A First Course in Differential Geometry (CHUAN-CHIHE HSIUNG Lehigh Unters JOHN WILEY & SONS, New York + Chichester « Besbane « Toroato‘Tomy wile Wencin Yu Cory © 18 by da Wy & Son ne ‘ih send: Pale ean in Canad eodscn o aton tay par wrk ‘Sonn pre ty Scan of 1 a he "9h Unt Sa Cope ct wits pera siScenre ee al eg ‘Seeman Deparment oe Wy Sn se er of Come Cai Picen Dae: {Painted maori) shar Geol, Deen Te guanine eae maPreface According to 4 definition sated by Felix Klein in 1872, we can ise [ometni aatormation rp to classy geometry. The study of proper tes of geometric figures (curve, surfaces, etc) that are invariant under a {Gren geometric transformation roup 0 is called the geometry belonging {0 6. For isance if G i the projective, allie, or Euebdean group. we Inve the soresponding pjectve, afer Euclidean geomety “Te differential geometry of «geometric igure Fbelonpng to Boop G fs the study of the invariant properties of Funder G ia seghborhood ‘haan clement of F lm particular, the diferetal geometry of a curve & Concerted wit the invanant properties of the curve in a neighborhood ot ‘Se of te points, In annie geometry the angeat of «curve a pnt ‘Ghsiomarty defined o be the limit ofthe secant though tis pint and a tehbonog point on the cuve as the second poi approaches he fist ong te cave. Ts definition ilstates the nature of ciffereal geome fey in thal it requires a kaowiedge of the curve ony ina neighborhood ‘ofthe pont and involves limiting proces (a property of ths kind s said to be loca, These featuces of cifferenal geometry sbow why it uses the ferential caleuls 2 extensively, On the oder hand. local properties of romette figures may be contrasted wih global properties, which require Knowledge of entire figures. "The creas of iferental geometry go back to the exly days of tbe diferenal eaeles, when one ofthe fandamental problems was the Acteminaton of the tanget to curve, With the development of te ‘cui, additonal geometne appeations were obtained. The ponspal ontiboors in this early penod were Leoahard Euler (1707-178) Gaspard Monge (1745-1818), Joep Losi Lagrange (1736-1813). and ‘Aagustin Cauchy (1799-1857) A decisive step forward was tke by Ka Phedach Gause (1777-1855) wth his development ofthe nine geome. tty ona rorfaceThs ea of Gast was generalized t n> cimessona Space by Berard Riemann (1825-1868), thus Binge fo the eorey that bears his name “Tis books degre o introduce diffrenal geometry to beginning spaduave eadets as well advanced undergradoate stent (his e0-duction in the later cases important for remedying the weakes of {comet inthe unl undergradvate corneum), In the lst couple of ‘decades differential geometry, along with her branches of mathematic, Ins been bighly developed in thie Rook we wl tay only the tational opis, namely. carves ard surface na three-dimensional clean space EF Ualke most classical books onthe subject however, more attentions aid here (0 the relatonships between loeal and global propery, as Spposed to local properties only. Although we restit our attention urves and surfaces in £2, mest global theorems for curves and surfaces it this book ean be extended to either higher dimensional spaces ot mre feneral cunes and srfaces or both, Moreover, geomeiccinferptetations re pven along with analyte expressions, This wil enable students to rake vse of geometnic intuition, which is + precious tol for rudying geometry and felted problems such a ool seldom encountered in otet ‘ranches of mathemati, ‘We use vector anclis and exterior diferent callus, Except for some tenor conventions Io produce simplifications we do’ aot employ Tensor calcul, since there iso benelit im ie aoe fr our say space ED There are four chaplers whose eomtene ae, bri as fallow, Chapter I contain. for the purpoe of review and for ner wie 2 collection of fundamental material taken from pointset topology, ad ‘anced ealeals, and inear algebra, in Keeping wth thi im, all proofs of theorem ae sc-contained and all theorems afe expened in 4 form suitable for etet later application, Probably most siden ae famibar ‘ith thie tena etept for Section 6 on ferent! forms 1h Chapter 2 ve fest establish a general local theory of curves in E, thea give global theorems separately for plane and space carves. since those for pine cures are not spel caves of those for space curves We tipo prove one of the fundamen theorems io the kcal theory, the tmaguenes theorem for curves im EA prot of this existence theorer i sven in Append ‘Chapter devoted toa acl theory of surfaces in E. For this theory ‘we only state the fundamental theorem (Theotem 7), leaving the proof the uniqueness and exsence pars of the theorem to fespectivey, Chapter 4 (Section 4) and Append 2 Chapter 4 begs with a dacusion of ereoaton of sues and rorfaces of constant Gaussian curvature, and presents varus, Boba ‘heres for surace ccons end with » carefully selected set of exercises some of the book To allow the stuent to work independeny ofthe hate hat [accompany some of the ener, cach ofthese i samed and the int together withthe ansver appear atthe end of the book, Numbers ia brackets refer tothe items hsted in the Bibhography atthe ead of We ook “Two enumeration systems ae wed to subdivide sections; in Chapters (except Sections 4 and 7) and 2 tiple mbes refer to a0 heme, Theorem or definition), whereas io Chapiers 3 and. 4 such an item is referred to bya double aumber. However, tere shouldbe no fil in ‘ing the book for reference purpsen, se ete of tbe lem is aeays writen out (eg. Corollary 5.16 of Chapter 1 of Lemma IS of Chapter 9) This book can be ued for a full-year course if most scins of Chaplet 1 are studed thoroughly, For onesemester course 1 suggest th use of the following sections: Chapter I: Section 3.1,32, 33.6 Chapter 2: Section I (omit L14-1.1.6, Section 12 (omit 126,127. Section 13 (omit 13.7-1.3.12), Sections 14 and 15 omit 1), Section 2 (omit 25, 25, 264.26. 29-211, 244-223); Seeuoe 3 (omit 31 S116, ‘Chapter 3: Section I (omit the prot of 1.6 17,14, the prot of 1.10 LII-T13, L15-118; Section 2 (omit the proof of 24), Scaons 3-9, ‘Section 10 (omit the materi after 10". CChaper 4: Section 1 (omit the profs of 1.3 and 1); Section 3 (emit 3.46); Seevone 4 and 5, Fora course Ising one quater | oases omission of te following rateral from the onesemeste outline above: Chapter: the second prot 9f 26,32: Chapter 3: the deals of 13 and 14 the proot of 57, Secon 6. {he proofs of 6.1 and 8.2; Chapter 4: Seton 5. 1 thank Donald M. Dav Samue! L. Gulden, Thendore Halpena. Samir A. Khabbar, A. Eveet Phe, and Albert Wilnsty for many ‘valuable discussions and sugestions in regard to various improvements of the book; Helen Gasdasha for her patience and expert sill in Spine be ‘manusenp: and the aa of John Wiley in articla Beatrice Stube. or thei eoperstion and help in publishing th book. OmveCinn Here ei Pre SieContents (GENERAL NOTATION AND DEFINITIONS. (CHAPTER 1. EUCLIDEAN SPACES 1 Polat Sets, LL Neighborhoods and Tope. 1 12. Open and Close Seu, and Coninvous Mappings. 4 13. Conectedses. 7 14 Tofimum ad Supremum, and Sequences, 9 15. Compactnes. 1 22 Diteretiton and Iotertion. 18 LL. The Mesa Value Theorems. 1S 22. Taylors Formula, 17 23. Maxima and Mining, 18 24. Lagrange Muipiers, 20 2. Vectors 28 BA. Veetor Spaces, 23 32. Inner Product, 24 33. Vector Product 25 3A. Linear Combinations and Linear Independence Daser and Dimensons of Vetor Spaces, 27 45, Tangent Vecors 29 346. Ditectonal Deri 4 Mappings. 36 441, Linear Transformations and Dual Spaces 35 42. Derivative Mapping, 40 5. Linear Groupe, 46 ‘1. Linear Transformations 46 52. Transshons and AMfine Transformations, 82 wes 3253. lomeres of Ria! Motions, St SA. Onentation, $9 61. Fox, 6 62._Extenor Mobipication and Dierentiaton, 67 63. Structural Equstion, 73 1. The Cael of Variations, 75 ‘CHAPTER2. CURVES ™ 1. General Local Theory, 78 LLL. Parametric Representations, 78 12. Are Length Vetor File, and Kos, 82 13. The Feenet Formulas, #8 VA. Leeat Canonical Form and Oscutnt, 100, 1. Exitence and Uniguentss Theorems, 105, 2 Plane Cures 109 21. Feenet Formulas andthe Jonlan Curve Theorem, 109 Winding Number snd Rotation Index 110, Envelopes of Curves: Conver Curves. 113 ‘The feoperimete Inequality, 18 “The Four Vertex Theorem, 12) The Meare of «Se of Lines, 26 Move on Rotation Inde, 130 3. Global Thcotems fr Space Cures, 139 LL. Toul Curvature 139 32. Deformations 147 CHAPTER. LOCAL THEORY OF SURFACES. 1st 1. Parametriations, 2. Functions and Fundamental Forme, 170 3. Form of Surface in» Neighborhood of « Pint, 12 “ Principal Cunatures, Asymptotic Curves. and Conjugate Directions, 158 ‘Mappings of Surfaces 197 5 THiply Orthogonal Stems and the Theorems of Dupin nd Loerie, 208 7. Fundamental Equations, 207 4. Roled Surtees and Minna Surtees 214 9. LevhCivie Paaelism, 224 1. Geodeses, 229 CHAPTER 4, GLOBAL THEORY OF SURFACES am Oven of Surace, 241 Sarfaces of Constant Gaussian Curvature, 245 ‘The Guus Bonnet Formula, 252 Exterior Differential Forms and 4 Uniqueness Theoret ter Surfaces, 267 Ripe of Convex Surfaces and Minkowski’ Formals, 25 Some Translation and Symmetry Theorems. 290 7. Uniqueness Theorems fr Miakoma's and Chisel’ Problems 285 8 Complete Suraces, 292 on Appendis 1. Pron of Existence Toren 15.1, Chapter 2 Pa Appendix 2. Proof of he Fit Part of Theorem 73, Chapter 08 Bibogrpy as ‘Anowers and Hints to Execs 36 toes usGeneral Notation and Definitions NOTATION Symbol Usage Meening . HEA isan clement of the set € GA xis notan clement ofthese 4 ¢ BCA ——Theset Bisa subset of theset A 2 2 Tre empty set a AO B Intersection ofthe sets 4 and 8 (4, Intestin fall eset 4, Union ofthe sets 4 ad u Union of al the ste (2 (eb) Thesetof all such that a es ‘mphes— 5 Soave 5 A+B Function onthe sett the set 8 nS ceo? Function assigning 2? 0x i fa.b) {rlacxed) o Gm (alaceed) DEFINITIONS [A funtion fase to nse Bi rule tht assigns to each element x of Aa une eerent x) of. The element 1) walled thecal of ft [oe the image of under J The set Ai called the domain ofthe set Bisten called the rage of fan the subse of B, denote by (A), consisting of ll elements ofthe form f(x) sealed the image off Ie both f, and fp are Tanetions on A to, teh fim fy menns that Js) =f) forall $6. Le fi AnsB and g° BAC be functions. Then the fonction g(J): A-*€, shove valve on each 6-4 is the element RU/OADEC. w caled the Componte fametion off and, denoted by f+, TH AB ia function, Ce subset of A, and Disa subset of 8, the resriction of to Cis te Tunetion fC: CB dined hy the same rule ssf but applied only to elements of C, and the subuet of A consting of al {EGA such hat (JED is called the imerse nage of Dan denoted by FW), [function f: A= sti 10 be one-one or injective i xy pies, {SeVes\3). An injective function sealed an icon 308 to be ome ‘or mnecite to each element HEB Thee exists at lest one element a4 och that fla) A sarjectve fonction i ealed& rarjection, A function that is both injective and surjective f said t9 be byetive, A bjective function ia called » fection ‘Note tht under bjectve function f: 4. each element BE B ithe mage of one and only one element a4. We then have an invert function fy defined throughout a, which assigns to cach clement BEB Tbe unique element a4 such that Bsa) Lek be ssonnepative integer. A funtion on a Easidean mapace "1 the ee line £" i std to Be of clase C* (cspecney, C=) oF & Co (cespecively. C7) fmeton if its partial devaives of orders up to and ineloding X (respectively, of all orders) ens an ate continuous. AC Tunetion means merely a continuous fenton. “The words “sel” apace” and “eolecton” are synonymous, a8 ace the ‘words "Tuction” and “mapping” A First Course in Differential Geometry1 Euclidean Spaces This chapter consis, for s Euclidean space of tee dimensions (exten sono her dimenion vital aoa), encarta sadems are probably familar with a gat part of the maceral. s Placement in one chapter makes it convenient for purpoes of review and Hs allows us to brag out more clestly elatonshps among cern rotons. Depending on the backgrounds ofthe students. ceria sectons tay be selected for more thorough stud. 1. POINT SETS 1.1, Nelghtorboods and Topologles. Let £? be 2 Euclidean thee simensional space, Inthe wll sense. E? we uke & fined ngbichanded rectangslar tetedron Ort yty (ee Fs U1) thats pont 0, called the ‘ongin of £, and mutually orthogonal coordinate aren yx. mAore positive deciions forma ngh-handed tihedron. Then relative to Ok, 2 point xin, E? has coordinates (njayss), More generals, we have the Following deiniton. LLL Defaion. ® Euclidean n-dimensional space E* is te st of all idee tuples x= sys) of ea numbers Such ample 8 pot Ta accordance with our stated purpose here and thoughout this book ws limit or disesions to r= 123. Let mys e real-valued funcons on E* such that foreach poist Seren Qader a= ey2 1. HLeLbEAN seacis “Thee fonctions ie are call the mtr coordinate factions of The distance (ey) between Wo pointe XmLyo am) ANd Y= (ojos) im Bi lined by the Formula Peay Sans dexy)2o ay) Wisbvious hat dl.y)=D if ad only if x,y f= boos, tat and ony if x coincides wth y. Furthermore, we have déxg)= dyn) and the tanec inequality lor 22" ey) diy) >t) 12) 112. Defwition. An open spherical neighborhood of point py in E™ is the set othe form {PEE"d(o.m)<0), a3) where 20. More generally, a neighborkandof py any set that contin & Shera! neighborhood of by, For n=3 ins convenient 1 ue open spherical neighborhoods. However for n=2 a neighborhood of py s any St that contains some open disk {2 E*ldipy 0 there isa 80 such that | (2) —fGo)|x. Let asap [FEF |t< x). Then y< 2x Since Fis closed. every neighborhood fof meets Po that 2F. Thus a) 5, 4s coved in S.By [Lemma 133, Sis disconnected, contradicting the asumpiion Hence Sit an inervs. “The proot that each interval S on is connecied is Wentcal withthe root of Theorem 35 except that now FS, and x5. 132. Theorem If Sand Tare connected spacer, then SXT i connected Proof. Suppose that SXT isnot connected. Then by Defsition 13.1, SXT=UUP, where U and ¥ ae nonempty din open tts. Take (2,9) in U. The set 5 (9) ishomeomoephic to $ and soi connected. It follows that Sx (y) contained in U, fr others its intersections wth U and ¥ ‘would form & decomposition ito nonempty dsont open set. But then & Similar reasoning would show tat for each «© the sce (2) XT would be in Us thar all S%7 would be in U, and V would be empty. This contradits the assimpsion that mt be nonempty, Hence ST is connected QED. From Theorems 135, 1.36, and 1.37 we immediately have two exam ple. 138 Examples |. The closed intesal f=, 5] on E', the closed rectangle ["=/%/, and, thetefore by mathematical induction Oe sed ‘dimensional cube!" are connected. Smulary.£" and £" are connected, 2. A closed dick thal i homeomorpbic to ix connected. The surface ‘Sof a Laphere can be expreted a the union of two clved dks oth nonempty intersection, So by Exereie 5, below, this surface S® is on ected Similarly, the sphere is connected fr any n. 139 Defwion It T ix a connected subst of 4 set $ and is not ‘conttned in any oter connected subset of §. then isa component ofS In other words, components of S are maximal conneced subsets ofS. 1, ponsr sens 9 Exercaes 1. Prove that the set (1.3) is an open set and discus ll he properies Aerebed in Sections 11-13 fr ths et of point 2. Discus ll he properties as in Ener | fr the se of pointe x») 8, BP auch that xy 0. 2. Prove Lemmas 132 and 1.33 4 Let d and B be connected ete in EA ANB oF AUB nace 5. Let and B be connected stein space S, and rupone that A Fie 14. tnflmum and Sopremum, and Sequences TAL. Definition Let S be ast of real numbers. HM satel number S0ch that x foreach x5, M i an upper bound ofS. 4 an upper ‘bound ofS. and theres no upper bound of smaller than A. then 4 the leas upper bound oF the prema ofS, abbreviated lub Sor sup 5. On the ‘other hand mi el ube such that mr Tor each 5, thea 5 1 lower bound ofS. 11 Bi lower bound ofS and there no lower bound ofS peter han 8 hen Bs the rete Tomer bound o he ifm of S abbreviated i S crit. For the exstence of supremum and a infimum we have the flowing 1462. Axiom of Completeness. Any nonemety st of rel munbars that has ln ppet bound has mre. 143, Theorem Ary nonempty et Sof real mumbers tha has over bund ar om fina Proof of Teorem 14.3. Toes T, obtained by changing every element of Sto s negate, has as an upper bound the negntve of any lover ‘ound of §. By the auiom of completeness, then has supremum. whose egal must be the infimum ofS LAA, Deforion Le S be a sobset of and dip.g) the distance between to points pand gia S. Then the dometer of $18 sup dip) Sis bounded if is diameter finitery 1. HLcDeaN graces From Definition 1.44 it follows that if «subset Sof Eis bounded. it lies enrely within some sphere of radius 720 with center atthe gin Om (0 Oia En 44S Definition Let ng} Re 2 sequence of points 9 £" Then (py) it concergen 0 pint pin B witen hin pa ‘and only if for every real number €>0 thee isan integer M such that enever m> Mf, then ffm. p)0 there ents an meger M sic that did = whenever mo M and m > M. 142. Defeition. Toe condition i» Theor 146 for the sequence {py} to be convergent isthe Cauchy condition and sequences that sty ie CCavehy condition are Cauchy sopuence From Theorem 146 it follows that every Cauchy sequence is bounded: therefore an ushounded sequence necewaly diverges LAB. Theorem Lat (Cy) bea sequence of nomen closed subsets of E* sich that Goo CC for Gl mand ited =O, where dy denote te Ganeter of Cy Then NC #2 Proc Sie lity et 0, sven «20, there existe a integer M such that dy ihsm>M, aad foreach m choose 2 am peice Then Re Cyr Pa Cy 80 that Ae) dye Ths (ps) 9 Cay sequence. and theefoe by Theorem Iie i owvereenl ay pep Let ‘be abtrary. Form’ >, po Cy, Sine Ci chsed sod ep pe Ce by Theorem 1.26 Hence pe, and the theorem ie prove 1. poner sens u Evert 1. Show that the sup and inf of se ate uniquely determined whenever 2 Let a sequence (2,} on £' be defined as follows: 221,472 Heeyedeyay ttghte don Show Wal deeges 1 Um NH, 50 thatthe Cauchy condition fit 1S. Compacts LSA. Defwiiom space is & Haaerf space if for aby two ditinet pomts p and q there are neighborhoods U'of p and V of g such that Un ¥=o. This dstinet points ae separated by dont nehborhoods. Example. Any Euclidean space is 2 Hausdott space. 