Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Acute Triangle: A triangle for which all interior angles are acute.
Addition Rule: Sum Rule for Probability: A method for finding the probability that
either or both of two events occurs.
Additive Inverse of a Matrix: The matrix obtained by changing the sign of every
matrix element. The additive inverse of matrix A is written A.
Note: The sum of a matrix and its additive inverse is the zero matrix.
Additive Inverse of a Number: The opposite of a number. For example, the additive
inverse of 12 is 12. The additive inverse of 3 is 3. Formally, the additive inverse of
x is x.
Additive Inverse of a Number: The opposite of a number. For example, the additive
inverse of 12 is 12. The additive inverse of 3 is 3. Formally, the additive inverse of
x is x.
Note: The sum of a number and its additive inverse is 0.
Additive Property of Equality: The formal name for the property of equality that
allows one to add the same quantity to both sides of an equation. This, along with
the multiplicative property of equality, is one of the most commonly used properties
for solving equations.
Adjacent Angles: Two angles in a plane which share a common vertex and a
common side but do not overlap. Angles 1 and 2 below are adjacent angles.
Adjoint: The matrix formed by taking the transpose of the cofactor matrix of a given
original matrix.
Affine Transformation: A transformation which involves any combination of
translations, reflections, stretches, shrinks, or rotations.
Aleph Null: The symbol 0 (aleph with a subscript of 0). Refers to the cardinality of a
countably infinite set.
Algebraic Numbers: Real numbers that can occur as roots of polynomial equations
that have integer coefficients.
Altitude: The shortest distance between the base of a geometric figure and its top,
whether that top is an opposite vertex, an apex, or another base.
Altitude of a Cone: The distance from the apex of a cone to the base. Formally, the
shortest line segment between the apex of a cone and the (possibly extended)
base. Altitude also refers to the length of this segment.
Altitude of a Cylinder: The distance between the bases of a cylinder. Formally, the
shortest line segment between the (possibly extended) bases. Altitude also refers to
the length of this segment.
Altitude of a Parallelogram: The distance between opposite sides of a parallelogram.
Formally, the shortest line segment between opposite sides. Altitude also refers to
the length of this segment.
Altitude of a Prism: The distance between the two bases of a prism. Formally, the
shortest line segment between the (possibly extended) bases. Altitude also refers to
the length of this segment.
Altitude of a Pyramid: The distance from the apex to the base of a pyramid.
Formally, the shortest line segment between the apex of a pyramid and the
(possibly extended) base. Altitude also refers to the length of this segment.
Amplitude: Half the difference between the minimum and maximum values of the
range. Only periodic functions with a bounded range have an amplitude. Essentially,
amplitude is the radius of the range.
Analytic Geometry: The study of geometric figures using the coordinate plane or
coordinates in space.
Analytic Methods: The use of algebraic and/or numeric methods as the main
technique for solving a math problem. The instructions "solve using analytic
methods" and "solve analytically" usually mean that no calculator is allowed.
Angle: Two rays sharing a common endpoint. Angles are typically measured in
degrees or radians.
Angle Bisector: A line or ray that divides an angle in half. For polygons, an angle
bisector is a line that bisects an interior angle.
Angle of Depression: The angle below horizontal that an observer must look to see
an object that is lower than the observer.
Note: The angle of depression is congruent to the angle of elevation (this assumes
the object is close enough to the observer so that the horizontals for the observer
and the object are effectively parallel; this would not be the case for an astronaut in
orbit around the earth observing an object on the ground).
Angle of Inclination of a Line: The angle between a line and the x-axis. This angle is
always between 0 and 180, and is measured counterclockwise from the part of
the x-axis to the right of the line.
Annulus: The region between two concentric circles which have different radii.
Antipodal Points: Two points directly opposite each other on a sphere. That is, two
points on opposite ends of a sphere's diameter.
Note: For a sphere, antipodal means the same thing as diametrically opposed.
Apothem: The line segment from the center of a regular polygon to the midpoint of
a side, or the length of this segment. Same as the inradius; that is, the radius of a
regular polygon's inscribed circle.
Approximation by Differentials: A method for approximating the value of a function
near a known value. The method uses the tangent line at the known value of the
function to approximate the function's graph.
Arc Length of a Curve: The length of a curve or line. The length of an arc can be
found by one of the formulas below for any differentiable curve defined by
rectangular, polar, or parametric equations.
Area of a Convex Polygon: The coordinates (x1, y1), (x2, y2), (x3, y3), . . . , (xn, yn)
of a convex polygon are arranged in the "determinant" below. The coordinates must
be taken in counterclockwise order around the polygon, beginning and ending at the
same point.
Area of a Kite: The area of a kite is half the product of the diagonals.
Arm of a Right Triangle: Either of the sides in a right triangle opposite an acute
angle. The legs are the two shorter sides of the triangle.
Asymptote: A line or curve that the graph of a relation approaches more and more
closely the further the graph is followed.
Augmented Matrix: A matrix form of a linear system of equations obtained from the
coefficient matrix as shown below. It is created by adding an additional column for
the constants on the right of the equal signs. The new column is set apart by a
vertical line.
Average: This almost always refers to the arithmetic mean. In general, however, the
average could be any single number that represents the center of a set of values.
Average Rate of Change: The change in the value of a quantity divided by the
elapsed time. For a function, this is the change in the y-value divided by the change
in the x-value for two distinct points on the graph.
Average Value of a Function: The average height of the graph of a function. For y =
f(x) over the domain [a, b], the formula for average value is given below.
Axis of Rotation: A line about which a plane figure is rotated in three dimensional
space to create a solid or surface.
Axis of Symmetry: A line of symmetry for a graph. The two sides of a graph on
either side of the axis of symmetry look like mirror images of each other.
