13.
2
hd =51 [ 18.02
0.84]
2.495
747
=78.39 mmliquid
4.14.4.2 Residual Head [39]
Many methods have been developed to estimate the residual head which have been
a function of liquid surface tension, froth density and height. As a result of the
correction term being small the estimation is not justified. However, an equation by
Hunt et al (equation 14) has been proposed to find the residual head.
12.5 103
hr =
L
[39]
Equation 14: Residual Head
Where:
12.5 103
hr = =16.73mm liquid
747
The total pressure drop can now be calculated. The total plate drop is given in
equation 15.
h
( w+ how )+h r
ht =h d +
[39]
Equation 15: Total Plate Drop
Where:
Pt =9.81 103 ht L
[36]
Equation 16: Total Pressure Drop
Where:
The head loss in the downcomer can be estimated using the equation is equation
17.
2
hdc =166
[ ]
Lwd
L Am
[40]
Equation17: Head loss in downcomer
Where:
hap is the height of the bottom edge of the apron above the plate. The height is
usually set at 5 to 10mm. In this case it has been set to be 10mm. So:
hap = hw 10 = 50 10 = 40mm
= 0.04m
The downcomer back up height should be less than 0.5 times the plate spacing and
weir height for a safer plate design. This is shown below:
1
hbc <
2
[ ( plate spacing ) +hw ]
1
341.61 mm< [ 0.8+ 0.05 ] =0.425 m
2
It is important to ensure that enough time is allowed in the downcomer for any
entrained vapour to disengage from the liquid stream and prevent the liquid being
carried under the downcomer. A time of at least 3 seconds is recommended.
A d h bc L
t r=
Lwd
[41]
Equation 18: Residence Time for the downcomer
Where:
tr: Residence Time
Ad: Downcomer Area = 8.87m
hbc: Clear Liquid back-up = 0.341 m
L: Liquid Density = 747.1 kg/m3
Lwd: Liquid flow rate in downcomer = 223.1
It can be seen that the calculated residence time is greater than the recommended
time of least 3 seconds.
Entrainment is a result of high vapour flow rates and refers to the liquid carried up
by vapour to the tray above. It is unfavourable as tray efficiency is reduced. The
lower volatile material is carried to a plate holding liquid of a higher volatility. High
purity distillates can also become contaminated. In the event of excessive
[27]
entrainment flooding can occur. The correlation developed by Fair (figure18) can
be used to estimate entrainment. It shows the fractional entrainment () as a
function of the liquid-vapour factor (F LV), with the percentage of flooding as a
parameter.
It can be seen from section 4.13.5 that the percentage flooding is taken to be 80%.
FLV = 0.058
[47]
Equation 20: Van Winkle Correlation for plate efficiency
Where:
L
D g : Surfacetension=
L uV
L
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number =
L DLK
h w uv v
: Reynolds Number = FA
L
Area of Holes
FA :Fractional Area=
Area of Column
Ns/m2 (HYSYS)
4
L : Liquid Viscosity 1.841 10
L 0.01457
D g : Surfacetension= = =26.29
L uV 1.841 104 3.01
L 1.841 104
Sc : Liquid Schmidt Number = = =74.81
L DLK 747.13.294 109
Therefore, using Van Winkles equation and actual plate efficiency of 73.3% is
obtained.
20
=27.28 27 Plates
0.733
Hc = (N+1)*Hs+H+plate thickness
Equation 21: Determination of Column Height
Where:
Substitution of all values gives a column height of: [(27 + 1) 0.8] +1 + 0.005 =
23.405 m
Process streams have kinetic and potential energies; however, they are neglected
as they are small. In all systems a transfer of heat occurs between the inlet and
outlet streams. This is shown in figure22.
[48]
Figure22: Transfer of Energy within a system
Input of energy is provided by two means: from the feed (H f) and the reboiler (Qb).