182. Defwition 4 covering of space Sis 2 collection of set in S srhore union Iam ape covering al the et ofthe callection ae 183. Defiion Given covereg ofa space. a ndeovering isa covering ‘those sets al Belong to the given covenne LSA Defaiion A compact sace's a Haut space withthe proper ‘that any open covenng contains a finite covering. tat i a subeoverag ‘consisting of finely many Ses. A subset of space is compecr i iis 3 Example. The eat line isnot compact. For example sake the collection of open intervals (n,n) fra aegesm. Thsis an open coven of ‘he real line ut obviovly no fit callection of thee intervals cam eover the whole line similar argument shows that E" foreach noncom™ ‘act and infact so: any unbounded subset of £* Fora subset of £* 0 be compact. we have the following necessary an LSS. Theorem. A suet Sof Es compact and anki it 1 cloned ond boarded Proof, The “st” pat is he wellknown Heine-Boreltheoem. To prove it we same tha 5 5 closed and Bounded and that there i an cpes2 1 ‘covering (U) of $.Then the new ses, constructed a follows reopen by. Theorem 1220): =U, 1y= UU UU UU Uo nd. in general ng 7, Pace ote Vom an incteaing seas Voc Men CVC. and an open covering of 5. From these open V.r of f(s)0 for all xX. Show tat thee euss > such that f(x) >e fora eX. 4 Investigate the possibility of abuciteextemn of f(x)=a4+286/" ae contrac faction and that orychte nner (0 snpntr). Thon tri pat See 9) eh that , [fnertoacnno fee a) Wis obviows that when (1) =I forall xa, 6] Theorem 21.3 becomes Proof. We conser the ate of x everywhere nonnegative and from this case, by replacing g by a. ve tan deduce the coe of g swrywhere ‘onpostve: Denote Be minum and mam values of finer} by and M, respectively. Then forever xa] a(x) 0 troughost [a6 then [rnier0, 13) ‘tom which it follows that if G, (0, B|-+E" are continvous functions and (G>H throughout (0, b) then SPotode> finer a1) By intraiog (214 between a and A and wing 216) we obtain mffelsddre f'ICdelrdcem fSebs)ds. QA Foci, denote f(x) a by 1 Since fx) 20 forall xe by (25) we ave 0" I ten C1.) sp that Both dso 19) Se sen stat 23 ts vai foray € Now spose hat 730. Then droge 1.7 by 150 tat mst [hadgca)aee, Hence Theorem 15.12 gives our formula (2.1.3) for sme ¢(a, 6) LUA, Theorem (The second mean valu theorem of itera cales). Sp pose that fg [a,B}>E" ae factions of elses C* and respecte) and 2. pirrenextiaTIon Ax INTEGRATION 0 that gs monotonic. Then there exits apn eC.) such hat [Toraadenrr[erecretonf'fnrac (48) Proof. We list notice that we can assume that (0) =0, sine repli (3) by s(x) A(0) changes both sides of (213) bythe sare ame and {Goes usa foacton thal vanishes at-x=b, Moreover, ne can asume #(2)>0; foe if (a)<0 we need only replace g(s) by etx). which ‘hanger the sign of Bo Sden of LE) [The ease g(a}=0 6 teal of both g(a) anda) vanish (+) mat be dential er, and both sides of (2.18) are eco also} Thus we need ony prove that i g(x) comimuous tod moeotoni decreasing and g(0)=0. hen [ites scant f fae ans) Now by puting F\=)= 04! and applying the formula Tor itera ion by pst to the lefchand sie of (2.19), we ebain [{teoatyae= rosa] + [Ante ods. 2.1.10) “The fint term on the righthand sie of @.110) vanishes, since Fla) and a(t) ate er, The expression —p(x) 8 everywhere aonaezatve. so that by applying Tharem 2.1.3 we find that the itera onthe nahthand side of 20) has the value Fo f't-eW)lde forsome ce[e.b]. Since Fley=/sf(e)ée and (2{-s'(aildemate)me(8)=gtad. 2110) Jost (2.19). and our theorem entabshe Berses - Use Theorem 2. extablah the fllowng inequalities 0) hg Lhe 22, HP ayH forall xan, show that fi cota thee 122, “Taylor's Formulas, thi section we give a generalization of Theo: fem 2 ihe mean vale theorem of éiferental slush together ih 8 further generalization lo functions of two variables18 1. HUCLIDEAN races 22K Theorem. Lat fi [arb)-28° be a faction of east C* and let the (rine denative f° (x) off ex for x(a.) If we put =80. there tra pon a Dhe(a,b), cB, seh hat Slathyefay+ fare LE) ye a2) ‘When a0, 221) 5 called Maclin’ formu 222, Theorem Let D bea neighborhood of pont (a,b) in E? and let f Donk! bea function of class C7" Then ther is point (00h, B+ RED, O<@< I, mch har flash.beky 022) fa.) here 023) Eercacs 1. Find the Taylor expansion forthe function Sa y)natdady ay 42 a the point (1,2) trough terme of degree 3 24d, Defiiton A function f- E*sE" has a relative (or lca!) ma ‘mum (reepectvely, minimum) at xyEE*, apd ny in 3 reat (or bel) “nana Gespectively rman) poof ff here i neigiborhood U about ny in E" such that fe) O, then J has nether @ relate asia ror relative minima op. and pis called a sale pnt (2) 17 3°~AC=0, no conclusion may be dawn, and ary of the behocins of deeribed tn prt (a) 10) ay occ. A ercal point sad 10 be nondegenerate or degenerate secrding at BA ACa0 or =0 According 10 Corollary 15.10, 9 comtinvous function f: fa. bE! axtaine an asote maximun and aa ablute minimum a some pone of the interval [ab It an absolute extremum occurs a an intenor Pot ef the interval, then st fala 2 relative exemum. and therefore we have ‘Jx)n0 tthe extremum point, provided fs dferentable tere 'A foncion f: E'=nE' we perie ith penod pf there is 2 constant Integer €>0 such that gate) forall and ps the least such umber e Now lets C! funeion J: EE" be perodic wath pend ha ‘Then by Corlary 15.10 inthe intra! [o.] the perisicfuncon f has Anvabsclte maximum and an sbioute iaimum, whch now ae aso a ‘elitve maximo and relative minimum, respectively. In parla, the interval (a4) it of length 1>0 with the two end points @ and & enti, bereeen any so concave restive mune (epectvel20 1. HuCLEaN spac minima) off there & relative minimum (espectively, maxima) he fore the relsve marina and: minima of occur in pais ithe interval [sb] Ta sum up. we hence obain Theorem 235, 24S, Theorem Let fe E'-oE bea prac continue C* function with Derad Be, Then inthe interal,5|-ery abslue exremun of fs abo a Felave extrema, and f has at Test relative masimam and 2 Plate ‘nina In prior their, of long > wth the fo end points-c and b deified he relative maxi ond minima of acu? In pas tthe intra fa, 236 Theorem (The chin re), Letf: SCE-oB" be action of class Cup aptge tw ond tae the nul coordinate fretion of Sand E, respect and E05 dened BY (=U). 240) 2) 10 dileren Cable ftom then f= JC Ox AD 0) 8 erento, and Selaterse)= 3 forts. vere the prime donates the derivative with resect, ard the partial ercative with repel 105 xeries 1 Find she erties! points of the function fUx, 9922? fn determine the ature ofeach of ther reine sty 22 Show that al the ee! points ofthe fasion fx, y)=cos(xe”) are depenerste Find the etal points ofthe funtion (x92 Hoye 2.4. Lagrange Mubiption. The fllowing theorem gives a very elegant nd well method, known as the meth f Lagrange multiplies fr Studying exvema problems for functions of several variables with com Strains This method avous eter the impossibly or some complication ising ftom diet elimination of arabes, and permit the retention of Symmetry when the varsbies ester syenmetrealy atthe outset of the problem LAL. Theorem. Suppose tat a rata fntion fx 9) 8 diferent bein neighbor Nyy of 2 pon (ab) m ES, ond ha i has reltice extrema (4,8) subj oa consi Hx p)=0. ean 2. DIFFERENTIATION AND INTEGRATION a whee dfeemiobe in Nyy and (241) fine a difeenble tion yeas) @42) In a nelghborhoad of such that g(0)=8. Then the point (a,b) a ential point of Fs, )=fle 7)-RO(Eey) Buje 10 no Comrnt. where hs nit, called Lagrange muir. Proof. Since (ny) with (242) bas rlave extemium a (0.5): bs Theorems 232 and 236 we Oban On s(acsta)=s(a.b)45(0,)¢(0), cay From (24.1, @42) and Theorem 2.36 we alo have (0,0) 44,(0.8)8"(2)=0. aay Elimination of f(a) fom (243) and 2.44) gives ‘£la.8)9(2.b) -fla.b)4,(2.b)=0 249) (On the other hand, by Definition 2.53.3 » erica point (x.y) of Fly) sate Lhe ROC 80, GEM IIA. x, by elimination of, LEE DG IVLE I=. a4) From (245) and (2446 fllms immetiately tha (o,) ia erieal point fof Fox ys hence our theorem i proved. 242. Deft A quadraeJorm {(x, 7) 'a 0 variables x andy 6 8 fomogeacous quia poyaomi hat a fonction of two vanables x sandy, which Baste form Mey)mas tbe to ean) where, band c are constants, The guadeae form fix y) is poitce (eapctvly,neatice) dfnte it sates fix. 7)>O[ respectively 0x, 9)<0], 24s) forall (4714100), and it is police (spectively, negative) semidfinite i sass fho7)2 OL respectively flx.9)0], forall (x.y), (2439) Hagan)", forsome (xy 89)0.0) By completing the square we obtain pared (x+dp} ota-00% | “and therefore we arrive at Lerma 243.2 1. ucUDeAN sPaces 243, Lama. The fation f(x») of QA) 1s paste (respecte. regtive) define if ond ob if i sates ae 150,00 (respectively, or-B°<0,0<0), (2.4.10) ‘Ks a pstioe respects, negative semidfie and ony ais Hm, 20 (rempectvey. 260). 24.11) ‘The folowing example ilytrates that the method of Lagrange mult- pers n Theorem 21s particulary sata when both f(x,y) and 68,9) fre quadratie forms. 244 Example Conside the quadratic form f(x.) of 2.47) and Sexe e412) rom Theorem 23.5 i follows that every absolute exteemum of (x,y) subject to gry) =D ie leon relative extremum, and such f(x, 9) has a hsolute maximum and an absolute minimum. To fad those extema we lim accordance with Theorem 241 Flix. y)wart¢2by to-day? {rom which we have, fra relative extremum (xq, 5) of fx 3) sublet 10 eG ))=0. Lele rimaetbe-dye0, AN) Leap spnbne toh =9, ean vse xdtyget e415) ‘Multiying (2413) by sy, and (24.14) by y. and adding them together, ex} +2bsprp +08 Mad 492), ot by rue of 247) and 2.4.18), Shao) “2 e418) Thus the vale of the Lagrange muller s im this case precise the xem ofthe ncn Je yy bch ore sekang. ‘We may sow easy determine the wre of} from (2413) and 2.414. “To-do so we rewrite thea equations (a-Aot 20. (earn bag He) ve20. 2.418) 3. vactors 7 ‘These are two linear homogeneous equations inthe unknowns tp and jy which by @4.15) have a nootrval solution (4p.y.)e(00), Tas coo Eappen only ifthe determinant ofthe system 8 Zea, at i N(aterrtaeb'=0 24s ‘Thus the requted ext of f(x,y) are the 101 of (2419). To fad the oresponding extremum poiats we lint eliminate bom 243) and 2A to obtain bxg+(e~e)eanom b=, (420) and then sive 24.15) and (2.420) simultaneously for x and y, which are ‘ete considered tobe variables, xerect 1 Ue the Lapras mali oid the ees ad er ropetne @) edgy? on aay ta, ©) HDI? Mog de ayia as 3. VECTORS: 3. Vector Spaces. Let £? bea threedimeniona Euclidean space and Oxo fted nghehanded rectangular tidedroa in E* as woduced in Section I. Then relative to Oxe3ty,« point x in EY has coordinates Gets BLL Defwition Two onder pais of points xm(xy £5.25), ¥= (eda h) 806 X= (8 A583) YC 38) 88 egal he bse sepinenis xy and xy’ are ofthe sme length aad are paral the me sense This elation, being reflexive symmeinc, and tansive. cleat) £0 ‘auivalence rlition. Such an equivalence claw of ordered pats ef pret | ectr, which canals be denoted yay with rerpect tothe fepeeseat, tive pai uy. The component ofthe vector ayatey, ase -2 a tao vectors are equal if and ony if they have the same component For any two vectors vw in with the fespecive components tn 1.2.3. and for any salar (real number), we define the addon of snd the scalar mltipieaton of + by c,fllows Contos) + Onomon)e(eytmice tae tisk O00) ely 05) ee 3068) am 1. ucuupeas spaces U2 Deftion The set of all vectors in E? with the alditon and Scalar multipieation ia vector space (often called linear space) over the Tied Rot seal numbers which ta set atnying te folowing conditions ‘The seis a Abelian group nde aditon on ‘sith (0.0) a the identi, cvtnjnertom, (atbmoveby, @.beR G.l4) (isivative ta), a(bs)=(ab},, Wy, ois) Using th origin Oo our coordinate system Ox xa. we canst up 21:1 ‘correspondence between every point xin Band the vector Ox tht wil be Called the potion certr of x Notice hal ths correspondence i defined ‘only with erence tothe pont, By this correspondence we shall beable {0 use the symbol forthe position vector of point siz to denote the point and we thus se that lf va vector space over R 22. Inner Product, 4221 Defniom. The inne o scalar pat vow of any two Vectors, oth the renpectve components 0, de,23, 6a Scala defined by vee Se 62) From (3.21 it follows that the inner product has the following proper: Ts ad ered itmdendit et ed oan (coymev(en)nion, const we vin + Veb = ew 6.23) td all ithe norm (or lenge of the vector ¥. A vector with unit norm is Called wi ever Tous (Fig. 12), the distance between 40 points 624) ‘with position vetors and . 3. vectons s é Perea Let be the angle between any to vectors and m Then by means of the tngonomerc lw of cosines applied to the tnangle with sey w= vom mcose. 625) ‘Thes for nonzero vectoss ¥ and m, v= implies that ¥ and = are orthogonal The determinant of thee vectors wm with the respective components a, am tmh23, 8 defined tbe womel 8 6 626 ‘Then we realy have jet sreneli.sow/tle vo leurowieel.nowl, ema seal ban 33. Vector Product, AL Deftion The vector product of two vectors Ha 84 NEC & reve, on sch thatthe ation Ivomaimere 63 holds fora vectors x Wfoliows that x has the components (= Net(om, 621.23, oan where dt(rm, denotes the determinant of the square mati (rm, obtainedom-(2 2 8) oa Thu sepa elon oie pewter, (yy ewer ew 035) (eyprwee(oxm), cna sca. Geometeicaly, xs orthogonal tov and w. Moreover, if wis the unit vector ‘erthogona ov and m sich that Sahm 0, 036) ‘follows trom (3.3.2) that a= Bu: therefore for nonzerav and m9 "=O implies tat veew, where «fe a salt, which meace that v'and w are pale, From (326), (032). and (3.3) we emily obtain vee Weren ce be 637) Moreover for + combination ofthe inerproct and the veto product wehave the Lagrange ident COHN) OLMEDO) — O38) | our Iter applications we shall consider vectors that are function of fone or more vanables, tht i, whose components ae functions of one OF ‘more variables In eae the vectors are futons of one variable, we have that the following formulas hol, provided the derivatives in these Tor ‘mula exit sur 039) olsun ‘ete for expe d/l vst dfined as ual by 2 ig BY jg EPA =MLD » AM Br HE ae cam 3. vectors u Similary, we ean discuss the paral derivatives of seis that ae functons af two or three vanes Ener 1. Prove 024, (20) 4) =I ep 3 Pre 6.3.8, 44 Show that for sectors wom (ox meme to-m Show that for vectors Wye (0,2) (29) fy tif 6 Show that for vectors tyr tam [oyun Xela mm yem) =I ortllaem) lay Wom Baas nem 7. Show thatthe volume of the paalelepiped with sides ww is 34. Lincar Combinations and Linear Independence: Bass snd Dimessoas ‘of Vecor Spaces, Lets." be vestry of a Euclidean spuce Ea foe Seals Throughout hi section the subscript denotes a postive inieget BAL, Defaition An indicated sam of the form e+ i ald 1 linear combination ofthe vector wh". Tes easy seen that the set of al vectors represented ty linear combina Lions of given vectors so of Eira subypace of E2, which s denoted bylyerssovk and called the space gnerated (or spanned) bs the vectors seat, Geomenalyv] ste line containing the restr. and [y.¥] 1 te plane containing the two vectors», and 442 Definition tn vectors ty, af arly independent or oa8 1, RUcLpeas spaces, Vectors that are no liner independent are incor dependent Ifthe sector ryros are nearly independent (respectively. dependent) we may alsosy that the set (Wo) 1 linearly independent (especie, rom Definition 142 we ean easly deduce the flowing result one of the vector ner vet, the vectors ys 6 lineariy dependent. ABy subset of linearly independent set i lingaly independent 4A, Theorem. Let the component ofthe tor be (yt. 03) Then ihe vectors yore Jor S13 ae linearly depen (retpetive degen dent) if and nif he rank of the arr (ae ") a ‘equa to (eects lea than) From Theorem 343 follows that to vectors wy ae liner depen dent if and ony if vy=ey, with ea nonzero scale and thre vectors ate linearly dependent and ony fone vectors linea combination of he ‘other two. Thus we obtain the folowing geometric itepretation of linear Sependence k&he Cola, Two vectors ane nearly dependent if and only if they are parallel to cach ether and thee ocr are lar dependent and only J thy are poral 10 plane BAS. Defiion The xt (n°) of vectors of a sepace of Eis 1 bas of $i 1a linea indepencent set that generates, and the amber 1 i the dimension of S We write vmdim $1 If yoy are trutully orthogonal unt vectors, the Bai oy 4) of Sis an aii We can easly prove the flloning tu theorems BAB, Theorem Lat may Be ects of Efi by 20.0.0). ¥-(0.1.0. wy =0.0.). B43) Then the set oy) 88 hae of EP which called the narra Bait we . AZ Theorem If the set (n°) of tector ia bas of a ubpace OF), the eer ectrof $e ungucexpresnble a rear combination 3. vectors » Exerc 1. Prove Theorem 343, leary independent ce dependent @) (120.G.1.-29, © ((.32,.101.05.4. © (0.0.21, (1.60, (1.0. Let and » be Linear independent vector of and a. b.c.d be seals Prove that the vector ayy, and en, 4d are Unesly Independent if and only sad boo 4. Lets be lineary independent vectors of Baad o (4, fa123) be scalars, Prove thatthe vectors Saye... = 123. are hneasty sméependen if and only det (2, )#0, SS Find bas for, tht contains the vetore(,~ 1.0) and 2.1.3) & Find the dimension and a base ofthe subspace (1.20). @,1,~ 1) G.0,-2] 0 1. Prove Theorem 346. Prove Theorem 347 3S. Tangent Vector 3S., Definioa. A tong’ eevtor of Eat point p denoted by 82 ‘vector with the intl pont p ory, an ordered pur f points band piv sbere p+ ie conndered atthe postion vector ofa poiat (ig 13): fee Defining Lp i he pont of application of ty For sop. we may omit tangent” fora tangent vector of Ea poe For example if p=(let) and ¥=(2,3.3) then 168 pa of points (12h and O54) should be rematked tat two tangent vectors adm, ae equal and only vee and pa. Thus peg, then oy 4nd 9% ae sad 1 Be i Peres0 1. EUCLIDEAN sPaLES parallel. By defining +m elt,) (eye 03) were a salar, we see tht the set T(E), consisting of all tangent Veto of Bata point pt 2 vector space that i ealed te tangent pace OLE at p Moreover a each pth tate space 7) is omorphle to BY since the mapping f° EE-aT,(E) defined By flvlmyy. where ¥ is ‘onseted a the poston vecicrf a point In E® with reference to an ‘ni. is indeed atinear somorpbia,« byjecive mapping pressing he fddition and sear multipheation (ef, Definivon 81.1} 4S2. Definition A cectr field von E64 function that assigns to each point pof Ea tangent vector y or writen as wip) of Eat Let v and w be vector Bld oa E?. Then by 5.1) we can define v4 to be the vector iid on £ soch that (emnyem,—forally 52) Sima, fo fe-valued fanetion om £°, then by (51) we ean define _gv tobe the vector field on such that (a¥),=20%, forall. 033) BSB. Defition. Leh ty be the vector Fis on such that with tespec fo fined sghchanded rectangular rbedron O45 iE W0)=(,0.0)p, = C.1.0),.¥s6)=0.0.1), BSA) for each pof £?. Then wie isthe natal rame fed om B?. Thus (= 1.2.3 the uni vestor Feld i the positive, ditetion BSA Lemma, If 68 4 eetor field on BP, there are eee wnguty ‘etermined raced fancon e325 08 Esch hat wit oa tay oss) The functions ey ret ar call the Fudan cordate funtion of vor the component wih espe! to the frome fd 0 Prof. By definition, v assign to cach point pa tangent wee at whose components are faneons of p. ahd thetfore can be writen 3 Diphesbh es) Thos yalo(rhersied-eso)) 6 (9)(1.0.0),+ 6(90.1.0),4656800.0.0, (mo) FepPeslo)+ 0180) 3. VECTORS 0 for each p This shows thatthe vector fields ¥ and ey + eas cay Bove the same (angent vector) vale teach point Hence (55) proved. The tangent vector identity (ay. 45.8)),0 3 eof wil be ued often "A vector field i differentiable if ite Fucldean coordinate functons coycerey ae differentiable From now on we sall ame all vector fds tobe dtereatable. From the paragraph preceding Definition 3:52, for each post p of £ theres canonical omorpia ory of E onto TE) ap. Using is isomorpinm, the iver product ov Evel may be transfered o each of it tangent apaces. 12,9) appearing in this 4S. Definition. The inner product of tangent cece, aod, atthe ane point p of Ei the member ome Evidently, this dfiniton promder an inner product on each tangent space T(E) withthe same properties as the origina inner product on E In partcla, each angent vector «jf at p has norm (or length) Injl= ini, and two tangent vectors and w, of Bat pate orthogonal if sed onl 9, =0 4156 Definition A st eiphephejp) of three mutually ontogeral Unit vetorm, tangent to Eat point pf a frame at p. Vector falls reqe, consivie a frame field 08 Ei they do 30 3 each port p of "Thus ees ina frame if and only i ergehy fOr LKL IS 656) where isthe Kronecker delta (0 fj. Lif =) or empl. a ech point p of dhe vectors wiph.stp.esip) sven by (35.4) conse a frame stp at em(oneaen Sma 10 028) Stine Eater) 6 be he inn a fe oS osm [er oS) From (337i follows that Gexedenlaxehentoxeheadts, 08) where det denotes the determinant ofthe mati 6 By Theorem 347 and Definitions 355 and 3.2.1 we obitin the fellow sng weft result2 1 FE Lemma, Let ee, bea frame fed on E (3) Fy is a ect field om B?, then Y= 3) fn where the functions eae called the coordinate faction of ih rpc (1/3 fe and we then om Day ty Ie pari, we( 3)” “Thus given vector field ¥ has a dillerent set of coordinate functions vith espeet 16 each choice of fame field eye and for parteala problem one such choice may be more suitale than another. Berses Be Let ym(—1,-2,1) and w= (h3,~2) (@) Avan arbitrary point p express the angen vector 2y + Ju, a8 8 linea combination of wp). 