Axis of Symmetry of a Parabola: line passing through the focus and vertex of a
parabola. The axis of symmetry is perpendicular to the directrix.
Absolute zero: lowest possible temperature at which gas would have a zero volume.
Absorption spectrum: spectrum of electromagnetic radiation absorbed by matter
when radiation of all frequencies is passed through it.
Acceleration: change in velocity divided by time interval over which it occurred.
Achromatic lens: lens for which all light colors have the same focal length.
Amorphous solid: solids that have no long- range order; no crystal structure.
Ampere: unit of electric current; one ampere is the flow of one coulomb of charge
per second.
Amplitude: in any periodic motion, the maximum displacement from equilibrium.
Annihilation: process in which a particle and its antiparticle are converted into
energy.
Antenna: device used to receive or transmit electromagnetic waves.
Archimedes principle: object immersed in a fluid has an upward force equal to the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object.
Atomic mass unit: unit of mass equal to 1/12 the atomic mass of carbon- 12
nucleus.
Atomic number: number of protons in the nucleus of the atom.
Base: In plane geometry or solid geometry, the bottom of a figure. If the top
is parallel to the bottom (as in a trapezoid or prism), both the top and bottom are
called bases.
Base of an Isosceles Triangle: The side that is not a leg. That is, the non-
congruent side of the triangle.
Bearing: Two similar ways of indicating direction. On the left below is a kind of
bearing which uses compass points. The bearing S34E means the direction is 34
away from due south directed towards the east. The other way, on the right below,
measures the angle clockwise from due north.
Iff if and only if/ Biconditional: A way of writing two conditionals at once: both a
conditional and its converse.
Binomial: A polynomial with two terms which are not like terms. The following are all
binomials: 2x 3, 3x5 +8x4, and 2ab 6a2b5.
Binomial Coefficients: Numbers written in any of the ways shown below. Each
notation is read aloud "n choose r."
Bisector: A line segment, line, or plane that divides a geometric figure into two
congruent halves.
Bounded Function: A function with a range that is a bounded set. The range must
have both an upper bound and a lower bound.
Bounded Sequence: A sequence with terms that have an upper bound and a lower
bound.
Bounded Set of Numbers: A set of numbers with both an upper bound and a lower
bound.
Bounds of Integration/Limits of Integration: For the definite integral , the bounds (or
limits) of integration are a and b.
Box-and-Whisker Plot: A visual display of the five number summary. The box-and-
whisker plot is a simplified boxplot taught to beginners . It does not show outliers.
The whiskers extending all the way to the minimum and maximum values
regardless of how far out they may be.
Boxplot Modified Boxplot: A data display that shows the five-number summary. The
whiskers, stretching outward from the first quartile and third quartile as shown
below, are no longer than 1.5 times the interquartile range (IQR). Outliers beyond
that are marked separately.
Note: Beginners are sometimes taught to draw box-and-whisker plots, which do not
show outliers. Modified boxplot is a name sometimes used for boxplots to
distinguish them from box-and-whisker plots.
Braces Set Braces: The symbols { and } which are used to indicate sets.
Bernoullis principle: when a fixed quantity of fluid flows, the pressure is decreased
when the flow velocity increases.
Beta decay: radioactive decay process in which an electron or positron and neutrino
is emitted from a nucleus.
Beta particle: high speed electron emitted by a radioactive nucleus in beta decay.
Cardinality of a Set: The number of elements in a set., whether the set is finite or
infinite.
Catenary: The curve naturally formed by a slack rope or wire hanging between two
fixed points. A catenary is NOT a parabola, even though it looks like one.
Cavalieris Principle: A method, with formula given below, of finding the volume of
any solid for which cross-sections by parallel planes have equal areas. This includes,
but is not limited to, cylinders and prisms.
Center of Mass Formula: The coordinates of the center of mass of a plane figure are
given by the formulas below. The formulas only apply for figures of uniform
(constant) density.
Center of Rotation: In a rotation, the point that does not move. The rest of the plane
rotates around this one fixed point.
Centers of a Triangle: The main centers of a triangle are listed in the table below
along with selected properties.
Centroid: For a triangle, this is the point at which the three medians intersect. In
general, the centroid is the center of mass of a figure of uniform (constant) density.
Ceva's Theorem: A theorem relating the way three concurrent cevians of a triangle
divide the triangle's three sides.
Cevian: A line segment, ray, or line that extends from a vertex of a triangle to the
opposite side (which may be extended). Medians, altitudes, and angle bisectors are
all examples of cevians.
Change of Base Formula: A formula that allows you to rewrite a logarithm in terms
of logs written with another base. This is especially helpful when using a calculator
to evaluate a log to any base other than 10 or e.
Check a Solution/ Verify a Solution: The process of making sure a solution is correct
by making sure it satisfies any and all equations and/or inequalities in a problem.
Chord: A line segment on the interior of a circle. A chord has both endpoints on the
circle.
Circle: The locus of all points that are a fixed distance from a given point.
Circle Trig Definitions: A set of definitions of the six trig functions: sine, cosine,
tangent, cosecant, secant, and cotangent.
Circular Functions/ Trig Functions: The six functions sine, cosine, tangent, cosecant,
secant, and cotangent. These functions can be defined several different ways.
These include SOHCAHTOA definitions, circle definitions (below), and unit circle
definitions.
Note: All triangles have circumcircles and so do all regular polygons. Most other
polygons do not.
Cis: A complex-valued function made from sine and cosine with definition cis =
cos + isin .
Cofactor Matrix/Matrix of Cofactors: A matrix with elements that are the cofactors,
term-by-term, of a given square matrix.