So: Qb + feed sensible heat Hf
Output of energy occurs from the top (HD) and bottom (HW) products and from the
condenser (QC).
So: QC + top and bottom products sensible heat HD + HW
In order to calculate the condenser and reboiler heat load the following have to be
calculated:
Latent Heat of Vaporisation of the Components ( Calculations found in
appendix ##)
Specific Heat Capacity ( Calculations found in appendix ##)
404500 kg/hr
Q = 5760000 KW (HYSYS)
The amount of cooling water required in the condenser will be calculated in this
section.
It is assumed that:
It is know that:
Qc =mwater C p water T
The above equation can be rearranged to calculate the amount of cooling water
required. This is as follows:
Qc
mwater =
C p water T
Where:
Cp = 4.187 kj/kg.K
T = From the process description in section 4.1 it can be seen that the cooling
water enters the condenser at 26C (297K) and leaves at 42C (313 K).
5760000
mwater = =85980 kg /hr
4.187 ( 4226 )
5.1.2 Condenser Design
This next focuses on the detailed design of the condenser.
There are certain specifications which are put in place in order to carry out the
appropriate calculations. They are as follows:
Firstly the log mean temperature needs to be calculated using the following
equation:
( T 1t 2 ) ( T 2t 1 )
T LM =
[ T 1t2 ]
ln
( [ T 2 t1 ] )
[53]
Equation 22: Calculation of log mean temperature
Where:
(134.442 )( 10526 )
T LM = =89.11 C
[ 134.442 ]
(
ln )
[ 105.526 ]
We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is
shown below:
Q
A=
U T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to
be 700 W/m2 C.
Therefore;
5760000 1000 2
A= =25.65 m
700 89.11 3600
25
Surface Areaof one Tube= ( 1000 ) 5=0.393 m 2
25.65
NT = =66 tubes
0.393
1/ n1
NT
D b=d o
( ) K1 Equation 23: Tube Bundle diameter page [54]
Where:
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are
shown in table 5)
1 /2.291
66
D b=25 (0.156 ) =376. mm
Where:
25.65
L= =4.95 m
0.025 66
The tube side coefficient is calculated using equation 25 below. The equation has
been adapted from data provided Eagle and Ferguson (1930).
0.8
4200 ( 1.35+0.02 t ) ut
hi= 0.2
di
[56]
Equation 25: Tube Side Coefficient
Where:
66
Tubes per Pass= =33
2
85980
Water mass velocity=
( 3600 )
=2296.5 kg /s m
2
0.0104
2296.5
Water linear velocity= =2.301 m/s
998
Choosing the pull through floating head the bundle diametrical clearance is found to
be 90.5mm.
Shell Diameter (DS) = 376 + 89 = 465mm
[59]
Figure24: Shell-bundle Clearance
In the shells baffles are used to direct the fluid stream across the tubes. They help
to increase fluid velocity and therefore improve the rate of transfer. Single
segmental baffles are the most common type of baffle used. This type of baffle is
show in figure25.
[60]
Figure25: Segmental Baffle Design
DS 465
Choose baffle spacing= = =93 mm
5 5
Tube Pitch (Pt) = 1.25 x 25 = 31.25 mm
798887.5 1
MassVelocity ( G S )= =25654.7 kg/ m2
3600 0.00865
1.27 2 1.27
Equivalent Diameter= ( p t 0.785 d2o )= ( 31.2520.785 252 ) =24.686 mm
do 25
134.4+105
Mean shell side temperature= =119.7 C
2
G S d e 25654.7 24.686
= = =3455929
0.1841
From the assumptions it can be seen that a baffle cut of 25% has been specified.
From figure26 the corresponding heat transfer factor (j h) can be determined from
the Reynolds number calculated.