0,9). () Mpatt 12), expres each of the tngent vectors y,~ 2m, and yt a6a pair of pont 2 Let yarns a2, and wow Hy (@)_ Prove thatthe vectors (p41) ate linesry independent at {ach point pof {@). Expres the vector field x+y +s A linear combination of Prove that he tangent vectors eetaan, ee te20, Ve Vi constiute a fame, Express v= (6,1,—1) a8 tnear combination of "4. I and w ate vector Fels on E* that ace brealy independent at each point show that isa frame eld, where Hm 904 36. Directional Derivative Let J he 8 dillerentahle function on E? Then rfp) 6 an ordinary difeentiale function om the rea line +¥, which passes hough a tangent vector of Bata point pad the 3. vectons 3 ervative of this fonction f with respect to a 120 i the iil ete of ‘change of fas p moves in the v dtechon. Thor we have Defniwon 361 GL Defion Let f be a diferentable realvaled faction on andy, tangent vector of? ata point Then = ZU0+ oe oe Inthe devvatve of with eect 10 It should be not tht thi detiion of derivative ithe same as tat of ‘he duecuonal derivative gen im elementary calclis but reticted to 4 unit vector y, However we shall sill vler to ¥[/] a8 8 erection ervatne For example, suppose that Seat pelln42, vet), 062) tthe x.y. ae the coordinate function of £?. Then prvi +t. FeDyand fit madly 444). Thus by QL) we have N= $20 419-449" 2D 6 ‘A computation of a general {in terms of the partial dersatives off at the point pis pven in Leama 3.62 B62 Lemma Hf 4y=(61 0409p Ha tangent vector of Eat a peep. then wise de 063) Proof. Let p= ay paps) Then Hotall atte pe 4 Since (4/dn(p, +1.) =, by puting symp, +1, and using the chain rule (Theorem 23.6) and (61) wean medal oblam(363), QED. npn ‘Using (0.63) we can also find Lor the example above From (3632) st tolows tat a Livre sss. Lopveriare—4 The ty 063 ve oun fee 4A=-8—6u 1. EUCLIDEAN spaces ‘The main properties of this notion of derstive are given in the fotlowing theorem, AGL Theorem Let fad be difereniable fnctons on B?. yard () Coytby maul fbn ©) wlefreslmeyl Tro yleb 6 SUIS A0) 0a Prof. Paste (2) aod () follow ees fom Lemna 362 and the sum formals fr partial derivatives. Similar, we can also prove (6) by noting Sone So{ Lerninss0r 300) -(3s2o}ewvn( S030). exo peers ences ees wipe ean tf (064) In fact, since for instance. w(p)=(1,0.0, by 4). fom 3.63) it follows immediately that unk //=(2// 2 Hp) foreach point p. ence that wf] ays, J&A Corton: If s and w are vector fel alcatel aifremtatle factions, hen Go) (So remhl=so lee (b) Warthel=avis)*Ov4eh for all eat mambers a and, © Miah e= he Proof. By Theorem 3.6.3 we se tht (a) and (bare trae a each pois p ‘of E™ Simialy. we can prove (0) Un fat the value of ve] at is UT. Shick, by Theorem 16. equal 18 Leet) e)=¥1 0) 9) +/0 2) OL ntfs) ep. on BP, and fuss are 4. Mapeinos: x By wing 0.6.4) we ca easly compute oJ, For example, =~ aytegy and fancy w= sei aan +a) maa Remark. For slic. if he poit of application i not eral we shal Iregusnly omit the poi of appbtion prom ihe noaton erect 1. Let y be the tangent vector of £? for which v0.2.2) and p= Go 1,1) Ure both Definition 361 and Lenn 362 to compute he Cdrectonal derivative yb where fox xy 2. Let veajhy— sip tinny fanny gad. Compute the following Futons (a) of) (0 13. Prove the Wenity ¥=Z2_ (4), Where Xe Ag.4 are the mata coordinate fonction, I fl=m{ for every function fon E% show that v=, 4. MAPPINGS: Te this section we discuss mappings of £* into E% for general and mlemmed, Inne} and mel, sich 4 mapping just a real-valued Function on, Ifm=i and m3, such a mapping is a curve in E Wn=2 ‘nd m=3, sich 4 mapping irs surface in £ The last two parol eases te dncsid in deta in later chapters 4, Linear Transformations and Dual Spaces 414 Deéfaion Given a mapping F.EE™, let fbheo-~ fe denoie the realvalsed funtion on E" sock at Fp) =( Si). fioh: for every pitt p€£™. Then these function cwordiate frets of F. and we wie Po ahie-Sa) ay The mapping Fis of elas C¥(K2 I) if fy fur" f a af clas C* in the sl see ‘Note that she coordinate functions of F ase the composite functions poet P)rnbete sy tye ong are te cooedtatefupcbons of E™ the Euclideanx6 1 poco esc Marines may, be decd in many diferent ways Foe exam suppe at Fe Bae the mapping Payee Then Pa)=(si19h 297) fora pee tt p=Cavt then by he deirton of he ordinate aetions AIP 90)=P0. lohmrs, tnd therfore bin th flag nme forma for F Rrwreralo(outssraties) trail prety 412, Doon A cing BEE a tar rari E* Flex ay)=e( P18) +a FO) (412) “The hornet of» ina translormation F: E"FE™, denoted by her Fs the ber Fo (#6 E",FIX)=0) ia) 414 Examples of Mappings 1. The mapping F: BE such that Flny.s)aQny-s.942), where yo ae the coordinate fonctions of £2. hi i Hinesetansfor- Imation of EE Thus by a wellknown theorem of ear algebra. Fis Completely determined by te valve on three (ness independent) points, Say the unit points w= (1.0.0. #0010), 910.0.) 2. The mapping Fs &?-+£? sch that Foaela(e yam youge where ayo and ay ate the cootdinate functions of the we-plane andthe sy-pane respecte often helps to compute the image of» numberof selected curves and regions. For imtance, the image carve of the horsoatal line ome i the "srplane under Fis given by the equation elrerre Since x and y ae symmetric in w and v, points (a, 6) and (ba) in the tnvplane both have the same’ image, Thur the line emu divides the in-plane into tao halla, which ave mapped by Font the same ret the weplane. To determine this set, we fist fd he image ofthe ine © 4. arrives a eta to be the parabola y*=2x. The image of any point (x9) Us within this parabola, for 2x—y'=(u=e)">0. Convers. easy 0 see tha ever point (#.y) on of within is parabola is in turn the image of 2 post (vo) ate Fig 14, Accordingly, ove may picture the ellect of Fappeou mately a follows first fld the weplae along the Une =r then te folded edge along the parabola y°=2x and flatten out the ett cover the inside ofthe parabola smoothly. (To permit the necesary dtorson hk of the wplae asa shet of rubber) 2. The mapping FE! such that Flucc)=(x.y)x=ute yet ay store uo and x. are the coordinate functions of the wplane and the Ipeplane respectively Tet us fs use polar coordinates in the woplane 9 that wercott, emrsint, — OSt<2e, By sing some trigonomete identi, we can express (6.4) as Flroostrsin f)=(Peo2t.r?in2t), OCS 2e. From thi it follows that under F the image curv ofthe eile of radius + and center a the org counterclockwise once i the eee of radius + and ener a the orp counterclockwise twice (Fig 13) Ths the effect of F38 1. eucueas spaces fn to wrap the plane £? smoothly around il lesving the origin fed ince F0,0)=(0.0, and therefore Fis sarective but not nective However, fe replace tbe we plane bythe open bal plane D (al (4.0) with} then Fi injective in D. To see this let Fae) Pepe g) THER duompg, wt maPmp? gh Omut(ut op ta?) (ul+a2Mt -p3) ‘Thus a! =p Since w>0 and p>0, we have ump and omg. Hence F maps Donte a subset Din the nyeplane in a9 injective fashion. This mapping has an inverse F-* which maps D’ onto D. Solving (14) we obtain FY on or! VE ‘The set Dis the se of points (x,y) for which + VHP 0, that all points (x) except thove ofthe form (0) with <0, Ad, Definition. Let A and B be two subspaces of E* Then eraaon a means that £244 Bm (x4ybxA.yEB) and Ar B=, (4.15) ina de Composition of En into» direct sum of the subepaces A and B. and each of the sets and i he complement ofthe other iE From the dfiitions we can easly prove the following lemmas. 418, Lemma, Let F: E*-sE™ be a incr tanforation, Then ker Fis a Jubrpace of E"FLE") ts rabipace of E™. and Fa bijection et F=0, The dimension of FUE" i ale the an of and the dimension of ker Fis called the my of F. 41, Lemomm,_Let FL E*-sE" be on ljectce bat et serjectioe tine Inanjormaion Then there i @ decomposition pre enoe a a9) of EO its a rect sum of subspaces E and E°"* of dimensions » and Iman, respecte, such thar FUE*)= E* ond FE*-sB" 1s a etion 4% Lemma, Let Ps E*-2E be a jective near tan there isa decompestion formation. Then Ereenee™ on) of Bina dict sum of spaces E™ ond E°*" of dimension mand 4. arrives 3” smi resectily, such that E“*"" ker F. and FE™ Ws a Becton ono Pe ‘Lema 4.15 follows immediately from Definition 4.2 418 Lema Lat ¥ be a vector ace or the field Rf re! mambers (and ie FG be hncor rafrmation of Vito R. Define the nem FG ad the product oF of F 9 salar eat flit: (FFG \A)=FH)+G0), forall rev, G48) (eFV= Alex) forall KEV. cER. (a9) Then F+6 ond cF are aio Ineo ransfrmaton of Vito R 419 Lemma If (°°) 4 bai of on mensional ecor space V tee and eye eae nom Rt ant trnfematon Fon wth oyymey = och. Ts aoe seen he maa Brune Sac, 40 wre 0k) lect of V Prof By indion 08,410) lls dey fom (41. fr ay lear tanormaion Pith Fede icon, Coven fran Bas (rg) OY ech has 6 Trea 3) for a eae exprestion x=Sny5%- For any constants yy cy of Ry (4110) there {ote detines a tanformation of ¥ ata R, This wansforsation i liner since for any x and y=32-0.% nad cto Se OF x) +241). 4110 Theorem, The st ofa linsor restorations of cectr space V (cer the fld Ro rel umbers with addon and ele mulipcaton defined by 1 ond (4.19) tea eat pace F™ over Re whch called the dl space of “The proof of Theorem 4.10 only a routine vention of conditions (6.13), 018) and GLU), and i eltas an exerese«0 1. eucupeas spaces ALLL, Corr, Ifa vector space V oer R ha afte Bai (°° 1%) then i dual space V" har a bate {Fy F.) clled the dua asst the tls (Yt) of Ys costing of te linear tanformtinsF defined by Bona tpdmiccnim The m baer tranformatins Fare uniquely desrmined by te formals Boye fetes (aun sehre 8 i the Kronecker dela Proof, For n given scalars ¢y--ycq, the linear combination F= Bheso Fa lene transformation; by 111, ie valve at any bass Eeomne Esteves, 1 foions that the transformations Fy are Hinaey independent in Vest Pays o8. thes A)0 for ech hence ey =o gm Te aio fllows tet thew linens teansformatione Fao" By apan ¥,Bnce by Lemma 41.9 any linear taformaton F is determined by is value Fdeeatence oS 6, ‘QED. ‘Collar 41.12 follows immedi fom Corollary 4.11 and Dein tion Ba. 4112 Corlary, ‘The dua space V* of on mcimensionaleetor space V asthe some dimension nas V. 42, Deatve Mappings In E* let p be the position vector of pont fod va vector at p Thee ropes 2) ie curve in E% and the tangent vector ofthe curve (42.1) at ¢=0, thats, Spind/dtypervjegee, Moreover 2 mapping FL E"=E™ maps the cune (421) mE" fe eume fonptm) (422) in £7. Thos we can havea dfiiion of s mappins 421. Definition For 2 mapping F: E*-iE" we define a mapping Fe (hich may aso be denoted by ff) such that for a vector vf Mat point p raoy= Lee 0 (423) which i the tangent vector of the curve (4.22) in E™ at 0, thai, at 4. sapeisos a Fig) This mapping Fe (or dF) i the docace mapping (or sere) oF. For example, let us compute the deoative mapring Ff the spin Fin Example 3 of Section 4.13, Suppose tat pet v=cer es Then by (423) we have FO)= EL Alay trey prt eine 2 etre (ort teehee inte Mhow Alpena apeatre) AFL) 422 Theorem Lat (4.1.1) bea mapping of Eno E™. Iv isovector of E* ara panp then FsodmOol flv sler al) ot Fp (424) 0 that Fs) is determined by the devcatces Mf the coordinate fusions of Pmthreipect tow Proof. For dtinitenss we st m=3. By (411) we have Fips)=( ip. Sten. hie+ee This (424) for ma follows immediate from (423) and (364) for Pho hohs OED. tT, £7) be the sto al vector in "at 2 Fined pat phat the tangent” space of E™ al p (see Definition 35.1) Then the dematne rapping Fe given by (42.3) gives nie fo 2 mapping Fog TET pf E) fas) defined by F()=Fae) at Fpl for ETE) a in caled the drcative mapping of F tp. In a conesponding station in Bemenaryealeulus,# dfferentabie fneton fo Rook. where Rs the field of real number, has derivative fncion f= RoR, meh at each point of R gives the dervatve 40) of fat 422 Corollary, Ar each point EE" the dersatie mapping 2) of @ mopping FES oE™ sar tronformation Proof. For ¥.mET{E") and a, BER, we must show that Flav bm) oF lt) BEM) hich fllows immediately rom Theorem 36 3a and Theorem 422 geo.a 1. Rucupean spaces “The lneaity of Fo ies generaztion of the fact that the derivative S40) of fr ReaR isthe slope of the tangent line 10 the graph of fat Indeed for each point p Fz, is the hnear Uarsformation that best spproximate the behavior of Fata p. This sen could be fully developed inv uued to prove Theorem 42.1 Sie the mapping (4.25) linear transformation, iti reasonable 10 compute its maton with respect to ie natural bass, defined in (3.43): )--M4(9) for TCE). AFD .8Q( AD) f0r Tap CE") “This matric called the Jacobian matrix of Fat p andi denoted by J). 424 Corotars. For a mapping (4.11) of Eno E, Feo) S Zour. r FLW) + Qua") where we have identified the fest wath E* Obviously Gorgy= Foy LE" i Bective: therefore locally about Fp) there (eus le interne napping @~! denoted by G. Thus G= Flu) =(uy0) tat n.GP's locally about pe linear injection: E*--6" CE"@E™"* mE "Now suppose the mapping (42.11) to be surjective. Then ty applying Lemma 4.17, ar above, we abun» decomposition (41.7) of E* sch tat ‘ijston, Define + diferentable mapping Hi E*~ SETOE "locally about p by wm (ue)— (Huw), where we have identified the wcond 'E™ with E~ Since By, WFaplE™ 4ig|E7"™ ie bowtie, locally about p there exists the iavlrve mapping H-" denoted by H, Toss H(F(w ah") (24°) 20d FeH(P(ear)")= Awa); that is, Fe Mis cally about p te proj tion E*= E+E" oE™ and is therfore near and surjective. Rxeres 1. For the mapping F given by (4.14) ind all points p with sketches for pat d such that @ Foro. © AN=0,-9. ; © Poe. © Fym(uy. 1exre426r0. Ta each case, show the set Sand its image F{S) ina single sketch A. Prove Theorem 4.10 “A. Ge) Show that the derivative mapping of the mapping Fin Example Vol Section 4.33 given by Fuby)=Roj ey “e182 4) (0) In gece iF "aE" linear wassformaton. prove that Fly =F nn S Find Fe for the mapping Fx). 2)=(x yoosr,ysin sh: EE? and compute Fu @) ¥=G,-20, 7 © HB.-ZD PRs,46 1, eucuapeas spaces Pets Is the mapping in Exercise 5 regular? 7. In Definition 42.1 of F9,,show that the srsight line p+e¥ can be replaced by any curve with y a8 18 tangent at p tha ia = 0. Prove thats mapping F £* of" preseres directional derivatives in the folowing sense: It, isa vector of E", and gis a clferenuable function on £™, then Feb elm let 9. In each of the folowing cases, show thatthe mapping F: Eo? ie Uijestive, compute the inverse mapping Fy and determine whether isa diffeomorphism (hat, whether Fis dilerentable. (9) RuvoymCone) ©) FueieG-ee), ©. Flno)=Qu-o+ lut3e~2) 10. Let £208 bes mapping sc that Flue)=(4y).xmeteone, yretsine The nature ofthe mapping Fis suggested by Fig 1.7m which certain coresponding areas ae indicated by the same levers. Very this figure and show that ono the »-plane with the origin excladed the ‘mapping FS nots dilleomorphism of the whole plane bat 8 Toe diffeomorphism 5. LINEAR GROUPS S31. Linear Transformations, In this ection all definitions and results hold for Eas well as« Euclidean plane E™ However, for generality we only discus the case of , and consider the eareof Ean a special eae. 5. Linear onours a ‘A mapping of £? into iuel is a coesponsence that associates with ach point x of Ex unique point y of £2 By the correspondence mestioned ia Section 31, we consider x and y hee also asthe position vectors of te respective posts with reference fo a fted pout in E™ Sd. Defoion A mapping F:£-oE? is a linea rafermation of E? {ato ie forall vectors x andy and al salary cand, Flextdy)=e(FUa)) +4 FU). an) inition 5.1.1 i a special case of Definition 42. Let Fand G be fw linear transformations of E Then by defining the malipication of F with G by (GF) = GCF), (512) and iatrodcting the entity mapping / To)=x, 613) we can show that F has a mulpicaive iaverse F~' if and only i Fis ‘jctve Ths tha all the mnsnglar (Le. Bective) linear anformetions Of? form a malipiatice grog, whichis called the general lear gop of 1 and i denoted by GL, [A nonempty se G, om which there defined» bins operation "=", is elle a grup (with respect to ths operation), provided te folowing properties are satisfied: () if a.0.c@G. then (Geb)semae(Boe) (a) thete exists an element «CO such iat evemare wa for even element a0; (i) @€G, there xis an element EG ‘ich hatanxe name] Tet (y.23.35) bea bss of B?. Then we have, aiquely Fade Zaye o23. oy) Fis nonsingsat and ony if the matin “EER oe is nonsingular thei if and only i et 4-40, Let M be the st of alte ‘nonsingular 3%3 matrices wih ual row-bycolump mulsplicaton. Thea the mapping FA defined by (5.14) ian somorptism of GL, onto M. "Now suppose (335) 0 be another bass of 3 that Fade Zany 12123. 9“8 1. BUCKIDEAN spaces and denote the mais (23) by 4*. Then (se Exercise | of Section 5.1) ‘here exists a unique linear transformation G of? sock that fa 123. 6.17) Furthermore, ican be shown that anna) 619) where Blithe inverse aati of B=(b,) given by we Dba lena, easy S42 Definon & tinear transformation F: ££? is an erthogonal Transformation preserves the ier prod! of ny two Veron x abd, that (Ay) -F)=e 61109) 1 F and G ae orthogonal transformations of £, then for any two vectors xand y of E (EO) N= (FEM) EO) 7. (F609) FOV) (FG) AGO) =(G1R))-6) =. showing that ll she orthogonal transformation of ® orm asbrep of he linear group Gy, which salle the orthogonal group 0 SUB Definition A square mate A of onder 3s orthonnal it Aan, oan whose i the transpoe ofA, and $i the identity mars Equation 5.111 implies that A is nonsingular. 1 may therefore be writen as 4"! 4 and Bence also as Hans (51.42) From (5.1.11) 0 (5.1.12) follows that fA san orthogonal mars then (eray'=Lor deans. 1) By definition 5.13 and dicet multiplication of matrices we readily ‘obtain Theorem 5.14 5. UNEAR onours ° Lh, Theorem, The square matrix A ice by (5:18) otagonl ond ont i one ofthe following three equclent conditions bold: Daveanbe 123, (110) Jknh.23, (5, hints, (6.119 where a Kronecker dea, being Jor j= and © fore, and A, isthe aac of am det A SUS Theorem. Let (430%) be an orthonormal basis of EA linear ironsforation F: E+E gion by (3.14) 11 an ethogonal ransormation (and ony fhe marx A=, 1 hago Prof of Theorem 5.1.5, Suppose that Fis orhoponal. Then by (S14) and (110) we have (rapyreara( Zorn} ( Som) 3 Zoveute =3e wrap Be ke. which shows, due 19 Thotem 5.14, that Ais orthogonal. The convene of this can be proved by revening the argument SHA Corelay. Let xy be an orthonormal bass of @ plane £3. Then the on ohogoaltanformations of E? are Fond G pen by Fla,)=7co0 44808 hain Flay) = asin xsco08 ae G(e,)=nycon xin sa. G(x, six 088, ene where @ is uni sch that 082.50 that Fs arson of Etrough an lngle 8. and i the rion Ffolwed bya reflection in. hich maps ery pin fos mont point with respect 10 (me pons in Ear said {ob gromatric mith respec tothe xis f the X pate perpendidar sector of he ine segmen Join te wo pon).50 1. Hucupeas spaces Proof. Let H be an orthogonal tansormation of E? given by Hew ean.tas, Mead=bartbys (6.119) “Then by the special ease of Theorems 5.1.5 and 5.14 for we have aitalnl, +biet, (6120) aby ante. (a2) By (5.120) there is a angle 9 such that 0< 024 and cos Pmay, snd ‘Then tanta, 2, —b,/by by (S121), whence by (S20) again y= £056, by = =n 8. The two choices of sign give exactly the two unaslor mations Fand 6. ‘QED. Now in B? we consider rghthanded rectangular trbedron 0x45 and a rotation F that isan orthogonal transformation given by (S14) sith ‘orthogonal matrix d= (ay) noch that Jet A= +1 Then by (Ssl@) can be expressed as fora, nbs coy, An|cosa, cosB, cory], (61.22) [eoras eos, coer sod the columns of 4 are compoted of the direction cosines of three ‘mutually orthogonal fines xf.x3.x5 though the engin @ which respec- {ively pase though the image vectors under F, of the ust vectors w= (,0,0y43 =(0,10), uy =(0.0,1) on the coordinaie ates, 35,8 1 well Known that any rotation in E> can be represented by three independent pararocers called the Esler angles (Fig. 18). We shall de- termine the Euler angler for ur rotation F which takes the coordina eee ta 5. uowean onours 3 344 3.0.85 onto thee preasigned mutually orthogonal in 3 ‘To ths end, Test lety be the line of intersection of the xy" and the xfxf-planes, and the angle ofthe otaion A, about, whch taker the ran oat 50 at ems sing 0} wang cose 0 “rot ot Tre ration 1 0 0 0 exe sine rer) bout y though an angle # takes x, onto x5, and alo xy into the STRf-plane: Fall, the roition cmp siny 0} msing cosy 0 oot stout through an angle ¥ take y onto Maddy 129) 5%. Theorem. An orthogonal transformation F of E preseres the di ance bern on m0 pol thats satisfies AFC). Fo)=A0u9). 