Co-function Identities: Trig identities showing the relationship between sine and
cosine, tangent and cotangent, and secant and cosecant. The value of a trig
function of an angle equals the value of the cofunction of the complement of the
angle.
Coincident: Identical, one superimposed on the other. That is, two or more
geometric figures that share all points. For example, two coincident lines would look
like one line since one is on top of the other.
Common Logarithm: The logarithm base 10 of a number. That is, the power of 10
necessary to equal a given number. The common logarithm of x is written log x.
Common Ratio: For a geometric sequence or geometric series, the common ratio is
the ratio of a term to the previous term. This ratio is usually indicated by the
variable r.
Compatible Matrices: Two matrices with dimensions arranged so that they may be
multiplied. The number of columns of the first matrix must equal the number of
rows of the second.
Complement of a Set: The elements not contained in a given set. The complement
of set A is indicated by AC.
Complementary Angles: Two acute angles that add up to 90. For example, 40 and
50 are complementary. In the diagram below, angles 1 and 2 are complementary.
Note: Complex conjugates are similar to, but not the same as, conjugates.
Complex Number Formulas: Algebra rules and formulas for complex numbers are
listed below.
Note: All real numbers and all pure imaginary numbers are complex. Sometimes,
however, mathematicians use the phrase complex numbers to refer strictly to
numbers which have both nonzero real parts and nonzero imaginary parts.
Composite Number: A positive integer that has factors other than just 1 and the
number itself. For example, 4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, etc. are all composite numbers. The
number 1 is not composite.
Note: Composition is not commutative. That is, (f g)(x) is usually different from (g
f)(x). The example below illustrates this.
Compound Inequality: Two or more inequalities taken together. Often this refers to a
connected chain of inequalities, such as 3 < x < 5. Formally, a compound inequality
is a conjunction of two or more inequalities.
Note: This same formula can be used for exponential growth and exponential decay
Note: Some high school textbooks erroneously use the word dilation to refer to all
transformations in which the figure changes size, whether the figure becomes larger
or smaller. Compression (or contraction) refers to transformations in which the
figure becomes smaller. Dilation properly refers only to transformations in which the
figure grows larger. Unfortunately the English language has no word that refers
collectively to both stretching and shrinking.
Note: The common factor is less than 1 for a contraction. When the common factor
is greater than 1 the transformation is called a dilation.
Compute: To figure out or evaluate. For example, "compute 2 + 3" means to figure
out that the answer is 5.
Concave Down: A graph or part of a graph which looks like an upside-down bowl or
part of an upside-down bowl.
Concave Up: A graph or part of a graph which looks like a right-side up bowl or part
of an right-side up bowl.
Conditional: An "If . . . then . . ." statement. For example, "If it is raining, then the
grass is wet."
Conditional Convergence: Describes a series that converges but does not converge
absolutely. That is, a convergent series that will become a divergent series if all
negative terms are made positive.
Conditional Equation: An equation that is true for some value(s) of the variable(s)
and not true for others.
Conditional Inequality: An inequality that is true for some value(s) of the variable(s)
and not true for others.
Cone: A three dimensional figure with a single base tapering to an apex. The base
can be any simple closed curve. Often the word cone refers to a right circular cone.
Cone Angle: The angle remaining in a sheet of paper after a sector has been cut out
so that the paper can be rolled into a right circular cone.
Congruent: Exactly equal in size and shape. Congruent sides or segments have the
exact same length. Congruent angles have the exact same measure. For any set of
congruent geometric figures, corresponding sides, angles, faces, etc. are congruent.
Conic Sections: The family of curves including circles, ellipses, parabolas, and
hyperbolas. All of these geometric figures may be obtained by the intersection a
double cone with a plane, hence the name conic section. All conic sections have
equations of the form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
Note: Conjugates are similar to, but not the same as, complex conjugates.
Conjugate Pair Theorem: An assertion about the complex zeros of any polynomial
which has real numbers as coefficients.
Conjunction: A statement which connects two words or statements using the word
and. For example, "peas and carrots" is a conjunction.
Consecutive Interior Angles: In the figure below, angles 4 and 6 are consecutive
interior angles. So are angles 3 and 5. Consecutive interior angles are
supplementary. Formally, consecutive interior angles may be defined as two interior
angles lying on the same side of the transversal cutting across two parallel lines.
Continued Sum/ Sigma Notation: A notation using the Greek letter sigma () that
allows a long sum to be written compactly.
Note: This same formula can be used for exponential growth and exponential decay.
Note: As in the example, the contrapositive of any true proposition is also true.
Note: Some high school textbooks erroneously use the word dilation to refer to all
transformations in which the figure changes size, whether the figure becomes larger
or smaller. Compression (or contraction) refers to transformations in which the
figure becomes smaller. Dilation properly refers only to transformations in which the
figure grows larger. Unfortunately the English language has no word that refers
collectively to both stretching and shrinking.
Contraction of a Geometric Figure/ Compression of a Geometric Figure: A
transformation in which all distances are shortened by a common factor. This is
done by contracting all points toward some fixed point P.
Note: The common factor is less than 1 for a contraction. When the common factor
is greater than 1 the transformation is called a dilation.
Converge: To approach a finite limit. There are convergent limits, convergent series,
convergent sequences, and convergent improper integrals.
Convergent Sequence: A sequence with a limit that is a real number. For example,
the sequence 2.1, 2.01, 2.001, 2.0001, . . . has limit 2, so the sequence converges
to 2. On the other hand, the sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, . . . has a limit of infinity ().
This is not a real number, so the sequence does not converge. It is a divergent
sequence.