[61]
Figure26: Shell-Side Heat Transfer Factor
Jh = 0.003
The shell side heat transfer coefficient without the viscosity correction term is as
follows:
0.102
h s= 3
3 103 3455929 0.286=12251.8 w /m2 C
24.686 10
do
d o ln
1
1
1
di do * 1 d o * 1
U ho hod 2k w d i hid d i hi
[62]
Equation 26: Overall heat transfer coefficient
Where:
U: Overall Coefficient
2
ho: Outside fluid film coefficient = 12251.8 w /m C
25
0.025 ln ( )
1 1 1 20 0.025 1 0.025 1
= + + + x + x
U 12251 5000 2(50) 0.020 5000 0.020 9121
U = 1380 W /m2 C
HD and Hb are the sensible heats of the distillate and bottom product.
In order to determine the reboiler duty the other parameters have to be calculated.
Then the above equation can be rearranged to find the heat required in the reboiler.
They are as follows:
H F =m C p T
Firstly the specific heat capacity (Cp) has to be calculated for Methyl Ethyl Ketone
(MEK) and Secondary Butyl Alcohol (SBA). This is shown in appendix##. The feed
inlet to the distillation column is assumed to be 70 C. The sensible heat of the feed
at a basis of 25 C is calculated below.
H B =mC p T
HD = 0
Now all the parameters have been found the heat required can now be calculated.
QB = Q C + H D + H B H F
QB = 576000000 + 0 + 1743236- 64737568= 513005668 kj/hr
=142501 kW
Heat losses may occur. Therefore add 10% for heat losses:
QB =1.10 142501 = 156761 kW/ 564306234 KJ/hr
It is assumed that the steam which is supplied to the reboiler is at 4 bar (200 kN/m 2)
at a temperature of approximately 190C. The latent heat of steam is therefore
[63]
2144.4 kj/kg.
QB =S h fg
Where:
QB 564306234
S= = =263153.4 kg/hr
h fg 2144.4
= 73.09 kg/s
The temperature of the bottom product is 187 C (371.807 K). Superheated steam
of 220 C is used.
T Lm =220187=33 C
We are aware that Q=UAT. This can be rearranged to obtain the area. This is
shown below:
Q
A=
U T
From the above assumptions and specification it can be seen that U is assumed to
be 1600 W/m2 C.
Therefore;
513005668 1000
=2698m2
1600 33 3600
A
Nt=
d o L Equation 28: Number of tubes
Where:
2698
Nt= =5725
30
(
1000 )
5
Square pitch of 1.25do
Therefore pitch (Pt) = 1.5 x 30 = 45 mm
Where:
K1 and n1: Constants = assumed a square pitch with 2 passes (The constants are
shown in table 5)
1 /2.291
5725
D b=30 ( 0.156 ) =2948 mm=2.948 m
D s=2 2.948=5.896 m
This section will focus on the mechanical design of the distillation column. The
detailed mechanical design of processing equipment will not be usually carried out
by chemical engineers. It is usually mechanical engineers who are responsible for
this. However, in this section of the report certain aspects of the mechanical design
will be investigated including; shell thickness, skirt design and weight of plates.
In order to carry out the mechanical design certain assumptions and specifications
have to be stated. They are as follows:
Pi D i
e= [65]
2 f Pi Equation 29: Minimum Shell Thickness
Where:
0. 44 9.7 103
e= =14.24 mm According to Coulson and Richardson Volume 6 a
2 1500. 44
corrosion allowance of 2mm should be used. Therefore, the column thickness will
be:
e=14.24+ 2=16.24 mm
From the calculated wall thickness it can be seen that thickness is too small to
withstand the pressure of the column. It is important that the thickness of any
vessel is strong enough to withstand its own weight and any incidental loads. The
table below gives an indication of wall thicknesses of any vessel. The thickness
should not be less than the values stated in the table.
From table 6 it can be seen that with a vessel diameter of 1 to 2m the minimum
thickness should be 7mm. The diameter of this distillation column been calculated
and found to be 1.693m so it is important that the minimum thickness is 7mm.