129 where x. oe the pasion vector of am ro points. Proof. From (324), (51-1, (823), and Definivon $12 we sme mediately obtain A P(x, FQN) F128 IR Hmdl) eres A.M yoxsot) is Basis of and 2.22, are abizay vector of 2, there esis erally One leat Watisirmation F of such that Fx)ax, int.23. Prove Theorem 5.14.2 1. EUCLIDEAN spaces ‘3. Test the following matrices for orthogonality, ad find the inverse of the orthogonal matrices 1 4) 14) op 14 i 7 3 | ° . Ow 4 vw il Sls rT 3 tT 3 3 |. Find orthogonal 3x3 matrices withthe following fist roms: (505}6-54 |S Ife rotation Fhas Euler anges 40,9 find the ler angles of 52, ‘Tramlatios and Aine Tearformatons 421, Definition A mapping F: ?-oE? is translation by axed vector if for every vector Fajaxte 620 tinea t prove Lemma $22. 422 Lemma (0) If Fend G are vansans of 6, then FG=GF ts tlio «tanto. (6) The irlation F given by (S21) has am Imceree F~* that i the bpenstaion by =<. a) Chae ay wo points Wand yo E, there exists a uigue ransation F sch that FO) =: From Lemmas 522s end 522i follows that all he ranatons F of BB pine by 02 frm an Abiian prop somerphic to the adie soups of Ihe vars eof E “a antl special case of Lemma 522i hat if Pisa transition such that Fa)=s for some point then Fis he wenity mapping J S22 Theorem A translation F of 3 presres the distance Beween ary te point that, (8124) hols fora trarsaion. a Proof. Let Fe given by (52.1). Then ‘A(FC), FQ) =F I4 €= OITA) 524 Defiition Am fine transormation Ff Es linear txnsforma- ‘ion fllowed bya arson hat ya mapping saisying FaHG, (522) 5. unean onours 2 ‘here Gin linear tenformatin, and His a wansation of Eis caled {he liner part of F, and Hf the wanlaton part oF. rom (521) nd (52.2) i follows that if HM isa transation by a fined vector the for every vector x of Fay=ci +e 623) ‘The affine wanstormations F given by (52.3 inchde the near tans smatco (wih e= 0) and the warlations (with Go) If Fis another affine ‘wansformation of given by Fea)=diay+e, 624) hen Fray Gouay+10)+8 (025) ‘Furthermore if Ga an averse G~', then by solving (523) for x we have the iver Fh af F-)26-"0)-G-"6) 626 “Ts we obtain S25, Theorem The nonsingular fine transformations of E? form a sr. Caled the fine prog Ay which conta as sabgrng the genera near (rep GL, and grup To ransains. “With respect toa rghthanded tihedron Oxy¢385 2 #7, letA=(o,) be the mate representing near wansforaation Gs that The or 20323, eve con Sat re 3 (Seas ‘os y pine Gaye (to, we chan (Gone Boys b23 628) Let ate Ra) teat aad em (ejer ey) Where xP and 6, 23. te the compocent ofthe respective vector. Then a the component fort, (523) can be expresed as follows ape Loyste, 023. (529)Py 1. mucupenn spaces ‘Aternatively, sing the column-vector conventions, in terms of matrix ‘multipiation we can write G(x)=4X 50 that (5.2.9) becomes xtednte 6210) “The product of the transformation (52.10) by y= But +4 it Yre(BAye+ Berd, ed:colamnmatices; (S211) ‘the formula i paral! to (52.5. In F, of special intrest are the ating transformations weaete, deta (52.12) Since the product of two matrices of determinant I again has determinant Inthe fie tansformations (5212) form a group. which it ealed the snimodalar af go. Exerceet 1. Given the circle x}.+x361 in the yx-plane, prove that every affine transformation ofthe pane ears this circle to an elie or a cc 2 Prove thatthe group of tranitons of Eis 2 normal subgroup of the affine group of SS. Isomettes or Rig Motions 43h Definition A wapping F>£-0E? is an met oF a iid motion itt preserves the distance between any (v9 point. [Lemma $32 follows from Theorems 517 and $23. 552 Lemma, Orthogonal transformations ond tramlations of E ae ry — S22 Lemma If Fand Fare nmrriesof B,he composite mopping FE 1s alto an tome of Prof of Lemma $2. Ire x and 3 be the postion veers of any two points of E Then ~ a( (FF). (FEY) =a FAC). FLEW) =F). FON =A) SBA Lema. 1) Fs am some of B ouch that FQ), then Fis on thogoel raformation. 5. unsean onovrs ss Proof Lat x be the position vector af any point with refereace tothe point 8 Then we haven consequence of G24), LAaiaa00. iy) CFO), Fh =dxdm tat (53.1) Let be the positon vector of ay athe pint wit sleenge wo 8, Then LA) ~ Fadl dC), Fa)i=dlas)=2x=25 which, togetber with 023), impli (2) FY) {F18)~ FON) ==) 48-9) [AQ))P-20F)-PO)+ EFI AIP —Bey+ i? (53.2) “Thus tom (531) and (33.2) we have (Fe-AY)=29. 633) so that F preserves the inner product of any two vector. According to Definition 512 it remains to prove that Fis linear transformation. Let tg, be the unt natural frame wid respect 19 Febthanded rectangular tihedroe Oxyt,x, at the point ® 50 that, (€£0,0, (0,10), 85% (00.1) Then Key cn xa, 634) Since (wy) i a2 onhonormal bas, trom (3.3) it folows that {Fe Fay), FU) is also an orbonormal bass 0 hat Fane Dy Fle) 639 “Taking the inner product of both sider of (538) with Fl) and using tbe ‘orthonormality ofthe basis (F(a) le), Fe). we obtain WCF). J9123. 630 (nthe other hand rom ($3.5) and (5:34) we have CFR) Flyyaslayar, J=123. an Subsitsing (53.6) and (3.3.1) in (535) gives Faye Dx Flu). (538) Using (5.38) we hence obtain the lnerity eoadition Flaxtby)=aFte)+F0) (339)56 1. wucupens seaces S34. Theorem I Fs anime of E thre ext a nique translation ‘Hand wnigueorthognal transformation Gach that FaHG, (53.10) vere i called the orthogonal part of F and H the translation part of F ‘Proof. Let I be te tcansaton by MO). By Lerma 52:2, Hs the twansation by FO), and by Lemma 332. AF isan isometry. Furthet= (OF 'FY0)= HK FIO))= FO) FO) “Thus by Lemma $24, H”'F i an orthogonal transformation, xy HF G, from whic follows immediately 3310. "To prove the reqied uniqueness, suppose F= HG where Wis a transla tion abd G an orthogonal ransformation, Then NG=H6, aun so hat G=H-"HG. Since G and Gare linear tansormations,G(0)= G0) Tt follows that HiT = fhe identity mapping 0 that HH, which {ogether with (53.11) implies =. QED. By Theorem 53.5 and Definition $2.4 we se that an metry of Bisa ‘pecal affine ransformaton, called an tamer (ot rigid) aie tansor- Imation. Since the exhogoealtranaformavons of E form 2 group. fom 6525) and 6.26) i follows tha the wulty of sometres (oF Fi afin transformations) consitates «subgroup of the affine group called the group of womeres ofthe Euclidean grup of rigid motions of E, which is {he basis of Buchan geometry. “The derivative mapping Fe given by Definition 48, ofan isometry F -B°-a8? is remarkably simple, as indicated inthe Tolowing theorer 436 Theorem. Let Fb a omar of E wth hoon part 6. Ten Faly=(Onn aun) oral tangent scr of (Jor a pictorial explanation se Fi. 19). Prof. Wate F=IG ain Theorem 524 Lt be aeration by 2 vector €. 30 that Fip)=e Gig). Iya wangent vector of E> then by Definition 421, Fay) the tangent the carve />F(p +19) at t=O. But [pr ee Penis 5. unm cnours * cage Ly of Gwe ts econ netrss)etinctd) ceecohercna Rose vise FG)" LAH eer Glne" Gey» OED. ‘We can expres (5.3.12) in terms of Euclidean coordinates as oan argent langen! eco of Ee same pip ond y)-Fols =m (a4) Proof. Let G be the orthogonal part of F. Thea by Theorem 5.36 and Defintions 5.12 and 3.55 we obtais Fay Fal) (Oday tOm ng (G0 QED. SAR Remarks 1. It shoud be ste to dop the pot of appliaion irom te nation, and wit (53.16) simply a8 F(s)Fytm) 9-9 2 In other words, Cooly $3.7 asserts tat foreach point p of £? the denvaive mapping Fy, of an wometry Fof Eat pis an oropooal teansormation of tangent Spaces (differing (rom G oaly by the canonical ‘Somorphism of E mentioned inthe paragraph ast preceding Defniton 355). From Corollary $3.7 it follows automaticaly that someuies also pre- sere te eoveeps derived tom the inner product such as oem and Crtogonaly, Expicily if Fis an isometry. ten | F(0)= and iv fd w are orthogonal, so are F,() and Fae). Ths frame (se Definition 3556) are alo preserved that ee a fame at some pot pot E land Fis an wometry then F(e,) Fale) Fate) is a frame at FO) S49, Theorem. Given any oo ames on Ey eye a pin p ond itty ata pan @ thor es w ams ome F of E bach hat P)=@ and Fale )=E form Proof First we show that there it such an isometry. Let & and , for i0t.25 be the points of E canonically corespoadiag © the veto38 1, EUCLIDEAN spaces And f, respectively. Then there i unique linear transformation Gof E och that G(@)=f, for f= 1.23 (ee Exesite Lf Seton $1) sexy 0 werly that is orthogonal. Let be a tanlation by the post @= Gin “hen the isometry P= IG carries the frame eee tthe frame {fy fact fet we ave F@= MG) 60)+4-64 ‘Then wing Theorem $3.6 we obtain Fe) =(G nnn ‘To prove the uniqueness, we notice tht by Theorem 5:36 only G ean be Ae orthogonal part of the requied isometry. The trnslatin part ste completely determined also, since it most carry ip) to 4 Hence the Ssometry PAG is uniquely determined. QED. ty for tm.2,3 ‘Toe isometry in Theorem 5.3.6 can be computed explicit ax follows. Let (env eata) and fC yf) for 41,23. Then by Theorem 5:14 the mations 6=(«,) and $=(/,) ate orthogonal and we calm hat ‘the marx of G in he theorem is "$6. sulies to show that "SB@)=L ‘since tis wiquely characterizes G. By using the colum-vector conveaton we ave that i, "560i, Simitry, FECE)~F, for i=2, ‘mentioned above, must be 8 translation by ¢ Cl). Thus G='56, As Exerdoes “Throughout these etrcises, G and G denote orthogonal transformations (or their matrices), dh 9.g and x(x.) ae veto of, and Hit 2 tanaaion of Eby 2 fed vector 1. Prove that Gil, = Hof 2 Given somerien Fe t.G and Fett thogonul parts of FF and FF. 3 Lete=@3,~1) and find the translation and of- 1g VE oo 1 to VE 5. uawean onours » HW poG.~2.5), fied the coordinates of the post @ for which (a) Ae H.600% ©) 4=(16) “OF ©) a= GHD) 4. Ineach case decide wheter Fis an somery of. [omer exists find the teansaton and orthogonal pat, @) Ppa ©) FUpe(ree wbere © PRIMES BHF. DFO 5 If 1s a tanslation of E°, then for every tangent vector vof E? show that 11) 8 pall. 6 Prove the general formulas (FF)_~ FF and (F~")e=(F. special case where Fand Fare omettes of 7.) Late bea fame st point p and let 6=(ee3.) sven by G57) 11 Fis the nometry tha caries the natural frame waa the point Oto this frame ez. show that F= 5" ©) Letts be a frame at's point q and let Fe Uht.f)) Use [Execs 6 1 prove thereat inthe text that the wet that carries the frame ej 10 the frame ff has the ortogonal pan 56, 8 (e) Provethat an isometry F= HG caves the pane through a poist p ‘orthogonal othe vector q tothe plane through Fly) orthogonal 12 i. ©) His the plane through (},~1.0)erthogonal to (0.1.0. iad a laometry Fo HG such that Fle) is the Plane Gwough (1,-2.1) ‘orthogonal 19 (,0,~ 9 Given = 422.1, ey }(-2,2) $1.22) at the poiat p= (0.1.0) and fy =(1/V3 1.00, f, (01.0). =(h/VEQL0.—1) the potat qm, 1:1 find the isometry Fx HG tha cares the fame fey 10 te Frame ff or the 4. Orleans, In Section 1.1 we introduced aright handed rectangy- lar wibedron io E?. Similily, we can define lettchanded rectangular tehedron in 2, so that we obtain an intuitive onenation of rhedron ia 2B Replacing the thedrons by frames ives the fllowiegdefisiton of & ‘mathemati onenation. SAL, Defion Let eee, be 4 ame in Eat pat p. Then from (05.7 and Deinivon 35881 felons het levereyindet B21, (6a) Where 5 isthe matrix (ee) given by (0.57). The frame eye© 1. eveupeAN spaces ste ried eri handel) omega eed (Handed) ‘The following ests are obvious 442 Remarks 1. At each point p of E the frame assigned by the ‘ataral frame fel neg even by 4) pouively oriented, 2A teame ees, postvely ofented if and onl fe, xe, ey 3. For positively onented frame ey, the vector producs ate emeixese exe, eae exe, (542) ror a negtvely oriented frame ey reverse the vectors in each ofthe ecor products above. [Next we ose (6.1.13) to tach sign to each inometry of £2 S43 Defniton. The sien ofan isometry F of? ste determinant of ‘he matrix ofthe orthogonal part G af F, and is denoted by sen Fodes. 643) The derivative mapping ofan tometry cares a frame to frame, and ‘he following lemma gies effect onthe onentation of» frame SUA Lemma. Ife, is frame a a point of E?, and F ison omar, then Weslo). Fol) Fee in (oan Fientyes (544) Proof. Les ghee Then sing (32.13) we obtain Falgd= > sats 643) where G= (a) i the orthogonal part of F Thus the matrix ofthe frame Fle FledFe) , ween gas where ‘6 isthe transpose of B= (e,). From (54.6) and ($4.1) Follows 5. uvean onours o ‘oat (ley), Flea), Fale det(G'6) = (der Geer shen Fie.) where he Ig sep follows from (541 ad (543). By ung Delinion 541 we ready obtain 4 corollary. SAS. Cova, Let F be an omery of B?. If gn Fol, then Fe torrie patton (reece, negatoe) oriented frames 10 pice (- {pects negtoeh) event frames. On the aher hand. if sgn F= 1 Posie goer to negate, and negate 'o psi. S46 Defer Ax iometty F of E? is oremation presercing (or a ‘proper motion) sgn Fal, and is erentation recering (Ot 4 mproper ‘motion == £47 Examples 1. Tromltons Al translations are orientation pre- Serving I fact rom (52.1) the orbogonal part ofa tanslaton Fis just {he idenity mapping 1,40 that gn Fede T= + 1 "2 Rotons.” Consider the ecthopoaal wansformation F given by (51.19, sbich rotates E? clockwise through angle @ around the x20. The matin of Fis “Thus aga Fodet P= +1 showing that Fis oseatation preserving 3 Reflecns. A veiecton in 4 piven plane SY Xyty ane, i a saapping F such that FQ) (~P1 3-83) forall pats p=(. 7.2) Bo Obvious, Fis an otthogoral weasormation with matrix te and is therefore an orientaton-eversngometry, a confirmed by the fact, ‘ht the mor image of «pt ban i Tl hand SAR. Lemma, Let et be frome a point of E If Bae oano 1. eucupens spaces ‘hen the eectr prt of vad w is Ca vewesf, G8, Gay) yo Inhere Be leyeye|= 21 Proof Equation £438 flows esl (rom ($47), (3.3) ($42) and he comenponding equation fo 4 nepaively onenied fame ee, pte ie om nome on he vector product he cate fhe SAB, Thavem., Let ¥ and w be tangent sectors of E? ata pat pf Fit ‘an nomery of then Falvem) = en F) Fol) Fale) 649) Proof. Write v=22.» 1) and 9=22_ wp) and let @, = F(9) Since Fy is nea, we have ote Flnd= Dine, By means of Lemma $48, a strighforward computation shows that Fale) Fale) BFC), where metres Fa). Fate). Fat) Since west is posvely oneated, by Lemma 544 we obtain 5 (oon Fyap).ns).(oh sen F ence (54.9) i proved SAI Theorem Ler and w be tangent eco of Eat apn If F ison iometry of, then Pata), Pale), Fao Fes 6420) Proof. Using Corollary $3.7 and Theorem $49, and noticing thet Iuwiwrxm, we obtain (3.410) immediatly. 5. unmn oxours 6 Exe 1. Let Fand Fe iometies of £2, Prove that sea FF )= en Fsen Fosea( FF), and deduce tat sen F=sen (F-, 2 Kyi aa erientationzevening nomety of, show that every etalon reversing isometry has a unique expresion FF, where F is an orieaation peering some. 3. Let y= G1, —1) and w=(—3,—3,) be tangent vector of Eat pot Show that o-| is orthogooa, and very the formule. Galen) = (E26) Gl "4. Prove that a rotation F (ie, an orthogonal tansormstin F with det Fo) does route E around an aus. Explcily.gren a otaon F show tht there ext a number # and ports eyey.ey ih 6 =6,, such that Frey) =eyorn0 + int, Fle) = esd +000. Fe)=e, *S. Let ebe point of £ sch that fel =I, Prove thatthe formals Gip)mexp+pre for every point p of £? defines an orthogonal transformation, De serbe its peer efecto {6 Prove that all oestaton-peserving ret of ? form sonal subgroup of index? in the poup of woretnies of E 7. Let, and Fy be two orientation reserving iometries of F?. Prove tat tere i CUfamily of onemtation-presenang mometnes FU). Orc tol such that FO)=F, and Fl) =F“ 1. BuCLIDEAY spaces DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 61, 1-Ferme 4, Definition A tform ¢ 08 Bis «tea-ralued function on the set TUE?) ofall angen vectors of E such tht 9 sien at each point that borin) = 04(9)+66() 61) for any numbers a,b and tanget vectors v.w at the mame point of £2 [hae at each point pg 8am slement ofthe Jual apace of 7B). 18 it ese the notion of [orm is dual to that of vector Fld) On £?, let @ andy be I-orms, and fa reabvalud function. Then 6+ and fate defined a follow: (H+H00=40}+ 960) fora angen vectors, 12) LUNG I=MODOG) forall tangent vectorsy ata pointy. (6.13) Fora vector Feld vom E*, at each point p of E? he value of (0 isthe number 4(y) If g() i difereniable whenever vi, then $ i said 10 be ‘Eferensabe. As with vector Held, all forms wil be assumed 10 be ‘ferenabe. From the definitions it follows realy tht (ys Hinear im both 6 and w that i, ov 59)=/469) +000). wy (Jo e900) =7000) 44900. «iy, where w is «vector fil, and Jae functions. in ters of @rectional derivatives, moet important way of asining ‘rms tea fuvetion i given i Definition 6.12 412 Defi UJ » iterate rentals uneton on E, te ‘Stel Yi te Lor sch tat Ay)=yLS)foraangenvesorsy,. (6.1.8) In fact, df «form, singe by Definition 361 it 2 ealalued function om tangent vector, and by Theorem 36:8 it linear at each 61.3, Example. yorms on E, 1, The diferente dey dey dey of the natural coordinate functions 4,4, By Lemma 362, trom (61.6) se obtain ; -Zesen. Gin 6. DipreRENTiAL FORMS 6 “Ths th al of don am nba tangent oct, he th coordinate, af eeir prt sd does tot epend on the point of aplication p 2: "The Horm $= 3). de. Since ds is 8 Iform, rom (61.2) and (613) i foiows that i ao» Worm for any fantions ff, TRE ‘ale of om 2 arbiunry tangent veto is en ( Bae) = S senpaciod= finde, (618) sample | showe thatthe Mforms dey dedsy are the analoues ofthe angen vectors of the tatral coordinate faseons x. for pois Retell der dey dey are Ihe als of the natural ua vector Tels resus snc fom (7) we have (ee Corollary 111) (u,)8, (19) Gd Lemma. Let x ty Be the marr cordate factions for pos In BD. Then dey de diy comida Bass of the dua pace of the tangent space TE, hat is (0) ded de ae linearly independent. ond (Sia form on then on Dis (6.1.10) f=eis,). e109 ‘These functions fff ate ealed the Eucdean coordinate functions ae Proof. (2) Suppose that there are numbers eecyts sich tat Beebe 60, Then Eeyede(y,)=0 for every tangent vector. and in paveclat 33. ,ee(u) 0, for) 1.2.3. From (6.19) itfllow that cj=0 Forju 2.3: Thus dye. ety Fe linearly independent {ah Stee by defilvon a Mform ita function oe angen vecton. 6 and pda are equal i and only Hf they have the same value on ery tangent vector ye Beno (oun Fora form ¢ from (6.1.12), (61) and (1.11 it allows readily that Benin} - Sseleion= 3 sin hich sequal to C22 de Ky) by (68). Hence (61.10) eabished66 1. euctipeas spaces 415. Cortar, ffs erent action on 8 tan a 3 as, (11 Proof. The value of the righthand side of (6.1.1) on an arbitrary tangent vector sven by (6112) is 22 y(@1/3x,Xp)0, which sequal to by Lemans 362 and Denon 6:12 Either Coraltry 6.15 or Definition 6.12 gives immediately that for bfterentabie functions f and dsen)ndieds, Substituting fe and M/) in tora for fn Corollary 6.1.5 and sing the ‘hain rule (Theorem 236) forthe later ease, we ean cay obtain the following two lemmas about the effect of don products and compositions of functions 616 Lama Let fe be the product of diferente fanctins fan gon © Then ayers say (119) 612% Lama Let fs +E and be Eo! be dierenable faction, 430 tht the comps nein MJ. EE" lo eifeentable. Then aa =" DM eu) where the prime denotes the ndinary derieaie. ‘To compute d/for a given function fe can also we (6.114 and (61.18) ther than substtate tn (613). Then by reane of (16) we can obtain 1 the directional derivatives off. For example, soppore folly bette +2)y From (61.14) and (6118) follows immediately hat fm (I=? )de+(—Bay te? +2) dy +2yede, Thus for v=(ej 02-05) and 61D, aL Mba) (0-80, (20902408 +2)e5 2p, ey (ps pasPy) obtain, in consequence of Exerces 1 Letvea.2,— Dana} 0, ~5,2) Evaluate the following forms on (a) Fabs () ydensd (©) deel 6. rennet rons o 2. geBha {ds and vB ony show a he Mom 9 eased tne wert w te neon a0) 3. alate he Horm gy dasa om the vs ids © ryt emy & won nay saa © Warvdim 4. Express the following differentials in terms of df: (a) d{ /°), and (b) AVP) wer f30. Snack of he flowing cae compute ein ff and ind Sc Src aerate ff ee v=Gek 1) a8 poULS Sora? ys; ©) f=) (9) f= sitoy)¥00(x2). 