Convergent Series: An infinite series for which the sequence of partial sums
converges. For example, the sequence of partial sums of the series 0.9 + 0.09 +
0.009 + 0.0009 + is 0.9, 0.99, 0.999, 0.9999, .... This sequence converges to 1,
so the series 0.9 + 0.09 + 0.009 + 0.0009 + is convergent.
Coordinate Geometry/ Analytic Geometry: The study of geometric figures using the
coordinate plane or coordinates in space. Formulas from analytic geometry include
the distance formula, midpoint formula, point of division formula, centroid formula,
area of a convex polygon.
Coordinate Plane/ Cartesian Plane: The plane formed by a horizontal axis and a
vertical axis, often labeled the x-axis and y-axis, respectively.
Coplanar: Lying in the same plane. For example, any set of three points in space are
coplanar.
Corollary: A special case of a more general theorem which is worth noting
separately. For example, the Pythagorean theorem is a corollary of the law of
cosines.
Correlation: The degree to which two variables are associated. For example, height
and weight have a moderately strong positive correlation.
Corresponding: Two features that are situated the same way in different objects.
Cosine/cos: The trig function cosine, which is written cos . For acute angles, cos
can be found by the SOHCAHTOA definition, shown below on the left. The circle
definition, a generalization of SOHCAHTOA, is shown below on the right. f(x) = cos x
is a periodic function with period 2.
Cotangent/ cot/ctg
The trig function cotangent, written cot . cot equals or . For acute angles, cot
can be found by the SOHCAHTOA definition, shown below on the left. The circle
definition, a generalization of SOHCAHTOA, is shown below on the right. f(x) = cot x
is a periodic function with period .
cot-1/ctg-1/Cot-1/Ctg-1/arccot/arcctg/ArccotArcctg
Co-terminal Angles: Angles which, drawn in standard position, share a terminal side.
For example, 60, -300, and 780 are all co-terminal.
Countable: Describes the cardinality of a countably infinite set. Aleph null (0) is the
symbol for this.
Countably Infinite: Describes a set which contains the same number of elements as
the set of natural numbers. Formally, a countably infinite set can have its elements
put into one-to-one correspondence with the set of natural numbers.
Note: The symbol aleph null (0) stands for the cardinality of a countably infinite
set.
Critical Point: A point (x, y) on the graph of a function at which the derivative is
either 0 or undefined. A critical point will often be a minimum or maximum, but it
may be neither.
Note: Finding critical points is an important step in the process of curve sketching.
Cross Product: A way of multiplying two vectors, written u v, in which the product
is another vector. The cross product of two vectors results in a vector which is
orthogonal to both the vectors being multiplied. The magnitude of the cross product
of two vectors is found by the formula |u v| = |u| |v| sin , where is the smaller
angle between the vectors.
Note: Cross products are not commutative. That is, u v v u. The vectors u v
and v u have the same magnitude but point in opposite directions.
Cube/Regular Hexahedron: A regular polyhedron for which all faces are squares.
Cube Root: A number that must be multiplied times itself three times to equal a
given number. The cube root of x is written or x^1/3.
Curve: A word used to indicate any path, whether actually curved or straight, closed
or open. A curve can be on a plane or in three-dimensional space (or n-dimensional
space, for that matter). Lines, circles, arcs, parabolas, polygons, and helixes are all
types of curves.
Note: Typically curves are thought of as the set of all geometric figures that can be
parametrized using a single parameter. This is not in fact accurate, but it is a useful
way to conceptualize curves. The exceptions to this rule require some cleverness, or
at least some exposure to space-filling curves.
Curve Sketching: The process of using the first derivative and second derivative to
graph a function or relation. As a result the coordinates of all discontinuities,
extrema, and inflection points can be accurately plotted.
Note: Cusps are points at which functions and relations are not differentiable.
Cycloid: The path traced by a point on a wheel as the wheel rolls, without slipping,
along a flat surface. The standard parametrization is x = a(t sin t), y = a(1 cos t),
where a is the radius of the wheel.
Cylindrical Shell Method/ Shell Method: A technique for finding the volume of a solid
of revolution.
Capacitor: electrical device used to store charge and energy in the electrical field.
Chain reaction: nuclear reaction in which neutrons are produced that can cause
further reactions.
Charged: object that has an unbalance of positive and negative electrical charges.
Clock reading: time between event and a reference time, usually zero.
Closed, isolated system: collection of objects such that neither matter nor energy
can enter or leave
the collection.
Closed-pipe resonator: cylindrical tube with one end closed and a sound source at
other end.
Coefficient of friction: ratio of frictional force and the normal force between two
forces.
Complementary color: two colors that, when added, produce white light. Two
pigments, that when combined, produce black.
Concave mirror: converging mirror, one with center of curvature on reflecting side
of mirror.
Conduction band: energies of charge carries in a solid such that the carries are free
to move.
Conductor: materials through which charged particles move readily; or heat flow
readily.
Conserved properties: property that is the same before and after an interaction.
Consonance: two or more sounds that, when heard together, sound pleasant.
Converging lens: lens that causes light rays to converge; usually a convex lens.
Coulomb: unit of electrical charge. Charge caused by flow of one ampere for one
second.
Critical angle: minimum angle of incidence that produces total internal reflection.
D
De Moivres Theorem: A formula useful for finding powers and roots of complex
numbers.
Degenerate Conic Sections: Plane figures that can be obtained by the intersection of
a double cone with a plane passing through the apex. These include a point, a line,
and intersecting lines. Like other conic sections, all degenerate conic sections have
equations of the form Ax2 + Bxy + Cy2 + Dx + Ey + F = 0.
Degree: A unit of angle measure equal to of a complete revolution. There are 360
degrees in a circle. Degrees are indicated by the symbol, so 35 means 35
degrees.