6 “Which of he fotiwing re frm? In ach cae 9 te fenton om tangent vector sch hat the ae OF #00 elect, fr mipmap # e amen 0) reps cantar (8 ylximai task (©) 0:0 (a2). In case $ is a form, express it as Bones, 1. ove Lemma 6.1.6 det fom Deion 61.2 At orm gis em ata point pf) 0 fr ll angen vectra 2 Use Lemma 38210 prove a p+ eel pt oe Detson Bayer tancton tan ony op 62. Extelor Mutpenton and Dieentiaion. To sudy diterena! forms of higher depres on Ewe fist have 42 Definion The exterior or wedge multiplication A onthe diferen- aks dry dz ofthe natural coordinate fusetons xy 23.35 of Ei associative, dtnbutve, and anticommotaie that i for ll, = 1.2.3. enites (dads, dey ds,\(ds,Adsy), (62.1) (dept rdiye de Adaya Ady (22) de rdsy= aed, 623 From (623) we immediatly have pay (29 ‘We shall further estiet our definition by assum deAdeye0 toe ia) 29 Using (62.3) and (62.4) we can easy ste that for k22 aa, Ade,“ 1. BucuDeaN seaces cannot be zero nles atleast one index / it repeated. Moreover, for any Permutation ¢ of (h:="yk) 22, we have Big hi Abia tain" Ai 29 where he ign ofthe permutation, which is 1 or ~1 depending on Sheth’ oi even or odd. “To the exer multiplication of diferent above we ale ain INdsye dey, AeA fs) fde,Ads, 27 ‘where fis area fonetion on 2°. Teclading Mfoema defined ip Section 61, pform ora differenti form of degre pp =0,1,2,3, 09 Eis defined a follows 422 Defnton Let f fy fy be dilferennbe functions on £2. On a Oform susan fa Iformi an expresion Efi, (tearing (0 [Lemma 6118) a 2form san expresion fae, deyt fede Ad th dyA, dey and a. form i an expresion fdx,AdsjAdsy. A form i sero (eapectivly, of class C”) if all he eoefcent functions of is expression fare zero (respectively, of cass”), Beery pform with p>3 on B? is zero, since in each term of ts expression some di, mut be repeated From the definition of a vanishing form we can easly prove Lemma 623 623. Lemma Two forms of the same degre wih repect to the same ‘arabes ore eual and anh 1 all ei comepondng oes uncon re equ. Section 6. defined the um of two orm on Dido, dm Sade, (628) ote aie A eee Butane, (628) Simla, we have defnitons of the sums of two forms and of 140 624 Defiion The sum of m0 forme = 3 anne, eS ti Ade, (62.10) 6 mermmews yrs ° Baste E (444, )d dey (ey ‘and the sum of two 3-forms “ oP nfany desi fee Ade nde (62.22) 24a S47 Jeri ndes dey (6213) By sting Definition 62.1 and (624) and (6.27, we can easly compute the exterior product of two forms, and in general ve obtain Lemma 625. 625. Lemma. On E? the exterior prot ofa parm ond a form is @ (pa) form 0 tht ouch «producti edomancally 200 whence P+q> 3 626 Lemma, If band are fore, then eava-vne. (6214) Proof of Lemna 6.2.6. Let ¢ and be expressed by (628). Then by (627) and Definition 62.1 ve have dnte 3 faterndeye— 3 edesntnm vere. (62.19) QED. “The operator d of Definition 6.1.2 asigns a form df to 8 form fof ‘ass Ch We can generalized to an operator, alo denoted by d. which fuss a (+ I}orm dot a plorm oof class C" by snplyappviog d to tbe colficient functions of the expres ofa. More precely we have Definivon 627, 627, Definition The exterior dercaioes of forms 4 and oof cass C! ‘xprented by (628) and (62 10 se en Sarde, debe D diyAdesAde,. (6216) From Definition 62.7 i follows a once that the exterior derivative of any form of depres gree han 3 rer. Basing Corollary 615 we can, faly obtain the exterior derivative of Be [form expressed by (6.2.8) (B-BJanas (2a)” 1. euctpeas spaces {eis aloo cary to verily thatthe exterior differentiation is nea (his i true fo the parculr eave in Definition 61.2), hat i, dag by)maderbie, (621) where ¢ and are arbitrary form, and a and bare numbers. “The Following there shows that the exterior differentiation does not slays sty the ordinary product formula. 628 Theorem Let be 0! fnction, and forms of clas C', ands an arbitrary C* form. Then HEAP MdEA~4Add. (62.19) afoynainwtsde. (6220) Proof. Let and y be expressed by (628), Then by (62.15, (62.10, and (62.14) we obtain dgnd= 3 a Nanas, = 2 [ea artsae rdeinds, ~ Edrteneplsy % fdssAdeyAds, dne-onay. ‘The proo of (6220) wil be et as as exercise 62% Theorem (Hl. Poincard. ison arbitrary C? form, then Feo, 22) Proof. Since every orm with p>3 on E? is zero, we need only consider the cates of 4 Oform and 6 4 form. When 6 sa Oform J, by (6113, (634 an Dion 627 He obs or Bd tla 3 stint nen ay ay (ae sth)aint Since if class C2 84/(s05)-23/(0x,25)=0 for al dtc and Fihence a0 6, pirvenariaL rons n ‘Wen gis «form, et @ be expressed by (628) Then from (6216) it fellows tat end 32 *y, > 3 6210 Defiion A C! frm wis cloned it =O, A frm wis exact it therein C! form & mich that umd rom Theorem 6239 follows that ecery exact form i cle. Letvm (oye 0) bea vector fil of ass Con B?. Then we define dy to bea vector fli the composentvisg thai, 49 (do, dy). (622) By 13) ets obi Pee 3 ge S an(3 Bae 32a, 32. where a in Section 33, 2/ax foreach is vector field defined by av_ (de ae 20 £-(2.2.2) (622 [Now we can define the folowing combined operator 5 of the vector preset % andthe exterior product whichis very ieful as we shal se {Ete af important applications in Chapter 4 621 Defoiion Let fields of clas C*on 2. Thea (6225) From (6228) it follows that idm isa vector Feld and. atthe same time is alo a form, Sinlay, dv caw is vector Field and ako a 2-form.n 1 Moreover, we can have avhawndwicae, avk(dwedm marian dykan, ‘where is another vector field of class Con E>. (6229 Erect Ae Let gmyedetds and dey, Find the standard expressions forte) @Avand @) de Let f and 4 be real C! functions. Simplify the following forms: (a) AERA Ha O) A IMEAGA ©) defeat see) Prove 6220, Prove thatthe form ds-tydy-+ed i both closed and exact on z Prove thatthe form (yea Adetyander(P—x hb Nby ‘exact on B 2 For any three bors = 3}as fy 1.2.3, prove that ln fa a tArrirtse|la Fa Sislanndesndss Mn a fa La fad bre eno E Pov at anae-| Sloane, and deduce that af”dem —deAdf, where the subscripts x and 0 ‘denote the pata derivatives with rapes ow and, respectively 8% On £” between the rystem of dierent forms and the system of SERor mass hee tre oewane comespendnes (0) and Bait 3a pen rash Adrants tn vetr analysis f° the following operation ar base: Gradient onc aay y 3 6. DIFFERENTIAL FORMS 2 Curt a vector fil = fs (24-28 = Be out Bena) tae” ae ta Se Divergence ofa vector fled v= 3). divye ae, rove tat all tree operations may be expresied by exterior deriva tives a follows: 0) eS tom de Sen (0. oS, en dom(sr dey 63, Strectual Equations Let ee bea positively oriented frame at 4 ‘olat x on £°, Then by Definition 3.36 grb RLS. (an) Since, scoring to (62.22), dx isa tangent vector of EP atx, we ave axe Does 632) where wy sysy ae Morms on £?. Silay, dem Saigy lds, 633) ‘where w, are Morms oa 2 ‘Now consider «carve fa(t) in £2. Then by the chan rule (Theorem 234) we ean wri the tangent vector of us eurve atthe pont x a8 634) ‘Thar the vectors 633) the angen pace T(E?) of a th pot ta is the space hat ‘Botan the tangent vector fal the carver in Bough Since 7) eee eB tnget eco (63) te Uneary independent 50” 1 tat fn.23, 639) where Ge Exerie 4 of Seton 3.4) et (a,) #0. wan (nthe other hand replacing v by xin (6223) we have i, (638) (Comparison of (6.3.2) with (63.8) and use of (636) yield = Beds, 11.23. (639) ‘Thus fom (6.39), (63.7), Lemma 6.14, and Exercise 4 of Section 3.4 again follows easly «lens foro 63, Lemma 04.05.04 dened by (632) conte bass ofthe duel ‘pace ofthe tangent pace TUE?) atthe point x Taking the exterior derivatives of both sides of (63.1) we obtain ede tderey=0, i, fo,2.3 (6310) Substituting (63.3) fa (63.10) and uring (6.3.1) we have yt LAH, (aay which imply yn, tal, 3 (6312) Exterior diferentiaton of (632) and ube of (6220), (63.3), and Theo- rem 629 give Since ee.) linearly independent, the equation above implies daym DoyAgy 11.23, (63.13) Simla, by exterior difeentntion f (6:13) we obtain dye Seraheye hdeh2 a9 7. Te CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS s ‘We cll (63.13 and (63.1) the str equation’ for the forms. whet), Erect 1. Prove (63.16. 2, THE CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS “Tosmy be Ese eutin of te xa vio 0 ae canes one he protien af dng Cee «Bren Oy >98) PE through two points p= (xo, %9} a(x, ¥1) such that the integral t= fhe y.9 de om tee y'=dy/ds ea Jb 4 C¥ tno a ee vie 3. ISL eucelte The ountons Faroe 0 ere is sland wc fata hh oe 3) date a neigoring caved Cpsing rough pan Let 0) ee ga tenement a Noe f'hnyteey rane o where w= duds Then on expanding fin Taylor's series (Theorem 222) weave He) Ime f"Uper yale 3) here =3//87/ = 8f/2y, and te writen terme ae of degree 22 Ine aad weal ” sme fyursees 7 ‘the frst carton of the integral J Iaterating the second term of the {ntegand of (15) by parts and making we of (3) we obin sims Spo on “The inter! 1s said tobe statlonay an athe eoresponding extrema if the fan variation 87 i 270 for every function w satstng 3)7% 1 Bede, oias os» wire 3 0 rad gy 6 ob ooh Be, oa Comparison of (6.3.2) with (63.8) and we of (63.6) yet inns (39) “Thus from (6.3.9) (63:7), Lemma 6.14, and Exercine 4 of Section 34 again follows easly x lemma for, 62d. Lemma, sys y dened by (622) comsiue a bats ofthe dual ‘pace ofthe tanger space TUE?) athe pont x aking the exterior derivatives ofboth sides of (63.1) we obtain ede tdere=0, 1/2123. (63:10) Substituting (63.3) in (63.10) and using (63.1) we have ey tm.20 bi, (oa which ply aon, i223 (63.2) Exterior diferentaton of (632) and use of (6220), (63.9), and Theor sem 629 give 0- 3 (de, Aa +e, eds D 60,00, Since at linearly independent, the equation above implies aye Deen i123. 63:3) Similar, by exterior derentnion of (633) we abtin faye Zadeh. 19 11. Te CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS 1s We call (6213) and (63.19 the sracaal equations fr the forms, here i, Ja, Exeneet 1. Prove (6316. 1, "THE CALCULUS OF VARIATIONS “To study the Ener equations ofthe cleuls of variations on plane cures. consider the problem of fndiag a C' curve « gen by y=y(x) Pang ‘hough two points p= (xy, 34) @C5n 34) sch that te integral t= [ilar rae oy where y'=dy/dx and f 8s C? function in all de variables 7.9% ‘Mains an extremal vale The equations aye, 0 where is small aad w i C"function of such hat 0 for xen 8 on Aefines a pighborng curve & of C passing trough pand¢ Let Ie) be te intepal (7.2 coresponding to hat is, 1)= foarte. 940, om where u's du/ée, Then oo expanding fin Taylor's series (Theorem 222) wwe ave Kem tnef sorts 3) where =f/2y fy = 3f/2y', a the unsriten tema ase of depeee 22 in and we call teal" Ujorhsst 0 the frst cariaton of the integral /- Integrating the second term of the {ntegrand of (76) by pars and making ws of (713) we obtain sine" En oe on “The integral / is sud to be stationary and a the corespondingexremal. if the ft variation fis tro for every "function w saushng (13)6 1. avetapens spacs Te Lemma If f2p(x)Flx)deO for continuous F(x) and ell C! (or eninacas} p(x) om the itera xy <6, hen Fx)=0 for #ELng 4h Proof I there 36 59 0, Then by cntiny tere e's weiner Ey veh FE) Pls}=0. eke or OK, PIPE-EME Of 0, which contadits the assomption, Hence so such {may east ‘QED. ‘Theorem 72 fllows immediatly fom (7.7) and Lemma 7 72 Theorem a is a extremal carceof the integra 1A) if and oy i safer bya. os sich scaled the Euler equation fr the extremal ‘The Euler equations for surface functionals can be derived in the same nay. Moreover, Theorem 72 ean be extended fo pieseise C' curves (ee Definition 12.2) as flows. 74, Theorem (6. Erdmann For negra (2.1) Jor apeceiseC! carota loon by yx) pasing Brough to pes P= (Xq-9y) 48.34) oath forex #2(2,),) om the line sme, (3 Fi. 10) 10 aan on extremal ole, he cure t mat sate i ation to the Euler uations forthe rs pe anda toy | 4 ree 18 7. THE EALCULUS OF VARIATIONS n shee Sop lea rtd Ly hy (ain Yom mya 48). yl myx 8. 0) Prof. tn ti ca, since we stam Gat te vere of piceie scien cote ofa th more dent eine oy te Sepa) TePihoeibe te mega 3) ph net pe roe Hem [My tee. y teu )ae fin an + flyer tide, taif"wehalderef"Uwrhalde, 012) Integrating the second term of the integrand ofthe fit itera of 7.12) ‘and making we of (73), we obtas [sweet [odin oa worn fekl hae her =o) Seigneur end Sosa Gi oe roel (un deiletroel’ (hk oaeovats, From Lemma 7.1 and Theorem 72 for the ates pe and rg it follows that reo gives the sequed conditions, and Theorem 7.335 Uherlore proved I) Breet 1. Compete the argument ofthe proof of Lemma 7. by considering the case fy 28d 6% 2 Find extemal for the following itera fo [Pv0erind. [ott 16 © [lors nde "O79? ays ne2 Curves In his chapter we study cvs in & Eaten space Ean ao in Eochdean plane Einependenty. We ge nel propers of te cares fr thea oa proper, ree 1 GENERAL LOCAL THEORY LA, Parametric Representations. Let '=[2, 6] be an intel on the re line £1. Throughout this chapter we shall ssn thi interval 1 to be ia ‘sencralzed bese, whic allows a= ~ my, bo 4 2,08 both ‘There are various notions ofa curve in E. However, this chapter deals only with the curves ven bythe fllowing definition LAE Definition A curve in 2 iteentiable mapping x J-s8? of 1 iE! Fer each (© we have ACD ACO). a where xj. are the Euclidean coordinate functions of x (by Delston 44.11, Chapter Ian is called he parameter ofthe curve x. Ths 3) ean tbe considered a the postion vector of ming point onthe image set (1) of the curve x which ean also be expressed By f(y) 20) 0) In the following we give several examples of curves that are used ater. A curve x /-E? shouldbe isingushed Irom te image set xP). Two curves may have the same image stat strated by item 6 of Examples 1 12. 112 Example. Straight ne, ts the simplest type of curve in B. Explicly the curve £2 = given by ai) pg (Py ta, Pe tes) (112) 8 eat Peat (Pa Ps) Ad 4 (ay 44s) ie aah Line eho the ois p= 10) inte @ ditecton 2 Hele (Fig. 21) 18a curve x: E'-E? given by aC) (ocost.asinrb), 090,60, 113) rising ata constant rate on the cylinder x}-+.=., and ia aio be ight ‘winding. I i negative insead of postive, the helix i aid to be lft ‘ding. The xyans is called the avs, snd 2b the puck of the Bel. 3. Care with cup (Fig. 22). The carve x: E!—=E" auch that x9=02,P) wa Notice that x(0)=(0,0). The erga (0,0) sealed & x. “4 The curve x E08? such that aU)m(O-8-2.P 2), EB a3) liminaton of «from (1.15) gives x}ax}~3rysy, which would not make the she ofthe graph of the curve (Fig. 23) easier. Notice dat x(= I) 22)=(0.0) 50 that the mapping x's not inject% 2. curv Rene 5. The mapping X:E-2E° given by a(A)=(6. i). LEE", is not aie fereaiable curve snc not difeeniableat 0 Fig.2). ‘Two cues a(t) (coetsin 0) cy Wem (cos2esin24.0), 0¢r626, have the same image set, namely, the uit cede xj-+az= 1, y=0, and both describe the motion of point onthe unit ele counterclockwise But the ec i raversed once in the fist case and twice im the Second U3 Defation By (33.10) of Chapter Land Definition LL, for & cease x: Fa? pen by (LL) we have (= (x0. 400). aan here the prime denotes the desoaive with respect to The veto (11.7) is ealod the tangent vetor ofthe curve X atthe pot (1; ef (410) of Chapter 1 Since a curve x can be considered 852 motion of a moving particle x ‘that is located at the point x1) at each “time” t the tangent vector x(0) ray also be elled the vec vector of xa ‘Givens curve We can consrut many new curves that follow the same path as bat move a different speed. LUA Defdtion Let Id J be generalized intervals onthe el line Letx: I-08) be carve and let hr =I bea iferentnbe (real-valued) fonction. Then the composite fupcuon yea(h): JE ay isa cure called the rparomeeiation of x by b Le res.16l,and Hi) (1s) “To compute the coordinates of y we can simply subsite (1.19) inthe corinates (0). (04 (0) x For example, suppose nO) m(F— 16 VE. 1, ONERAL LOCAL THEORY a Vi on £06169. Ks)=r? on J: OS 763. then Medesthinaxe)=(? 1.2.9) “Thus the carve x: /-oE? as en reparametried by to pve the cane y Jue! ‘Using the chan rule (Theorem 2.3.6, Chapter 1) and (1.1.7, (1.18) and (119), we immediatly obtain ihe following celauonstop between the tangent vector of a curve and the coresponding agent vector of a reparameiraton BLS. Lemma Let (0) 16. be the reparamerzain of a.cave x1 Toby hao a (1.19) hols Then vere Beawtnes ‘ua aoeoy Moreover under condition (1.11) f >) and (1) hav comes second derioaves R=) ond x(t) Jad I resecticey, (7) a has canta Yervied, “The last part of Lemma 1.15 can be proved a5 follows. Condition (4.1.11) plies nat isa monotone fenton of #50 tha and are in 3 fone to-one corespondence Thus the snvere function r= K(s) exis. and Re) would, a8 Ae), bave a continuous second devatve. Hence fom (C-210) follows that yr) has continous (>) i By the chain rule snd Lemna 3.62 of Chapter 1 se can obtain the following lemma concerning the cieesonal tangent of function *7d) respect toa anget sector of cure 146 Lm Lt ee cae Bnd erie no En A820 ore xls “This lemma shows thatthe rae of change of falog he ine through the point (inte dection X() the sme as tat along the core sel 1 Sketch the graph ofthe follwing curves £? and expess each cure in terms of & parame (a) 2ey 4345255 @) spree (C28e 2. cums yt; (@) The flium of Descartes 22 +x3=3jx, woth slope #of «| lie through the erigin as the parameter. 