Degree of a Term: For a term with one variable, the degree is the variable's
exponent. With more than one variable, the degree is the sum of the exponents of
the variables.
Deleted Neighborhood: The proper name for a set such as {x: 0 < |x a| < }.
Deleted neighborhoods are encountered in the study of limits. It is the set of all
numbers less than units away from a, omitting the number a itself.
Dependent Variable: A variable that depends on one or more other variables. For
equations such as y = 3x 2, the dependent variable is y. The value of y depends
on the value chosen for x. Usually the dependent variable is isolated on one side of
an equation. Formally, a dependent variable is a variable in an expression, equation,
or function that has its value determined by the choice of value(s) of other
variable(s).
Derivative: A function which gives the slope of a curve; that is, the slope of the line
tangent to a function. The derivative of a function f at a point x is commonly written
f '(x). For example, if f(x) = x3 then f '(x) = 3x2. The slope of the tangent line when
x = 5 is f '(x) = 352 = 75.
Note: Although a determinant looks like an absolute value it is not. The determinant
of a matrix may be negative or positive.
Diagonal Matrix: A square matrix which has zeros everywhere other than the main
diagonal. Entries on the main diagonal may be any number, including 0.
Diameter of a Circle or Sphere: A line segment between two points on the circle or
sphere which passes through the center. The word diameter is also also refers to the
length of this line segment.
This formula computes the slope of the secant line through two points on the graph
of f. These are the points with x-coordinates x and x + h. The difference quotient is
used in the definition the derivative.
Note: When the common factor is less than 1 the transformation is called a
compression.
Dimensions: On the most basic level, this term refers to the measurements
describing the size of an object. For example, length and width are the dimensions
of a rectangle.
Dimensions of a Matrix: The number of rows and columns of a matrix, written in the
form rowscolumns. The matrix below has 2 rows and 3 columns, so its dimensions
are 23. This is read aloud, "two by three."
Directrices of a Hyperbola: Two parallel lines which are perpendicular to the major
axis of a hyperbola. The directrices are between the two parts of a hyperbola and
can be used to define it as follows: A hyperbola is the locus of points such that the
ratio of the distance to the nearer focus to the distance to the nearer directrix
equals a constant that is greater than one. This constant is the eccentricity.
Disjunction: A statement which connects two other statements using the word or.
Disk Method: A technique for finding the volume of a solid of revolution. This
method is a specific case of volume by parallel cross-sections.
Distance Formula: The formula is the distance between points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2).
Distance from a Point to a Line: The length of the shortest segment from a given
point to a given line. A formula is given below.
Distributing Rules: Algebra rules for distributing expressions. See factoring rules as
well.
Diverge: To fail to approach a finite limit. There are divergent limits, divergent
series, divergent sequences, and divergent improper integrals.
Divergent Sequence: A sequence that does not converge. For example, the
sequence 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ... diverges since its limit is infinity (). The limit of a
convergent sequence must be a real number.
Divergent Series: A series that does not converge. For example, the series 1 + 2 + 3
+ 4 + 5 + diverges. Its sequence of partial sums 1, 1 + 2, 1 + 2 + 3 , 1 + 2 + 3 +
4 , 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5, ... diverges.
Domain: The set of values of the independent variable(s) for which a function or
relation is defined. Typically, this is the set of x-values that give rise to real y-values.
Double Angle Identities/Double Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to
find the sine, cosine, or tangent of twice a given angle.
Double Cone: A geometric figure made up of two right circular cones placed apex to
apex as shown below. Typically a double cone is considered to extend infinitely far in
both directions, especially when working with conic sections and degenerate conic
sections.
Double Angle Identities/Double Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to
find the sine, cosine, or tangent of twice a given angle.
Double Root: A root of a polynomial equation with multiplicity 2. Also refers to a zero
of a polynomial function with multiplicity 2.
Doubling Time: For a substance growing exponentially, the time it takes for the
amount of the substance to double.
Diffraction grating: material containing many parallel lines very closely spaced that
produces a light spectrum by interference.
Diverging lens: lens that causes light rays to spread apart or diverge; usually a
concave lens.
Doppler shift: change in wavelength due to relative motion of source and detector.
Echelon Form of a Matrix/ Row-Echelon Form of a Matrix: A matrix form used when
solving linear systems of equations.
Element of a Set: A number, letter, point, line, or any other object contained in a
set.
Empty Set/Null Set: The set with no elements. The empty set can be written or {}.
Equation of a Line: The various common forms for the equation of a line are listed
below. In all forms, slope is represented by m, the x-intercept by a, and the y-
intercept by b.
Equidistant: Equally distant. For example, any two points on a circle are equidistant
from the center.
Equivalence Relation: Any relation that satisfies the reflexive, symmetric, and
transitive properties. For example, modular equivalence is an equivalence relation.
So is cardinality of a set.
Equivalent Systems of Equations: Systems of equations that have the same solution
set.
Essential Discontinuity: Any discontinuity that is not removable. That is, a place
where a graph is not connected and cannot be made connected simply by filling in a
single point. Step discontinuities and vertical asymptotes are two types of essential
discontinuities.
Euclidean Geometry: The main area of study in high school geometry. This is the
geometry of axioms, theorems, and two-column proofs. It includes the study of
points, lines, triangles, quadrilaterals, other polygons, circles, spheres, prisms,
pyramids, cones, cylinders, etc.
Euler Line: The line segment that passes through a triangles orthocenter, centroid,
and circumcenter. These three points are collinear for any triangle. In addition, the
distance from the orthocenter to the centroid is twice the distance from the
circumcenter to the centroid.
Euler's Formula (Polyhedra): This formula is true for all convex polyhedra as well as
many types of concave polyhedra.
Evaluate: To figure out or compute. For example, "evaluate " means to figure out
that the expression simplifies to 17.