2. ind a curve x!) whore image sts the cicle s2-442 =|, 43 =O och ‘hat 4) moves clove around the ce wih MO)=(0.10) 3. Let x(¢) bea cuve in E not passing through the orga. If xf) i the point om the image set of x closest to the oii, and (lg) 40 show ‘hat the postion Vector x) ordogonal 1 the vector £1) 4. Find the (unique) curve x such that x0)=2,30) and (= (ender ‘What ea curve x) whose second derivative (1 is identi zero? 6 Leta: JE" bea cure with x(t) #0 for all (61. Show thatthe norm [sor the dfniton see G23) of Chapter 1 ofthe vector a) 3 nowzero constant and only if x0) orthogonal to x(¢) forall (7 7. For a fice the tangent line of eave at x), where x(2)#0, the suaight line uot) se (4) Find he tangent lines ofthe Beli x?) (@ eons, 2 sini) at the pont x0) and 31) 8 Suppose that M1) =Qooeesin2s teint) for Os rete Find the cordate functions of the curve y=a(h), whete A isthe function on J: Or I ruch that Kr) =n-" 9. Prove Lemms 1.16 412. Are Length, Veto Fields and Kos. If curve x: FE? has a 200 tangent vector at a point x), then from (1.17) we have (7) =0, and this it elled sng point of. The pot 10 in items 3of Examples 12s woch 3 sings pi 2A, Definition. curve x: I-rB? i eur it (0) 0 for all 16 Thus regular curve hs no sagulae pots On the other hand, we have 122. Defriton Let: 1=[e,b}-+E" be a mapping of Tinto BE xis Piecewise (oF sectional) regular (aooth, ey C* for some &> 1) curve i there ext finite parton of [ab] such that is itferentabie and regular (sooth in ech 1) for f= 0,1r-,n—1. The points xe) =O mare the vertices of and the image se of 4D) ae the rear Camouth arcs of x 1. GENERAL LOCAL THEORY 8 Intuitively, the tangents of the to ares at. ¢D and xe taiD through he verter x, maybe differen Thus poco regular meh) curve fails 0 havea wellefined tangeat ne oaly ata fine numberof “The curve in item 3 of Exareples 11.2 isa piecewise regular core Most of our ducusions oa curves ate fesuicted to rust Cine therefor fom now onal curves are assed to be regula les sated Let x: Imo, b]-+E) be a curve. For every parton 9 of (0, b] men lined above, we consider Bs Ib(,)~alh,-:)/=L9) whieh s the sum ofthe logis of the suapht segments (Mi) ayh fm levy oF the Teng of the polygon wig)t,)-" a, inserted in (0). Let 9) e the norm ofthe partion defined by FopemaN hoy behenam Then im 0.9) in led the ar emi, o shorter, the length of xT) and xi ito be restable, provided such 4 lini does ent and ft 124 Theorem A carve x: I-sE? with contin deisnce XU) recifble and are lng om fed pom! toa variable punt gen » ne [etna aan ‘The prof of Theorem 123 can be found in callus books. and is therefore omited here. Theorem 1.23 1 also ue for pecemse ceular uve x: JE with continuous desvative x(t) except a the vertices or 8 regulr curve x: IoE>, since x(e)00 for all from (121 it fellows tat s(t) isa iflerentabe fureton of rand $ aseum oy Ths he oa paneer she ae eg en x0 sod (121) ives that heat lenath ofthe cue x roms 28 abi just ma 124, Conary, The are lengths of «cure and replarreparamse on of ae coalu 2. cums Proof. Letx(t).a¢Sb, be a curve in £°,and let M1) 067 €f, be a egularreparametization of fr) so that M(r}#6, (=r). Then By (121) the length of the cure (he) PAE frm A 220 Fe gea(t f a laf forse >0 tor tte. we we Mab Mt tse Wage we unt f ecu 125. Conary. The ar length of curee x: +B? i ieriant under omeain of EY ‘Proof. Ths corollary flows fom he Fact that the iterand [x of (12.1) i an taner product of vector that it invarant under Isometie of (Corollary 337 of Chapter), 126 Theorem There exits a reparametnzatin y of @ cuce x: [-ok? Sch that yas ut tage vectors Proof. Fa mamber iy J, nd conser the are-length fnetions(0) ven by 1.2, Since X(1)0 for alls, fom (1.22) i follows at ds/dl>0. By a standard theorem of calculus, the function « har an inverse function [eis whose Genatve di/de at so) isthe reciprocal of i/ar at ass), parteulae, di/ae>0, ‘Now let be the reparamerization y(s)=i(s) of. Then by Lemma Liswehsve Seow hich ogee wi (122) dus mpes dat ve Inte Levietsi= £60) Sea 127. Definition A veputametsation x2) ofa cave a2) by 50 a "2 s) 8 onenation preter sf > 0, a i 6 monotone eresing [hd is criemation eersing if <0, that fis monotone decreasing, Inthe later case ofthe definition above, (7) and x(a) have the sme image set but are deseribed in opposite directions. The reparemetnzaton bose bythe at length 2 always onematon preserving ince de/dl>0 fora cure s0 1 Defniion 352 of Chapter 1 we defined vector field on £2, Now swe ve le variation fo define a vector fick on a curve x. /-+B?,and~ |. OPNERAL LocAL rHBoRY as then follow Definitions 3546 and 54.1 of Coaper 1 to define onested frame feds onthe curve x 12K Defeon A vector field» on @ curve =: IE? i ane tat ‘sigs to each aumber rin a vecor at) of Ea e pal x0). A vector Field a on w carve xis au ectr field if exch vector a) 6 wut vector We have already knows such a vector (eld, namely, the vector fed formed by all the tungeat vectors ¥(0) of the curve x Homever. for enera vector field each Yertor a) need te tangent to the curve 128, Defoition se of tee wait vector Fld 3, 084 UIE x! 1-585 frame eld onthe curve X denoted by xeeey eth. e.e40) se mutually ertogoeal at each point x()) A fame field see ose rene (or, ihhanded) ct negtcely creed (0, echaned) Gepending 08 whether lesonexe(oi= +1 or ' 29 at each point (0, “The properties of vector ils on curves in £? are analogous to those of vector fils on E, For example, fais vector field ona curve x: I=? Then foreach 1s we ean write (ef Lemna 354 of Chapter 1) am(a(o, 0-24 Man Facet). (129) Where u's are defined by (3.54) of Chapler 1, and the relsalued Functions ay-ey.05 on 7a called the Euclidean coordinate ction of. "The operiuoes of addition, salar mulpliaton ner product and secon product of vector fields om the same curve ae all deed in the ‘sual pmtvise fashion (ef. Sections 31-33 of Chapter "To diferente 4 vetor fied 4 on a cure x) /E?, 0 simply Aitecenate tu Eacsdesn coordaate functions aay: a) given by 123) tnd tus obuin a new vector field on x4 =32-a,/dl, Tn BD, coresponding lo dilleret properties of a mapping. we may have 1210 Defeiion 8 mapping x: I-oE? iss care of clas Cif ech of the coordinate functions ithe expeaion ne)—CaAth leh 440) Mas consnuoue derivatives of orders up fo and including L.A curve of lass C* iSrmerely «continuous curve 12MM, efoto 8 curve x 0 Es single fx is injective, ati if Mdabea(y) only when f= A cure x [a PIE? i eosed f(a) =X00%% 2 and is coved of class CA if tix closed and x(o)=x(6)e- xa) RC) For a carve x: E'E? if thee i umber p>0 suck that BC+ p) =e) forall he curve x peri, and the least such number p 1s the peri of [A difeentabie function that has arbitanty small periods must be conant (Exerc 8 of Section 12). "The curve it em & of Examples 1.12 isnot simple, and the period of a closed penadic curve ne) war lengih #6 the are length of the curve L212 Defoitin. A pesewize (or sectional) cepular or smooth curve (ee Definition 12.2) a: (a, D}-nE? wth serices 3). O,loos, mand Bench , which af fundamental inthe sudy of illerenal geometry of fms in E Tela: 1-8 be a regular cure, and let xe) be a postvely ‘onenied frame felon the curve & Suppe x to he of elas C*, and {eyes of cass C*, KD. (Although in mest of our dscussions in this chapter the ower of the class of the curve x need not be #0 high, for Simply we assume tis order to cover ll the eases) Then from Din scrsinnsy-{ 4 (an) ledetnacni=! (32) 1, GENERAL LOCAL THEORY 9 Since ee. ae lineal independent, we eas write a Beaten Sno. seo 133) be ion ees In other words. the functions 4, af skew symmetic in ij: therefore ainda ‘For the theory of curves we take #1 be the ar length and ete unit tangent vector. Then al pepe 036) tnd we shall wate # fort Nie tha buh e, and are dtemaned upto 3 ip, goometilly they are determines bythe onentation of the carve. We ‘hal ay that the caves oriented when a definite chose of e441 as been made “The method of frame eds iso find frame field ne, om he curve x ‘ach that eqantions 13 take a form a simple as pou: Tus method ‘ite commonly used in analytic geomet to reduce the equation of # eometne lige web ara quadre surface 1 canonical forma proper hole ofthe coordinate sytem, In eiferentalgeomety the fgres under ‘Sonsderation ae more general hos a frame fkd mut be wed “Fo kep e, anchanged, te mot general possible change of the frame rege, wien by exes coset sind i ym -efsind efcost, where @ isa fonction of #5 this i because thee isa rotation im the Suelane (ee Fig 27), The frame aeyjel(2) satsles 2 sistem of ‘dferetat equations of the same form a2 (13.3). whore coefcents are0 2. cums, Perez? noted by the sae symbuls with asterisks, Then find aha aces guint, am ansind + gscos6, ae from which i follows that a rag mahrat aay “The quantiy sa)= Va 4a i therfore independent of the choice of the vecors ee, proved of course tite, remains the tanget vector. ‘We call xs) the caoaure of the euve atthe pint x) Ina neighterboud of the pinta) suppose w(7)#0. Then (can be 0 determine tb asin +qjcos0=0, nai gf 70. This defines 00) up toa mule of» and ef op toa san Thus we have Theocem 13.1 13h Theorem In a nighborbd of «pint (2) ono care mE with Ge lngth ad ner uratare hr ext fu re els sees. 36(-8K-8) selene) 8K E oon) Jor each of which it tangent eto and ede t= 132 Defition ‘The frame Feds (13.10) ae called Frene fame fils ‘With respect to's Frenet ame fii equations 133 become de, des asap Meet, Share, od ae called the Frne Jonas fr the curve xm) and v() ate called 1. Gpwenat LocaL TH#oRY o the cxrcature and the tron, and thee reciprocals the rads of evvane tnd the radu of torsion of the curve atthe pot (7). respeeuvely The Tings neyney ate called the principal normal and the bncrmal. ad the planes vee, sey and eve, the orig plane, the norma plane and The vecBing plane of the curve the pOwt (0) repetice Any ie ‘thrush the poiot xs) i he normal ple called s nora line of the ‘eve at he ods 3). Ite clea hat the principal normal, the iaormal, he osclting plane. te aoral plane, and the Tecityng plane are ndepedeat ofthe pe of rene fame selected from among te four posse choices. The ame ‘rue ofthe torsion 1s), which ix therefore a savarant of the curve under ‘nenaton preserving somes The curtere x # not so: als the ‘gare of i valve & determined by the curve. Among the four possible rene frames we can determine «definite one by the fllowiag corven- thon: () 2 choice of, whch ean be described geometnealy by sting that am ointation i given on the care and (i) & ehoice of 60 a8 to Inakea(3)>0 ln fac the second choice isan orientation of he curve ia 2 severed sens “The corvatue of curve has the following geometscintepetaton. 124, Theorem. The curvature of acarve Cat apt Pit the limi of he ato ofthe ante betwen tangent veor at Pend @ tangent cai" at ¢ neghboring post Py C10 the re PP. the ait P, approaches P long ¢ Proof. Let Ce given by xs) with ate length x. and et te the ane between the uit tangent vector @(s 4s) and es) atthe points xis 35) fd ws) respectively. Then from the scl Wangl (ip. 28) it Flows fmumediately that lege 88) eo) 2sin $08. Thos in 2 = tim im 14S eC aT2 2. cunts Simialy we cam have the following geometric interpretation of the tortion ofa carve 13h Theorem The oson of cure C ato point Pi the inst of the ratio of the angle hrweensbinrmal actor at Pando Marna tor a @ Imephbring pont Py of Ct he are PP, the pot, approaches P lang entcal vanishing of the curvature or sion of a cure hat the following siaiteance 13S. Lemma, A curve i 8 sale Une fs w(2)%0, A cure Net In a plane tr r0)=0 Prof. te fst case from the recond equation of (1.3.11 i fllows that ey ie # constant vector. Integrating the frst equation of (L3.11), we obiain A(e)meuete, eon contant veto, hich isthe equation ofa straight lin (1.1.2 Tn the ceo ease, frm he lst equation of (1311) i flloms that ei 1 constant vector Since e,"6,=0, we hate Soves)erese0 a Hence xe, constant nd the curve le in plane 136 Lemma. 1 al he tangents 1 0 crc pss trough a fied point, the cure is sah ne. Proof. Leta be the fied point, and x(2) the curve with ae length & xeacey! a3) hove the prime Jenotes the derivative with respect to and not neo Ditferemation of (13.12) wath respect to 2 and use of the st two equations of (13.11) give (sen ene aay) Taking the ner prot of (1.3.13) othe, we thus obtain «= 0, so that the curves stalght ine by Lemma 135, 13%. Definition A curve © i called a Bertrand cace if thee exist, ‘another core C.dsinet from C, and a jection f between C and € mech that Cand C have these principal normal a each pao corresponding 1, Gaara LocaL TitoRY 2 res point under J, and then both C and © are called anecated Benrand “The essence of Bertand curves i a once evident from the fllowng theorem LAA Theorem, Every plane curve it a Bervnd cue. Proof. The theorem is obvious for suaight line. Now let Cy be the locue of the centers of curatre ofa nonretlnear pane curve C pie BY (2) mith are length + Then the enter of euratu (for the definon ee Detintion 142.3) of Cat the pout a) i ensint wae bere « and e, are, repectvely, the curvature and the unt priscipal ‘ormal vector af C at xs). Differentiating (13 14) wih respet to # and ‘sng the fst and te thd equations of (3.11) with r=0. we obtain dey as Geo Se 319 shee the prime denotes the derivative with respect to. Thus the curve © Bas the tangents of for principal normals, and the same iste of any tthe orthogonal ratory ofthe tangent of, (or the case «0. se Exerese 19 of Section 1), Henee Cuand C have the same princpal orale, 139, Theorem. A curce C with mncrocuratre «and nonser orion + 1a Berand carve i and on if i satsies the condition act 1318 whee and bare constant Proof. Let te curve C be given by xs) with ar lengths. ad let le(oyy(abee) bea Frenet fume of Cat x) ACTISE suppose that C6294 2. curves Bertrand curve. Then the point ofan asociated Bertrand cune C of C comesponding to x3) is of the form H(o)mxls)+a(2)e,0) (3.7) Dilleretating (13.17) with respect to # and wing (13.1) we obtain “ Ba anestereterey, (13.18) where the prime denotes the derivative with respect ts, Since /ds is ‘orthogonal to e.a°=0 of amconst Then diferentiation of (13.18) with Fespet 104 and use of the condition a'=0 give a “The vectoe 42¥(1)/e? es i the ovcuating plane of Candis therefore 4 inear combination of the vectors 43/dh and e,, Thus the vector “are, tare, i collinear with the vector 8 /d, From (1.318) i folloms that when actel we have, Because of 720, wert[(-anemar]etere, (13.9) Tat snd therfore (1.16) by slving thi differential equation. "Now let us discuss the excluded eae a= in which w= 1/a™ const s0 ‘hat C & of constant curvature and (113.7) becomes (118) with ng replaced by x which the equation ofthe locus ofthe centers of curvature fC. To show that the 3 in (116) generates a Bertand curve © associated with C, We shall ind & Frenet frame of C. From (13.18) we eadly bia the tangent vector of [ane 329 Which is parallel to the binormal vecoe eof C, since we have assumed 740. Difereniton of (1320) with respect to and we of (13.11) Be (aan ‘shih means that the binormalvetor of parallel othe tangent vector OFC. Hence the corresponding fetying planes of Cand Care pra 0 thatthe coresponding principal normale of Cand C are parallel snd Ci 2 Bervand curve associated srt C. Obviou (1.16) also stated in this ate witha= I/we and 6=0. 1. GevenaL Local TuKORY 9s Now forthe converse, suppose that C stifis (1.16) and define a cane Cby tae, am) Dlteenining (1.3.22) wth respect to. and wing (1.3.11) and (1.3.16) we Sattejsan) nd therefore aunt tangent vector 8 of E au (betes) 032 VaFeet Form (1.3.23) follows that fs toa Varn which implies (0) = 20,6). Hence Cis a Bertand curve 1810 Corotary. A curve C of constant curative ts @ Berirand cure Famhermare, ifthe tortion of Cts nl conta he eseiaed ore of Co ‘he locas of he center of cavaure of © and hs the same carve Was € Proof. If «is nonzero, then ia the proot of Theorem 13:9 we bave shows that Cis a Bernd corve witht associated curve the cus of the centers of curvature of C, and (3.16) 6 reduced to a= Ix, B=. Furthermore, wing Exerose 3 and (13.21) and (1.3.20, we obtain the ofeeSeey Fy" Tous Cis a curve ofthe curvature, Since being associated in he tense of Bernd is asymmetne relation, C must be the locus of the ceners of curvature of € LAI. Cooly, A lear els (4 const and + cost has finely. ‘many asciated Beriond cares, all of which ar cua bles with the Jame ass and ich as ©. Proof By Corollary 13.10 circular het Ci a Berand cure, 50 that (13.16) holds for C. A astcated curve of sucha evelar hel Cs tpven by (L317) with a(2) constant. Sine, i genera, condivon (1.3.16) etemines the constants a and b unless both wand raze comtant nd since in our case a canbe chosen abiranly and b matched subvequety,96 2. cunves Chas iafntly many asociated curves. Using Exerc Th its easy to heck that al the associsted curves are cesar Relies with the ame als nd pitch as 1302 Cora. Ifo carve C has more than one exscited Bertrand care ir has fey many asrciated Berirandcurcer and hs cate oars f and ony Ctra lca hl Proof. Suppose that a carve C has (wo distinct associnted Berirand curves given by ROG). Lea) temKe), hee and ay are ewo dstinet constants, Then by Theorem 1.29 there $ret constants, and, such that weebyr, Lmayembr aay By eliminating + from (1.324) we obtain (a,by—2,b)—=B,—by. which implies that a,b, ay, since by rb, Thus const. Simla, t= const ‘Using uniqueness teovem 132, we hence seth the erular helt the only such curve Eereses 1 For the belt (1.13), find (f. Exereie 1 of Section 12) (2) the ‘arvaure and torsion (note that ths ai is conta) (8) the wait Principal normal and binormal vector, (e) te equations of the ‘celaing, normal, ad reciying planes 2 Find the curvature and torsion for each of the following curves G) He)=(Gpoons, sine, — oor) © MOmG—Par ae), © mH). [3 Prove hat for the curvature andthe frson + of a curve xt), Geel ix. ©) reer lv ‘hee the primes denote the dervative with respect tf 4. Prove Theorem 1:34. 5. Consider the mapping (0), 120, M={(0.0.9, 0, lene). 20 ne. 0. 2 “3, 1s, n, ‘OUNERAL LOCAL THEORY 7 (2) Prove that a( i epulae forall (@) Prove tat fr the curvature x0) ofthe cuve a7 <(=0. Prove that if al the tangents toa curve ae paral, te eure isa stripline Prove that all the normal planes of the cune wi) = (asi 1esin cos cost) pas though the ong (0.0.0, Prove that if al the osclating panes ofa curve pas though 2 fed point, the curve i plane curve Prove tha fall the normal planes of » curve x(¢) pase through 4 Prov that the curve x) =(—€0820, 2eos0sn24) spel Prove that i all the principal normals of curve passthrough fixed point, the care is ether accurate ora whole ce ‘A olindical lx it defined to be a curve that intersects 2 gen GGrccuon a a constant angle, andthe direction is called the au of the helt Prove that a necessary and suficenteoneitin fora curve to bea cyinascal bel is hat the at of is eurvatre wi orion be constant () Prove that the curve x1) = at, wih constans a and bis 2 spindacal hel if and ony if 468 =? (What isthe as ofthe Rei in ths ease? Prove that te curve eavied aisya( finatanas £ fonetnras. 