Even Function: A function with a graph that is symmetric with respect to the y-axis.
A function is even if and only if f(x) = f(x).
Exact Values of Trig Functions: Certain angles have trig values that may be
computed exactly. Of these, the angles listed below are some of the angles most
commonly used in math classes.
Exclusive: Excluding the endpoints of an interval. For example, "the interval from 1
to 2, exclusive" means the open interval written either (1, 2).
Exclusive or: A disjunction for which either statement may be true but not both.
Exponent Rules: Algebra rules and formulas for exponents are listed below.
Exponential Decay: A model for decay of a quantity for which the rate of decay is
directly proportional to the amount present. The equation for the model is A = A0bt
(where 0 < b < 1 ) or A = A0ekt (where k is a negative number representing the
rate of decay). In both formulas A0 is the original amount present at time t = 0.
Exponential Function/ Exponential Model: A function of the form y = abx where a >
0 and either 0 < b < 1 or b > 1. The variables do not have to be x and y. For
example, A = 3.2(1.02)t is an exponential function.
Exponential Growth: A model for growth of a quantity for which the rate of growth is
directly proportional to the amount present. The equation for the model is A = A0bt
(where b > 1 ) or A = A0ekt (where k is a positive number representing the rate of
growth). In both formulas A0 is the original amount present at time t = 0.
Exterior Angle of a Polygon: An angle between one side of a polygon and the
extension of an adjacent side.
Extremum: An extreme value of a function. In other words, the minima and maxima
of a function. Extrema may be either relative (local) or absolute (global).
Effective current: DC current that would produce the same heating effects.
Effective voltage: DC potential difference that would produce the same heating
effects.
Elastic collision: interaction between two objects in which the total energy is the
same before and after the interaction.
Elasticity: ability of object to original shape after deforming forces are removed.
Electrical charge pump: device, often a battery or generator, that increase potential
of electrical charge.
Electrical circuit: continuous path through which electrical charges can flow.
Electrical field: property of space around a charged object that causes forces on
other charged objects.
Electric field strength: ratio of force exerted by field on a tiny test charge to that
change.
Electron: subatomic particle of small mass and negative charge found in every
atom.
Equilibrium: condition in which net force is equal to zero. Condition in which net
torque on object is zero.
Factor of an Integer: Any integer which divides evenly into a given integer. For
example, 8 is a factor of 24.
Factor Theorem: The theorem that establishes the connection between the zeros
and factors of a polynomial
Factor Tree: A structure used to find the prime factorization of a positive integer.
Factorial: The product of a given integer and all smaller positive integers. The
factorial of n is written n! and is read aloud "n factorial".
Falling Bodies: A formula used to model the vertical motion of an object that is
dropped, thrown straight up, or thrown straight down.
Finite: Describes a set which does not have an infinite number of elements. That is,
a set which can have its elements counted using natural numbers.
Foci of a Hyperbola: Two fixed points located inside each curve of a hyperbola that
are used in the curve's formal definition. A hyperbola is defined as follows: For two
given points, the foci, a hyperbola is the locus of points such that the difference
between the distance to each focus is constant.
Focus (conic section): A special point used to construct and define a conic section. A
parabola has one focus. An ellipse has two, and so does a hyperbola. A circle can be
thought of as having one focus at its center.
FOIL Method: A technique for distributing two binomials. The letters FOIL stand for
First, Outer, Inner, Last. First means multiply the terms which occur first in each
binomial. Then Outer means multiply the outermost terms in the product. Inner
means multiply the innermost two terms. Last means multiply the terms which
occur last in each binomial. Then simplify the products and combine any like terms
which may occur.
Fractal: A figure that is self-similar. That is, no matter how far you zoom in on the
figure, the portion you look at is similar to the original figure. The Koch edge, below,
is a fractal.
Fraction Rules: Algebra rules for combining fractions. These rules apply for both
proper fractions and improper fractions. They apply for all rational expressions as
well.
First Derivative: Same as the derivative. We say first derivative instead of just
derivative whenever there may be confusion between the first derivative and the
second derivative (or the nth derivative).
First Order Differential Equation: An ordinary differential equation of order 1. That is,
a differential equation in which the highest derivative is a first derivative. For
example, y' + xy = 1 is a first order differential equation.
First Quartile: For a set of data, a number for which 25% of the data is less than that
number. The first quartile is the same as the median of the data which are less than
the overall median. Same as the 25th percentile.
Five Number Summary: For a set of data, the minimum, first quartile, median, third
quartile, and maximum.
Fixed
Floor Function: A step function of x which is the greatest integer less than or equal
to x. The floor function is written a number of different ways: with special brackets
or , or by using either boldface brackets [x] or plain brackets [x].
Focal point: location at which rays parallel to the optical axis of an ideal mirror or
lens converge to a point.
Fraunhofer lines: absorption lines in the suns spectrum due to gases in the solar
atmosphere.
Fundamental particles: those particles( i.e. quarks and leptons) of which all
materials are composed.
Fuse: metal safety device in an electric circuit that melts to stop current flow when
current is too large.
Gaussian Integer: A complex number of the form a + bi for which both a and b are
integers. For example, 2 + 3i, 8 7i, 5, and 12i are all Gaussian integers.
Greatest Common Factor: The largest integer that divides evenly into each of a
given set of numbers. Often abbreviated GCF or gcf. For example, 6 is the gcf of 30
and 18. Sometimes GCF is written using parentheses: (30, 18) = 6.
General Form for the Equation of a Line: Ax + By = C, where A > 0 and, if possible,
A, B, and C are relatively prime integers. The standard form is used in some algebra
classes for practice in manipulating equations. Otherwise it is used far less often
than other forms for the equation of a line.
Geometric Figure: Any point, line, segment, ray, angle, polygon, curve, region,
plane, surface, solid, etc. Formally, a geometric figure is any set of points on a plane
or in space.
Geometric Solid: The collective term for all bounded three-dimensional geometric
figures. This includes polyhedra, pyramids, prisms, cylinders, cones, spheres,
ellipsoids, etc.
Geometry: The study of geometric figures in two dimensions (plane geometry) and
three dimensions (solid geometry). It includes the study of points, lines, triangles,
quadrilaterals, other polygons, circles, spheres, prisms, pyramids, cones, cylinders,
and polyhedra. Geometry typically includes the study of axioms, theorems, and two-
column proofs.
Greatest Lower Bound of a Set: GLB. The greatest of all lower bounds of a set of
numbers. For example, the greatest lower bound of (5, 7) is 5. The greatest lower
bound of the interval [5, 7] is also 5.
Global Maximum, Global Max: The highest point over the entire domain of a function
or relation.
Global Minimum, Global Min: The lowest point over the entire domain of a function
or relation.
Golden Ratio: The number, or about 1.61803. The Golden Mean arises in many
settings, particularly in connection with the Fibonacci sequence.
Note: The reciprocal of the Golden Mean is about 0.61803, so the Golden Mean
equals its reciprocal plus one. It is also a root of x2 x 1 = 0.
Golden Rectangle: A rectangle which has its ratio of length to width equal to the
Golden Mean. This is supposedly the rectangle which is most pleasing to the eye.
Golden Spiral: A spiral that can be drawn in a golden rectangle as shown below. The
figure forming the structure for the spiral is made up entirely of squares and golden
rectangles.
Googol: The number 10100. This number can be written as a 1 followed by 100
zeros.
Graphic Methods: The use of graphs and/or pictures as the main technique for
solving a math problem. When a problem is solved graphically, it is common to use
a graphing calculator.
Gravity: The force which pulls masses towards each other. In high school math, we
see this most often as the force which pulls objects downwards.
Note: The force of gravity between two objects is jointly proportional to the mass of
each object and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their
centers of mass.
Great Circle: A circle on the surface of the sphere that shares its center with the
center of the sphere. An arc of such a circle is often called a great circle, even
though it is not a full circle.
Greatest Integer Function: A step function of x which is the greatest integer less
than or equal to x. The floor function is written a number of different ways: with
special brackets or , or by using either boldface brackets [x] or plain brackets [x].
Greatest Lower Bound of a Set: The greatest of all lower bounds of a set of numbers.
For example, the greatest lower bound of (5, 7) is 5. The greatest lower bound of
the interval [5, 7] is also 5.
Geiger-Mueller tube: device used to detect radiation using its ability to ionize
matter.
General theory of relativity: explanation of gravity and accelerated motion invented
by Einstein.
Grand unified theories: theories being developed that unify the stronger and
electroweak forces into one force.
Graviton: particle that carries the gravitational force. Not yet observed.
Half Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to find the sine, cosine, or
tangent of half a given angle.
Half-Open Interval: An interval that contains one endpoint but not the other.
Half-Life: For a substance decaying exponentially, the amount of time it takes for
the amount of the substance to diminish by half.
Half Number Identities: Trig identities that show how to find the sine, cosine, or
tangent of half a given angle.
Half-Open Interval: An interval that contains one endpoint but not the other.
Helix: A curve shaped like a spring. A helix can be made by coiling a wire around the
outside of a right circular cylinder.
Heptagon: A polygon with seven sides. Some authors also use the name septagon
instead of heptagon.
Heron's Formula: A formula for the area of a triangle used when the lengths of all
three sides are known.
Hexahedron: Any polyhedron with six faces, all of which are quadrilaterals.
Higher Derivative: Any derivative beyond the first derivative. That is, the second,
third, fourth, fifth etc. derivatives.
Hole: A hole in a graph. That is, a discontinuity that can be "repaired" by filling in a
single point. In other words, a removable discontinuity is a point at which a graph is
not connected but can be made connected by filling in a single point.
Horizontal: Perfectly flat and level. For example, the horizon is horizontal. So is the
floor.
Hypothesis: The part of a conditional after If and before then. In the conditional "If a
line is horizontal, then the line has slope 0" the hypothesis is "a line is horizontal".
Heisenberg uncertainty principle: the more accurately one determines the position
of a particle, the less accurately the momentum can be known, and vice versa.
Icosahedron: A polyhedron with 20 faces. A regular icosahedron has faces that are
all equilateral triangles.
Identity Function: The function f(x) = x. More generally, an identity function is one
which does not change the domain values at all.
Identity Matrix: A square matrix which has a 1 for each element on the main
diagonal and 0 for all other elements.
Identity of an Operation: The quantity which, when combined with another quantity
using an operation, leaves the quantity unchanged.
If and only if/ Biconditional: A way of writing two conditionals at once: both a
conditional and its converse.
Improper Fraction: A fraction which has a larger numerator than denominator. For
example, is an improper fraction.
Improper Integral: A definite integral for which the integrand has a discontinuity
between the bounds of integration, or which has and/or as a bound. Improper
integrals are evaluated using limits as shown below. If the limit exists and is finite,
we say the integral converges. If the limit does not exist or is infinite, we say the
integral diverges.
Incenter: The center a polygons inscribed circle. The incenter is located at the point
of intersection of the polygon's angle bisectors.
Inscribed Circle/ Incircle: The largest possible circle that can be drawn interior to a
plane figure. For a polygon, a circle is not actually inscribed unless each side of the
polygon is tangent to the circle.
Inclusive: Including the endpoints of an interval. For example, "the interval from 1 to
2, inclusive" means the closed interval written [1, 2].