2) js indi Helin and n/n Trove that if the pnp normals of x carve area parallel fo & fred pln, the nea en Pec Find fnson 1) ch tha al the pip rma of he cane Najntsysyes) mre syaseste spent sym ft) ae Pall Prove ha 3 nonplanar uve ein lt ad ons ts ‘Rngent indent or Brora inde) pen by Definition 3.1.2 (crs snlrdeinion) sa pub cave ence eat oF 3 svi crt Prove tht associated Bertrand cures intercept a constant distance on thee common prepa nora8. m m, vu, 2 cones Prove that two concent cites inthe same pla Bertrand curves. are sscited Prove thatthe angle w between the tangents at cosesponding pints ofa Bernd curve © and an anociated Bervand curve € Let C bea curve with nonzero curvatures « and nonzero tron Prove that if Ca Bertrand curve, it satisfies he condition Uehere a isa constant, and w tthe angle between the tangents at covresponding poise of C and an asocated Bertrand cane © Conversely. prove that if C stises the condition above with con. santo, Cia Bertand ene. Prove that the produ of the trios at coresponding pint oft astcited Bertrand curves consant and postive. rove that if a carve C fs such tht thete ents another cure, distin trom C, sith the same binormaly the curve Ca plane fur, and the two curves intercept constant distance on thet common binormas cure Cis caled a Mannheim carve there ens another curve Cy stint trom C. and a byecton between C and C seh thatthe ‘rineipal normal at each point af Cis the binormal of Cat the Corresponding point under f- Prove that a curve € wth nonzero Canatare «and nonzero tesion ris Mannheim curve if and only ‘Cie satis the condition (ache ar? 0, vehore aie a constant, Let Cand C be 1mo curves such that C intersects the tangents of C ‘mogoaly, Then Cis called an inelue of C, nd Can evolu ot Cars 210 | other words a volute of carve an orthogonal raecor of COENERAL LOCAL THEORY ~ the tangents ofthe curve. Prove etch ofthe flowing (2) An involute of 2 curve x(s) witha length is gen by BUpons) He-Ne. where ia constant and es) the unit unger vector ofthe Eure x) () The tangent at point of a avout of a curve orthogonal (othe reciying plane atthe coresponding pat oC. (©) The ditance between two invoutes of a cuve C, measured along the tangents of C, is constaat; and the tangent of the ‘vo volte at points a each tangent of Care pale (@) ope end of string of constant leng {is fastened atthe point where s=Oon a cure C. andthe sting held tat and ‘wound along € 0 a5 to remain tangent 19 Cth cut ofthe ‘the end ofthe sting san iota of C (An evolute of cure a(z) mith are length nonzero curature ‘tnd terion +s Broa by SU)=MS) FALE) #BLNIELD where (8). es) are unit principal normal and bnoeeal vectors of x) spective). and enh ‘he prime denoting the derivative with respect tos (Any two involutes of 3 plane cure are accated Bertrand 26, Two curves ate sid to be parallel if betwees them there & 2 lection ander whien corresponding points are equally dant and the tangents of the curves at coreaponding pnts are parle, By Enercse 286. two involute of @ eune Cae pale! cues for hich corresponding poins are on tangent of 1a) Prove that the curves pall toa nonretinear cure C se the curves obtainable fom C by a anaaton snd the cethog- ‘opal tajecones of the oral planes of C (©) Find all curves parle tothe cle tape (ronan), where Kare constants, apd isthe ate length of the exe100 2. cms “77. Let C be closed C? cure given by (133) with dx/drwey and ¢ replaced by the are lengths Show that 2 Jeqsds, mod I, is Invariant wnder a rotation field vem by (1.3) along C. fofiydt {alle the tote! ret mamber ofthe curve C (FB. Fulet 25) For fn nteresng application of this number to molecular boloy see PWc.Cosk (7) 1A, Local Canonial Form and Osulnts 141, Local Canonical Form, To sty the properties of curve Cia & neihborhood of a point Owe tke a Frenet frame Oxtese? at Oe the Coordinate rame with respect to which the equations ofthe urve wil have 2 Simple form. Let s be the ae length of Cand for simplicity we assume thal at 0. Then he corn) } sf) a8 Pat) 08 the curve with respect to Oefefe ae defined by a(o)an(0) HHP +(e HC. 4) Wis obvious hat the escalating. normal, and rectiying planes ofthe curve Cat the point © are given by 4-0. xy =0, and 1,0 respectively By seceeatve dillerestation fom (1310) we find Nee, went, aaa te tee, (142) vere the primes denote the derivatives with expect los, Substitution of (1.42) the Maclaune’s formals As) eMO)4g84 Lage? + hae ota) petty stra Bese stoner ttre aay (a= S2s4410), where the subscript 0 denotes the vale a the point 0, and (4) denotes terms of degree > 4 iar The cepresentation (143) ealed the lca! canonical form ofthe carve Cin a neghbockood ofthe point where 5=0 ‘Much infornation about the shape ofa curve Cin a neighborhood of point 0 could be acquted by sudying the erthogonal projections of C nto the ee? ee and eet panes. By ciminting between equations 1. oEveRAL Local tony 101 Peres (142), taken sa pair, with all tems after the fst in the rghr-band ‘member of each equation dropped, we ean obiain an approuimaton to {hese orthogonal projections, as indcated in Fig 211 142 Oran LAL Definition. Aa orcuant of order of curve Ca 2 point O18 te Limiting poston of geometric figure (uch as a suaigt Line a plane a ‘cle, ofa space) through O and K neighboring points on C. a: each of these neghborng point independently approaches 0 slong C. ta ois tse the ovclant eid to have contact of order kath Ca “The tangent of a corve at 8 point is an oscalant of onder I. The ‘osclating plane of cave C ata pont O fas the equation =O is our ‘coordinate sytem in Secon 1, andi a8 oacuaat of order 2 By the following theorem. 4422 Theorem, The oxeloting plane of a ewe C ata pint 0 isthe liming poston of the plone hrugh O and te neighboring poms OO: 28 Cas each of Oy 0s independent approacer alongtz 2. cunves Proof. Let the equation of the plane in question be B18 05K 40555 =0, (14g) where a) 2:.6 ae to he determined. ince te plane pases through the porn O! Lets be the are length of Cy and let sy bei values mM Oy, Oo, openly. Then By puting Foye Baste, (as) we tare . FO)~0. Fs) 0, As2)=0. By the mean valve theorem (Theorem 2.1, Chapter ) we obtain FOs)=OF(GS)=0, 050.8, <1 Hence af 1440. F()=0, Without lows of geeraity we may assume that 6s, <8.5, Then agplcation ofthe mean value theorem to F(@r) aves F(o)=0, where Ot, <0 Bt Lelling fy 45-00 we have F°()=0. Substtatng (143) in (8) and using the conditions P(O}=9, F*)=O ‘thus obtain ay =a, 0, wich proves the lens 'By omitng the eirect applications of the mean value theorem we can replace the proof above by the following simple equivalence ‘Demanding that (1-88) be satisied by the pomer seis (143) for syoayeny Wentcally in § as far as the ter in 2, we obtain ema =O asm 1423. Remark. From aowon we shal we the simple method just de seribed to find the equation or equations of any osculsnt of curve ata poi. ‘The oxclaing plane has also the folowing peometeitereetation, 1424 Lemma. The oalating plane of curve Cot @ pint O whore S70 is the onl plane trough the tangent of Ct O, which evs the carve Proof. A plane through the tangent of Cat O has the equation ‘a, #650, where @ and 6 are to be determined, Substisting (143) inthe lean ‘ide ofthe egurtion we obtain exfsttine begs Leartie +t shih Keeps the same sign for all slicicnly smal postive and negative ‘ales of unless a0, Thus te pots complete |. GRWERAL Local nitony 103 ‘The tangent and the cecalating plane are the simplest geometric ures among al the omulants of a curve ata pot Io the flowing we shall ‘etige more osculans of higher order 1A2S Defotion The otutating cil of curve C ats point Os the limiting pontion ofthe eee trough O and two aeiphborig pints 0,0, fon C, as each of 0, 0, independeay approaches O along © ‘Cleary, the ovulating cele les ia he osculating plan, and therefore Ins equations ofthe form wy00, Atal Beye, -2eyey20. Le Fide ro) tage) 26,50) 2ay4 60. Demanding that Fls)=0 be sated by the power series (1.43) for sy Fie Mentally in + far asthe tens in, we ean easy obtain 4-0 gat Hence the owclating circle of the curse C at © has radius Ie and center at the post, wioy+ Let 4g ‘which is on the principal normal ef and called the center of cura ofthe une Cat the point 0. 1426 Defaiion ‘The oxculating sphere fa curve Cat pst Os the limiting positon of a sphere through O and lee seghborng points (0,,0),05 on Cab each of 0.0,,0, ncependenly approaches 0 along © “The equation of a sphere through O an he writen as a pxfitad 20,2) -2apey “2eyny ed aan ‘Demanding that (147) be satisfied by (1.43) identically ina far as he terms in 2s we obtain an, “Thus the center of the onclaing sphere of Cat O's the point woe baeh(t an108 2. cunves and the radios Ris ten by o4e[L5)]) (as) Evercnee 1. Use Theorem 1.422 and the method sn Section 142 t prove that the equation of the oseulating plate ofa eure Cat a poate x) X=a(0.x-2"[=0, lehere the tefthand side is @ determinant, Xi the vector of the Tatra coordinate functions on £- and. be primes denote the Gevtves wit respect tothe ae lengths of C #2 Let Che the ec parabola (7) =(6.P2.0). Show that (a) “Through a point Qin space there pass thee osculating planes of Cat thee points Py, Pa Py respecte (o) Qand MPs, Fare coplanar 1. Let C te a curve given by x2) with are lengths, 5) the center of tarvature of Cat the point (2), and K the locus of he center 3) oF Ar Show tat (a). The tangent of K ates) i orthogonal tothe tangent of C at ron () TC is of constant curvature, then the tangent of K at (si fontoponal to the ocultng plane of Cat xs) and Kis a0 of Prove tat te osu of the centers of curvature ofa ier heii freular helt cf Exercise of Section 13) SS. Prove that a necesary and suffiient condition that 2 nonplanar ‘hove a(a) be sphere eue s “where the prime denotes he derentve with respect tothe ae fength + othe ete Prove that a curve a(1) with ae length ssa spherical curve sf and nly ife0 and there exists a dieentable function fs) sich tat Spulijey.fa7/e=01.€. Wong 6 1. Prove thatthe only sphencal cues of constant curvature ae eels 1, GENERAL LOCAL THtORY tos 15, Existence and Unlqutoess Theorems. This section gies tbe ev intence and uniqueness theorems fr curves, which are fundamental ia Ge Toca theory of curves, 154. Esinence Theorem Given a C! frctin (3) >0 and «conte Fiction rt) $6 Fmla bl there ext a Crear crce x: = tach that {sth are length) he crear ands) the con a the are Proof. See Appendin rom Definition 1.32 ofthe Frenet frame fede and Corsa 54 of ‘Chapter it follows tha if an onenation preveringiometry cares 8 ‘cure Cinto another curve €, the derivative mapping Tot T cares Be rene ame fields of Cinta thow of © hence Cand © have the ame values of je] and vat coresponding points, respectively. To ths important Tact there 4 converse 152. Unigueess Theorems I there isa Beton bereen mo cures such tha the eo cures hae the sme eae ofr, mand vf coespnding pois, repectoel, the becom san onenaion presen omer. and hs ‘cate he crc are sid be congrunt. i may be wef to establish this theorem i the folosong mare genera form 153, Generdiced Uniueness Theorem Let xe ht) 1610.6) bea positively areted frame eld Defnivons 38 ond Sah, Chap i soc {ng the differential equtons (133) and y(t) enater such frome etd sang the diferent equations Bo Detanso, ae asa FoTeinno. iz Then there exits an orientation grevercing isomers hove drctice magping carer xe) 0 HE 0) for al Proof. Sings the coetcent in (133) and (181) ae invariant under an onentation-precerving isometry. after performing sich an ometrs we reset HEH) ss for cern fg. I remaing to prove that under his bomety Xe is ‘entcl mith yf, fora rin the itera 1. We suppose forthe moment that al indies. fom en fom (03.106 2. cunves Let (eves) aNd (fy fafa) bes especie, the components of he sectors and with respect (0a fted positively onenced frame in the Space 5. Waites in femme of the component the diferent systems (E33) ana (15. give en Sedan Gobet 453) Since the functions af skew symmetsic in and j wing (183) we ‘bia (Ben) Zernlit Sarhean® ence Sen fyi 8 constant an is lt vale fo ty that eal Midi Deiat a0. 188) Beato For simplicity of notation, we intoduce the rates Ea(e,) FU) “Then (154 ean be writen as e=8 hese "Fis the transpose of Fadi the entity mat. Thus “Fs the inverse of £ Since by Theorem $.14, Chapter IE is an orthogonal Inate rom Denon 5.1.3, Chapter it follows that ‘FE or FE. Tn ‘ther word, = mich together with the Fst equations of (1.3.3) and (SD goes 4 Sono. or, im comtequence of (152), HYP ALie)M1t0)=0. Hence we have proved that xe¢,(¢) =f ff) forall values of 1S4, Remark. Generis wrigueness theorem 1.53 is sedyeed 10 nguenese eorem 132i the diferental systems (133) and (1S) ae, i prtcla replaced by the Frene format (11) and simlar ones or Matsitn).respecuvey In general, given the curvature x and ihe torsion its very dificult 19 “ole the Frenetequttion (131) and 9 find the eure x(s). However. it {Gt (alos) he done am the case ofa eylndeal helix 1. oBveRAL tocat-rHsory 107 15S Example Determine) for «sine el sh «9 an For this purpose it wil be useful wo reparametrize x by a parameter + Brenly Haye [sire ass [Note tht this tam allowable change of parameter, since ¢"4>0, where the prime denotes the derivative with respect to 1 mpi Wat 1) eve. and that both rs) and (tare dferentable. Subriating "cx (3A) and sing ase asn where ViFe SoWving (15.7 gives en tcorartbrinet a » “where wand bare constant sectors Subst (158i the et euation {SF (158) and integrating the eulingequstion we ona Yeosare, aas9) here is «constant vector, Hence by further integration. aon 2 fai where dis a constant vector, However the integration constants a bed are ot airy Since (158) ilies (fa? HM Psnateosars a(arnjcostor—sintae)=0 (15.10) for every 1 In paring, when (m0, we have a'b=0. Ths (15.10 becomes $a(— Ian]? + [B]*)in2e7=0 fr every so at 0? ‘On te other hand, rom (188) we obtain eee nit vector. we have ede, /dl) =D. which together mth I eh = a2cosa-+ snot so tht abi 1, Hence» and ace onthogonal unt vectors, Simla, ey =O yiels a-em0 and hen bre=0. Moreover, =e)? pps lemie ahd so.e= 2cla) On the other hand om the secondma 2. cums canton of (1.5 fin a cereyxeesnenx( +e) asim Seung (1.3) and (1.59) in (1512 wean alti ejeon ars (oXeeinar + e%a%b)) Easinar—beosar +e) which eves that e=caxt. Hence with respect f0 the orthonormal basis (abaxb) we bave oe (forsee [forndro} ede (5: sere) en by (1.55, an 0) 156 Example, Using Theorem 152 we can give an analyte proof of the second statement of Lemma 13.3, ‘by puting c= i Example 15S, (1.1) yields the curve yoa([snren-Lorares), 05% where e}=als)ds. Tis curve ye) esi the plane spaned by wand b nds therfore a plane curve, Shoe (5) has ate lengths, curvature «(s). fd tion by Theorem 152, x2) 8 congrent to (3), hence sa plane [Aithough this proof is not as simple as he ongnal one, (1.5.18) has some applicttny for instance, we ean obtain plane eve, expressed i ie lagi, fom is curvatre by thee iterations; see Exercise 1 below Exercet 1. Find curve Cs) i are length with fron piven in each of the folowing (a) (eye constant>0. x= 1 and curvature (5) fe nde. ne 2 Leta(s) be a euve with ae length 4, curvature «0, torsion 1>0,and 2 Frenet frame eve. Suppose that wiar= [isina 2, mane cunves 109 (a) Prove thats also the are length ofthe curve). @) Las Fey bethe cunature, the lorson, ad 2 Frent fame of the core 05} Show that 4s Faer8) "ey. 8y7 ep and ym (6). Show that i xs, the cures Rs) and 3( are congruent. 2. PLANE CURVES “The developments in the lst ection inside the theory of plane cures as 1 speval ease, We can ao enly give aa independent eaten of plane ‘curves, since st bas the advantage that the plane can be taken (be ‘rend an orientation ofa plane may be sven by a fixed created rane Oxye, ats pat 0 called the origin. ta the plane, which now couse of ‘only evo orthogonal unt vectors Most theorems in this section are global theorems on plane cures, ‘which may be contrasted with local theorems, The later theorems are ‘concerned with the invariant properties in a neighborhood of a general point ofa curve, whereas the former on view a curve asa sacle Fer Instance, te length ofa closed eure and the nea encloued by 3 lod plane curve ae simple glabal properties, since each tequres the entre ture. Sis he sme theorem tha the sunber of points of stece ‘on of a straight line With 2 conic inthe same plane fest ost two i soba, 2A, Fret Formulas and the Jordan Curve Theorem 2A Freet Forman tn plane £2 3 vector will have mo compo: bes, We assocate wit every pint of an onented cuve a(3) #2 Ett being the ae length (vo orthogonal unit vectors e(2)-e() sac thal hey form an oriented frame wih he sume oration a8 that of E¥ and that (9) she tangent vector ofthe curve. Then the Frenet formals become ey tame, an ‘whet the funtion «i the creature ofthe curve 1s importa to remark ‘ht contrary to the ease of space curves (+) together with sgn is wll ‘efoed and changes sgh if the orientation of the cue or the plane Is revered, BUA Lemma Let a curve C be glee by (2m ((20. 240) ith ae engin. Ther eM. a(ede(-xydaile 22) there the prime denotes the dercatice wih ree 10 5.0 2. cunves. Perea Proof. The first equation of (22) obvious, and the second follows immediately from (se Fig, 212) escosa.cosB), cosa cOsf™=5. commons e/2), cos Pease: One of the mot impovtant global theorems for plane curves i without doubt the Jordan curve theorem, 213. Jordan Curve Theorem, Let C bea simple ened carci the plane Eo nen ESC has enacth) two comeced components haze common ound iC (ne ofthe two components inthe theocem i bounded and the others rot The bounded component i clled the rior of C, and the other the ‘eter of C. Whenever we speak ofthe aren bounded by a smple closed fare. we imean the aren ofthe iteie of 22, Winding Nomber and Rotation tndex. In the plane let 0 bea fixed pout whachwe fake atte rgin of or fined frame, Dente by F the unit ele with center at 22K Definition simple closed eve i pate oriented if one goes ‘ong the ture in the section of increasing parameter, then the iterioe Of ihe curve remains to ones letchund side Tangents of @ positively ‘rented simple lose curve inthe pesve decion are pose oriented 222. Definition Let an oriented closed curve C be given by x(t). {e-}.and ps Point of the plane not onthe curve, Then the mapping (Coat pen by relab} 2, PLANE cuRvEs Mu 1s define to be the poiion mapping ofthe curve C relative top Tauivel ‘tis lear that when the point (7) goes arouad the curve C one. is image point Ji) sil go around Ta numberof ime, Tis umber called he indng mmber of the curve C relative to the point p ‘Nouce that te winding number emsine ochanged ip moves along an arethat doesnot mest the curve, and ite the same rela to points in tbe Ste conneced repon, Furthermore, the winding number changes en ‘then the oneatation of the curve changes, By convention the soading uber of @ pontivety onented simple cloud curve w postive tse Fi 213-215). Similarly, we havea definition of the tangesil mapping of « cue C- 223. Defaion Let an oven cloned curve Cof length Lhe piven by 16) with are length Then the mappung A: C=” given by macnante). se[0.) 1 defined to be the tongeniat mapping of the curve C. Clearly hit a Contnuows mapping. Intatvely iis obmous that when he pot x8) oe ound the curve € once te image point A(x()) wil g0 aound Tt ‘umber of tes This narber i called the rotation ides of the cure C. Like the winding number, the rotation index changes sign when the venation ofthe curve changer, and the folaton index of postivey rented simple loud curve is poutve, The rotation ides of the cues ewes Peweem 2. cunts by Fee Powe in Figs 213 wo 218 are ~1, 0, and 2, respectively, as indicated by the "ngental mappings of the curves in Figs 2 1610218, 23, Eavelopes of Curves RAL Definition An enciope of one-parameter family of cues is a lve that hae the fllowing two proper () t every one of points it ie tangent to at lest one curve ofthe fray (2) its tangent 10 every curve ofthe fam a at Kas one point 242 Theorem Lt Hayao @3) the equation of ame porametr fay of cares nthe plane, here [the parameter, ond let an emcee C ofthis fam Be pen by yn0(), U0. ea Assim farther that J. and re contol differentiable and that for ‘ook ole of# the cree (23) and C hae a common tangent a the point (B00). Then te coordinates 24) ofeach ait of C sath 23) and Lyn =0, es where fi the pail deviate off with rerpec 0 Proof. Since (23) and € have & common tangent at the point (@(0. 40) ti point cerainly Hie on (23), foreach 1. Therefore Hol.Hn.0=0 eo san identity in itfereiating (26) with cespec tor and uring te chain ‘ule Theorem 2.36, Chapter 1, ve obtain HAD DE H.-H, #4 90.90.19=0. en 2. maw curves M3 where ff ate the partial denvatives off with cespect 10, tively, and the prime dences the derivative with epee (On the other han, the slope ofa curve ofthe fori (23) 8 a fleet) Cerca) ee while the slope of the curve C defined by (24) is dave es) Sew) [At he point where Cis tangent 18 curve ofthe family (23) we then base 2. slote.cin.ed FO HEO.M0.0) HOON *HN-S.NEN=0. (2.10) Combination of (210) with (2.7) thus gives 2) 24. Convex Cures. In plane analytic geometry we have defined the ‘oncated datance Irom a point toa staph ne Inthe folowng ne shall serch oriented irance to define fit 8 rlsonship betecen svat line and a curve then an interesting clase of curves 241. Definition tn. plane E points leon one side of sight ine ib the onented distances Irom them toate of the se Hg, snd a cure C lus om ome se of i pits of C40 10. 242. Defaition. A curve i concer i iit on one side of enc one of fis angen ines. Circles and elipses are convex. and the curves in Figs. 2.13 19 218 are 243. Definition, The cametero closed convex cuve Cie the greatest fistance bemern t4o points of C. The width of Cin @ direction 1s the distance bemmeen evo tngens of C paral othe ven direction. Cs of ‘onton wid wi i independent of the dec boe. A irl sf constant width, but there ae cures of constant width that a not ee, for instance he cures inthe flowing two etamples 29d Eerste 12a the end f Section 2na 2 cums Per 2 ewe Examples, |. (See Fig, 219) ABCis a equilateral tangle with exch of it Sides equal 6 J. The curve consisting of three ecuat ars, each of which hha cener ats verte of ABC and radive 1 picewise ilflerentiabe hve of constant wih 3B See Fip 220), From Example | we can consist a C! curve of achitiary constant width ty 1428 Its formed by si cteuar ars 40 ‘Growth have center at cach veror ofthe Wiangle ABC and radi = and ', respectively as snleated by the ticker ars forthe vertex 24d, Length and Area ofa Closed Comces Care. Now lets consider & postvely oneted closed conver eure C, and Ue any point inside the Sue € to be the origia @ of our fed frame. If p is the oented perpendcusedstance from Oo the positively onented tangent at pont XConny) and @ is the angle betwoen thi perpendculat ine and the postive half the x-axis ee Fig 2.21 p is single-alvedfuncion of @ End tector is perode with period 2x, and the equation of the tangent Une ca bein in fhe form ycond4nsind=p(0). any e221 2. Plane curves us ‘The envelope of all the nes (2.11) the cure C. To determine he posse « of eontat of the tangent (211) Sih the eum C. we diferente (21) actly with espect to 8 so that we have matinee goon apt), eis whet the prime denotes the derivative with respect 08 Solving (2.11) GD) for y 25 and eng Theorem 2.2, weave the parameinerereen tation of ¢! £18) e050 —pW) e058. 