Inclusive or: A disjunction for which either or both statements may be true.
Increasing Function: A function with a graph that goes up as it is followed from left
to right. For example, any line with a positive slope is increasing.
Indefinite Integral: The family of functions that have a given function as a common
derivative. The indefinite integral of f(x) is written f(x) dx.
Independent Events: Events for which the probability of any one event occurring is
unaffected by the occurrence or non-occurrence of any of the other events.
Formally, A and B are independent if and only if P(A|B) = P(A).
Independent Variable: A variable in an equation that may have its value freely
chosen without considering values of any other variable. For equations such as y =
3x 2, the independent variable is x. The variable y is not independent since it
depends on the number chosen for x.
Indirect Proof: Proving a conjecture by assuming that the conjecture is false. If this
assumption leads to a contradiction, the original conjecture must have been true.
This technique employs the logical method known as modus tolens.
Induction: A method for proving a proposition that is valid for infinitely many
different values of a variable. For example, it can be used to prove the formula 1 +
2+3+4+...+n=.
Inequality
Infinite: Describes a set which is not finite. Formally, a set is infinite if it can be
placed in one-to-one correspondence with a proper subset of itself.
Infinite Limit: A limit that has an infinite result (either or ), or a limit taken as
the variable approaches (infinity) or (minus infinity). The limit can be one-
sided.
Infinite Series: A series that has no last term, such as . The sum of an infinite series
is defined as the limit of the sequence of partial sums.
Infinitesimal: A hypothetical number that is larger than zero but smaller than any
positive real number. Although the existence of such numbers makes no sense in
the real number system, many worthwhile results can be obtained by overlooking
this obstacle.
Inner Product/ Scalar Product: The general name for a vector product resulting in a
scalar. The dot product is a simple example.
Inradius: The radius of a plane figure's inscribed circle. For a regular polygon, this is
the same as the apothem.
Inscribed Angle in a Circle: An angle in a circle with vertex on the circle itself.
Inscribed Circle/ Incircle: The largest possible circle that can be drawn interior to a
plane figure. For a polygon, a circle is not actually inscribed unless each side of the
polygon is tangent to the circle.
For a function, the instantaneous rate of change at a point is the same as the slope
of the tangent line. That is, it's the slope of a curve.
Integers: All positive and negative whole numbers (including zero). That is, the set
{... , 3, 2, 1, 0, 1, 2, 3, ...}. Integers are indicated by either or J.
Integrable Function: A function for which the definite integral exists. Piecewise
continuous functions are integrable, and so are many functions that are not
piecewise continuous.
Integration Methods: The basic methods are listed below. Other more advanced
and/or specialized methods exist as well.
Integral Test: A convergence test used for positive series which with decreasing
terms.
Integral Test Remainder: For a series that converges by the integral test, this is a
quantity that measures how accurately the nth partial sum estimates the overall
sum.
Integration Methods: The basic methods are listed below. Other more advanced
and/or specialized methods exist as well.
Interest: The process by which an amount of money increases over time. With
interest, a fixed percentage of the money is added at regular time intervals.
Interquartile Range: IQR. The difference between the first quartile and third quartile
of a set of data. This is one way to describe the spread of a set of data.
Intersection of Sets: The elements two or more sets have in common. Intersection is
indicated by the (cap) symbol.
Interval: The set of all real numbers between two given numbers. The two numbers
on the ends are the endpoints. The endpoints might or might not be included in the
interval depending whether the interval is open, closed, or half-open (same as half-
closed).
Interval of Convergence: For a power series in one variable, the set of values of the
variable for which the series converges. The interval of convergence may be as
small as a single point or as large as the set of all real numbers.
Inverse of an Operation: The quantity which cancels out the a given quantity. There
are different kinds of inverses for different operations.
Inverse of a Matrix: For a square matrix A, the inverse is written A-1. When A is
multiplied by A-1 the result is the identity matrix I. Non-square matrices do not have
inverses.
Inverse Trig: The study of the inverses of the six trig functions.
Inverse Trig Functions: The six functions sin-1, cos-1, tan-1, csc-1, sec-1, and cot-1.
These are also written arcsin, arccos, arctan, arccsc, arcsec, and arccot.
Invertible Matrix: A square matrix which has an inverse. A matrix is nonsingular if
and only if its determinant does not equal zero.
Irrational Numbers: Real numbers that are not rational. Irrational numbers include
numbers such as , , , , e, etc.
Isometry: A transformation that is invariant with respect to distance. That is, the
distance between any two points in the pre-image must be the same as the
distance between the images of the two points.
Isosceles Trapezoid: A trapezoid with base angles that are the same. Consequently,
the legs will be congruent to each other as well.
Isosceles Triangle: A triangle with two sides that are the same length. Formally, an
isosceles triangle is a triangle with at least two congruent sides.
Iterative Process: An algorithm which involves repeated use of the same formula or
steps. Typically, the process begins with a starting value which is plugged into the
formula. The result is then taken as the new starting point which is then plugged
into the formula again. The process continues to repeat.
Incandescent body: object that emits light because of its high temperature.
Index of refraction: ratio of the speed of light in vacuum to its speed in a material.
Inelastic collision: collision in which some of the kinetic energy is changed into
another form.
Insulator: material through which the flow of electrical charge carriers or heat is
greatly reduced.
Interference fringes: pattern of dark and light bands from interference of light
waves.
Ionizing radiation: particles or waves that can remove electrons from atoms,
molecules, or atoms in a
solid.
Isolated system: a collection of objects not acted upon by external forces into which
energy neither
enters nor leaves.
Isotope: atomic nuclei having same number of protons but different numbers of
neutrons.