25) sero O sin 4 (0 )c088. ‘where is the parameter, Thus if and p() are given, we ean determine 2 ‘higue pont (15) oF the clowed convex curve C. and the convene lio tue Heace we call (8. p(8) the pole tangential coordnaes of the point eon C. Dilfeentition of 2.13) wth respect 108 pies [play ser(ayfsine. spel (eso coe. Lets be the ae length ofthe curve C. Then $8 monotone increasing fanction of @(0< <2). Ths from Theorem 1.3 and equavns 2. follows that the radius of curvature of Cis po Bnpia)49r(0)>0. 0 b<2H, ary which can alo be ued to detine a positively oriented conver curve C Tet Libe the length of C Then by (218) we obtain rede ba [arn [Bare P'noransivinls. 9 Since) sho» prc fc of # wih pea 2, we base Perea bee bo [roe aan rel known a8 Cay form {et be the area bounded by C. Then by approximating the shaded area Fip 221 by using the ae of the nearest imange. we cL ‘consequence of (215) And fpreny f ool niarrrriae. 228)6 2. cunves [Pome onaeenoweonls [P48 = free ence me have Blache formula aol PAO rele au 24S, Parallel Cares. For any postive number n. soppose tata length 1" mean ff slong each noma andi te exterior oa closed convex Gunve € The endpoints ofthese segments describe parallel curve Gof © {toe ihe definition of general parallel apace curves. see Exercise 26 of Section 13) Now we prove that C, alo 2 closed convex cure. Let (7 940)) be the polar tangent coordinates ofthe point onthe cue Cy, ceaponding to's point with pola tangential coordinates (8, (8)) 08 C Thee 2)=(0)40, em) and by @.15) we obtain the radius of eurvatre oC papa 2) From 20, (0) iv &pesadic function of 8 with period 2e, and fom {a a 0 since both» and m ae pasive, Hence C8 alo a closed Tet Ly and, be respectively, the eng andthe area of Cy, Then using (2.1) G19) ald G20) we ean easly obtain LeaLt ine, ex) Ap Aatnlts 02) Equations 222 and 2.29 ae ale Sieinr's formulas for parallel curves of 2 cloed conven curve 246 Theorem The length (repectce are) of clsed concer curse lies beoneen the lengths (resections, areat) of he selring ices of the ture wth the grates and the last rad ofeweature, respectively. Proof Let pat be. respectively. the greatest and lest ra of comatore of closed conven curve C with length L and area A. Then by 25, 216 and 2.18) we obtain 219, b> 20m (29 aiff rayane 240,00 225 2. ave cunves 7 Since 2.16) implies SL rcaraen {toa ete rm> ["H6)d0>20 Hence the combination of 226) wih 229) eves ADA Da an 247, Theorem |4, Rosenthal and 0. Seats 47). Among al ced concer ‘carver ofa gen dameterD, the eurer of constant wih D hace the preset length Proof. Let C be s closed conver curve of length L sven bythe polar tangential coordinates (8 p(9)) defined in Secon 244 Since p19) periodic function with pesod 2 st ean be represened by the Fourer nie)~ hace S (oycos nb bain) 2p where . ent [nna a» oeey am (nthe other hand, (2.29) can be writen as £(Lameresnee Sine the wiih f Cin any Gecton i no eter than D. ne hve (ae reas) Hoysp(ee2)<0. Ths 04D and conan of 2.) Lew. am 1s obvious thatthe equity in 2.31) holds when and onls when Cis of comant width QED. Egsation 231 implies Cooly 248.ne 2. coms Pere at 24K Conary [A. Barber, 3, All lned conve cures of constant width ‘D have the some length =D. 25, The hoperimette Inequality 251. Theorem Among ail siple closed carer of given lenih the circle Couns the apet aca, In other mond, fA isthe ore bounded by a simple cloned crce Co eth Ly then L424 20, em) where the equal holds when and ony when Ca circle. “There are numerous geometric proofs of Theorem 2.5.1, varying inthe degre of lepance and sn the diferentaikty oF convexity assumption of ine curves The fast analytic pool as given by A Hurwi (35) 1902, land a simple one by E Schmidt 30] 81939 "Theorem 251 has been extended to curves on surfaces of variable Gaussian curvature by A Huber [340 1954, to cures in even dimensional uciean spaces by 1-3. Schoenberg [Sh] 1954, and to cures on Sorfaces in Ecldeun spaces of aay sinension by C. C. Hsiung 93) 9 1961 ‘We stall give the proofs of Schmit and Hara. Scti's Prof. We enclose C between two paral ines fs sich ‘that lies between, f andi tangent to them at points P,Q respectively Const a crete that doesnot meet C but tangent tf fa pints FG respectively. Denote the radi and the center of C by r and 0 ‘especialy, Take O tobe the origin af «coordinate frame Ox seh hat 2, ruawe cunves us Pea the xcani is onthogonl to /, and fy, Let C be potivey niente’ and sven by X(3)=(24()(s) wth ae Teagth + Such that #0 and srg, for P and @, respectively (Fi 223) and (240) <0) =C( 1). 250 Lat the ctcle Cbe given by (2) =5(0). £0) seh at R(s)=n(), Be -WPIG). 0826, 35) nt. cree Denote the area bounded by Cn genera. the area hounded by a closed cue ys) (38) ye) of eng Lh are length canbe expressed bs the ie itera [vise - [Enid frwicnrinae whee the prime denotes the derivative with apes. For a proof ofthis Formoln ste for instance, R. Cowan (16. p. 2731. Application of this0 2. cunves forma to our two curves Cand C gives a> [nie Barta ['nriden ~ [Syst ‘Adding these two equations and using the inequity (Sea) Sede Ae equality hong if and only if 6 /0,=0/b, we obtain [levi aides [Vora & < [NG ea GR rE) & em = [VER ane Since the peometne mean of two positive numbers is less han or equal to thelr aiimete mein, and the equity hole if and only i the two ‘numbers ae equ follows that Ase Va Var = Seater) 0 sch tat for gg aad ay poant ye for which he distance ego). the poins 3(4) and) Ie eter antpodal Theater sonbiton quent fo thereat Ha)=H(q)#0, node a6 Suppose that 3/23>€>0 be given, We cen a neghorbood U fp sch {ha U comand in the eeihborhond of pe a sch that for pL the Shae bewenn OS yy) and O3(p) les han Ts posible because the pines i eontouou: The las condion can be exes the or HprHeagaes2kl ale, Wie es vere Kp) ban integer, Ltd any pint on the sepment mp: Den Sheep ape Pratl pup thom mp. Te aneoon 0) 74) nsnuoun iy along mp an oro when concdes Wah dy. See Seager. flows tm (2) that ca) ape In patel for tonne ip) —aanlee, Combing tis with (268) we bin K(p)=0, SRiclsowe hat fp) is diterentible Now lr H0.0, (0. £) {lr L) be the veces of 8 (Fig. 229, The roan inden yof © deine by the hie egal rere J Since #(p) defined in 8, 2. mane cunves re ich means thatthe ine integral [ois independent of he pth so that ain ait f at To evaluate te line integrals on the right-hand sige we make use of sulle cordinate system. We can suppose xf) t9 be the les pot the curve C that i, the point whe x, coordinates mitt. ead 6 ‘choove 0) to be the ong 0. Then the tanget vetor of C st 0) Nonuonal and canbe taken to be inthe dzecton of Or, as therm we even the erenation of C. Thus C is in the uppe hall plane bounded by, andthe ine neal along 4B is egal to the ange rtated by OF 3 Pr goes once ona C. Since C eri the upper pane. te vector OP never points downward follows thatthe integral long 4@ sequal fo = ‘On te other bad, the ine tater slong BD i the angle rotated by PO as P goes once slong C. Since the vector PO never points pward. thi integra is so equal to Thur ther sum is Pw andthe rotation inden & #1 Sace vee may bave reversed the onentation of C, the rotation index of Ci ence ovr proof ofthe theorem is complete ‘Theorem 282 was esentily known to Riemaas, but the pve above was pven by H. Hop 25} “The rotation index can abo be defined by an integral formula. Infact. sing the funtion #s) in cur lea, we can expres the ceeponets of the unt tangent and normal veces a Talos em(ooe en sin (2), em sn 4(5)-08 8). follows rom Frenet formulas (13.1) that aF(s)e dere, ede ess) From this we derive the following formels forthe ration index: dere [a ew “Ths formula hols for cloned cures tht are not neces sme ‘We have given the rotation indies of some cased curve in Secon 22. 2A Piceniae Smooth Curves (se Definition 1.212 Toe nose of fotaion inden and the theorem op turing tangents can be extended 10 Closed pecewie sont curves, We sumarce the results without proof a Tallow, Lets les", be the ac length of cloned crented preemie smooth curve C, measued from Ay 10,50 that sqm Lith length of © Since C i oncaed, ss tangential mapping A defined at all possbe 2. cunves Aitterent from Ay. At a vertex 4, there are (wo unit vector, tangent respectively 10 4,14, até Ady (we elie dy Ay) ad hee core Sonding pins I under hate denoted by 84) aod (A). Let, berth angle fom A(4,)” to MAL), wilh O<4,. Leta fis ema tht the theorem isnot tue without the assumprion| ‘hat the cure s simple Infact, Pip 230 ives a noneanvex curve wath 40. Pro of Theorem 28.5, Let ¥(s) be the funtion constructed in Lema 2H 49 that from (265) we have e=d¥/de The condition «20 i therfore equivalent tothe asertion thal Hs) sa monotone nondecreasing Faction We ean assume that (0)=0. From the theorem on rnin tangent follows that the curve Ccam be so oriented that #L) =2 \ 2. Pave cunves ns Suppose that (2), 0526 Ly is monotone nondecreasing and that Co not convex. Then thre «point Aa) om € such hat thee ae points ‘OF Con both sides ofthe tangent + of at A. Chowne a ponive side oF ‘and consider the oriented orthogonal dance p trom a psn 1) of C10 f Sine the care C is clued and p isa continuous fneton in 1 bs Weiersras theorem ot continuous functions (Corals 1210 Chap this distance patanss maximam anda minimum at pin. sy. Mand Of C. respectively. Cleary, Mand N are not ont Sie prints) Xsq)/iGp) at M and N we have dh/deme(a)et9)=0, ahich means That the angens ff of Cat M, Weespecsiely are parallel to Further mote, among fand ff there are two angen parallel in the same sense let the values of the parameter a the corresponding porns of eoatat of these two tangents be sand sy sith t;<#y. Ths happens nly shen H(a)=H(H) forall 142%, sine Hs) Monotone nondeceaiog. Te follows thatthe ae 5) <5 of Cis a hae Segment paral! tor But his i bviouly impousbie ‘Next et Ce conves. Then Cean be ina halplane as was shown inthe proof of Theorem 282. To prove that Fe) if monotooe let us suppose Hay) = Hq) 42, Then the tangents of Ca (s,) and Xs, ae parle In the same sense’ therefore there most curt & tangent of C pall fo ‘her ia the opposite sense From he convexity of Ct fllws that to of the thre tangents coincide ‘We are thus led 0 the consideration of line ¢ tangent to C at seo Aisin! points A aed B. We claim tat the ine segment Af sot bea par (of CT fact, suppow this i not the ease and et D bea post of AB aot 08 {C.Through D draw a ine w orthogonal 0 #9 the half-plane tat contains C. Then intenects Cat at least two pois. Amnoog thee points of iniersecton let F be farthest rom rand G nearest, 0 that FG, Then Gs fn interior poiat of the tnanzle ABF. The tangent to C at G must bie points of Con both sides, which contradicts the convexity fC 1 follows that under the hypothesis of the last paragraph the line segment AB sx partof C, andthe tangent of Cat 4 and B are paral in ‘he same sens ‘This proves thatthe segment that joss ne) #814), belongs to C; implying that Fs) remaies constant inthe tena <2 Hence the functon #2) monotone, and our theorem i prone ‘The fire half of Theorem 28S can luo be sated as follows 286 Theorem A cloned curve wih cure x8) 20 and ition inden ‘equal 0 is come136 2 cones 2 Exercises “ 1. Prove that» necessary and sulficent condition that a curve x1) be plane is earns, vehere the lefhand side «determinant and the primes denote the ‘Seronives with rexpet to a 2 Determine (0) 50 that the curve s(e)=(asorsasing (2). aeons 2 shall be plans, and name the curve © A. Find the winding numbers 4. B,C. D, E. F, and G. relative 10 ‘various component and the rotation index 1 ofeach ofthe folowing “. ec . ° 2a, where the eutiy olds fond on 1f Ctr plane ‘The folowing proof was given independeny by B.Seere [52] and by H. Rtshaser and H. Semeson [48 See ao W. Feaehel (21), The proot depends onthe following ens BUS. Lemma Ler T bea closed recite carve of length Lon the unit sphere SI) L< 2, there ext a point mS Suh tha the serie dence REL forall pointe x0. If Lm. bu Ti not the won of to great emi there exits 0 pont ES such that 9/2 forall x ‘We use the notation a to denote the spherical distance of to points «a.bon he unit spec, thi i the shore length of the great eeular are between a and 6 I ober the midporn m ofa and bis the pint onthe fhoriest great cclar ae between «and P defined by the condstions Grimbrin tab Let x be a pot on S such that Me< |r Then Thc x. I facet be the syst of De Since ele dem De. here is fo point of C wth 0, and thercore [cedi=2x. By Theorem 223 we Conche that Cis convex: Hence Theorem 3.4 completly proved Ui Cortlary, Pare slosed care C if (2)|<1/R, where # and w(3) te the ar length andthe eureare of C respec). and Ris & positve Content, has a length L208 Proof. Lo jae if Rix dem Rif el > 248, BAZ Remark, Tysorem 314 hols also for iecewne sna curves At ‘he total curvature of such a curve Ce deine ke [fila De wher ae the angles athe verte of C. fn other words inthis ase te tangent ines of € conse ofa ramber of ares, each coresponding 12 fs npouth are of, and we join each pat of successive vercs bythe Shorest gre cular arc on the ort sphere The length of the curve 3. GLOBAL TiFOREMS FoR sPace CURVES 1a oi obtained isthe tual curvature of. It can be proved that for a lsed Decewise smooth eure we hive abo K 2a, In the following we give another proof of Fenchel’s theorem (Theorem 3.14 anda related theorem of Fay and Milnor oa ke ttl cunstun of 2 ontavia knot These are tased onthe folowing Croftons theorem ot the measure of peat eles that inte an ae onthe unt spheres BUR Definition Every crented great circle on the unit where S de termines uniquely ple the endpoint ofthe unit vector sormal o te plane ofthe circle ch Gat the pole remains fo one et side as ove goes, long the cle (se Fig. 238) By the mere ef ase of great cies on S ‘we mean the aes ofthe domain of the poles. 349, Theorem (MW. Crofton). Let be 2 smaoth ar of length Lon the ni phere Sand lt M be the meare ofthe evened gree ile ofS ‘mersecting Teach counted with e maipcin hich the montero et owt of erection wth. Phen Meat oa) Proof. Suppose that Tis given by aunt veto e(s) witha length Localy (i. na certain neighborhood of) let () andes) be ust ‘econ depending smoothly en such that ergedy iS os Iewenel= +1 oo ‘Then by (133) and (1.35) we have Eesha, Se -cnsae, enuaa 2, cunvis Sines the are length oP, fom the fit equation of (7 follows that aitalel, oa) so that we can put ay=cosr(s). ayesine(). 69) lee) the poe of the great cle of the form Ho) mesls)ooeOes(o)in®, 6.19) and vce versa Thus (s,8) can serve as local esordiates inthe domain D ofthese poles. To find an expression forthe element of area ofthis domain 1, we diferente (3.1) and, using (3.7), obtin dy=(~eysinb + ,c080)(d6 0,40) ~e(ocontt aysind en Since deny idence where each subscript denotes the pata derivative with respect to i me eve won —easin+eycost +¥, = 6,(—€,sin# + €,c08)~e,(a;c05@+a,sin#). om (On the other hand, the element of aren ofthe domain Dis (ee (13), ‘chapter 3 anyon see on Making vee of (542) of Chaper 1 and (3.12) from (3.13) we can easly obisin ldt)=|e,cos8a,sind dds fos(s~8)|d0ds, (3.14) where the absolute valve on the lefhand side means thatthe aces is Cleat in the mestareheorei sense regardless ofthe orientation. [Now let y* be the oneated great cle wih y ss poe, and let nO) be the (arithmetic) numberof comon points of y* and F: Then Mm f fniy* dais fa [™eose-a)1a0, G8) 3. GLOBAL THEOREMS FoR SPACE CURVES us [eons-m dem f° pongdond forse fir, (6 rince the absolute valve of the aves under the cotine curve over each quran sr | Substation of 0.16) in (15) hence ves GA) LIQ Remark. By applying Theorem 3.19 to each sobarc and adding ‘he rests, we se tha he theorem aso hols fora pecene stots eure on the unt sphere. Actually the theorem is te for any recible ae fon the unt sphere, but the prot is much longer LUMI. Another Prof of Theorem 3.1.4 Since te tangent indicts of & ‘lowed carve atisies the conditions of Theorems 2.9. Theorem 34 Tolows trom Theorem 3.19 a an easy consequence fac. te former ‘rool of These 214 we have showy thatthe fangent aia Fl & ‘hosed curve C of length [intersect every eat ile of he unt spre § tn at leas wo points so that in ths case every point of S belongs to Oe domain D and miy*)> 2. Sice he area ofthe ust sphere 5 4 rom ‘Taeorem 3.19 we hence obiain the lng of 1 em [Mecniarnt [ fur? yenio2e en) where and xs) ate respectively the ate length and the curvature of the came ‘QED. ‘Theorem 319 also leads to the following theorem. which per = ecesary condition on the total curvature of nostwal kno. JUI2 Peorem L Fay and JW. Maar 19,29), The tsl crctie of, ‘a nonreial kno grater than or eal 4 Proof. Let gonrvial knot C be given by (5) wih are lenge be the pole of 3 great ile, dented by 9, on the unit sphere & intersecting te tngest incicatrn T of C on $, and et miy*) be the umber of common points of y* and. From (3.3) follons that my“ the numberof the relative maxima or minima ofthe hgh fn 9°81) and is even by Theorem 23 of Chapter Sappore thatthe otal curvature of ses than 4, Then hee existe &| point YES such that ny") =2, as otherwise my *) > for all poles and fhe righthand sid ofthe inequity (17) becanes x. By a tolaton if ‘ecesay, we cas asiume 310 be the point (0.1) 30 thatthe coordinate Ftion (0) of general point xs)e Ux (ah nye) me) of bas only46 2 coms cone maniniuen M and one minimum m. These wo points divide C ino wo frou sueh tat xy incremes onthe one and decreases on the other Since very borizontal plane inlerecis each afe st aL most one point every Torigoatl plane Between the wo extremal herzontl planes zy=M aad symm intents Cin exally two points. We jon exch pir of those pants Gy avtine segment. nd by all tho line opments we form a rerlace hounded by C, whieh ss Romeomorphic to a citclar dik see Fig. 236 Thue ea ell knot and this contadiction completes the poo K. Bors (6] has generalized Theorem 3.14 to cures in an mdimen- local (n> Euclidean spice £".F. Backll and C. C. Hsiung [1] have Joy further generalized Borsuk’s result Yo curves in an m-mensional onelipti pace "ane have also generalized Theorem 3.11219 nontev= {at knot ina apace LLL Remar Aier having stiied the (oat conatute of a loses are C. we matraly would ike to inesigate the ttl tason of C, which {Saefined to be the integral cede, where sand ae the are ent ad the tomon of C, respectively. However for any real numer thee i @ coed 0) aa cea ( 3. GLOBAL THEOREMS FoR sPac CURVES ws cure C such tas teal oriom agua 07. To pros this. We need only to consider carves made up of crue elt withthe ends med Fo 8 Plane curve asm Fig. 237, and to vary the pitch, the romper of cas od fhe apht of lel handedness ofthe helix ‘On the other hand, we ean have Geppest’ theorem BLI& Theor H. Grppert 23), The ttl torsion ofa cloted cue on a tm sphere ee “This theorem actualy gives a sulficien condition fora nonpanae curve folie on a unt sphere! ste pro! requres some teri a Chapter and 1S therfore omitted here B. Segre [53] hae Mudied the toal absolute {orwon fel dof a closed curve Cand has obtained tome rel n omer bounds on the integral 32. Deformations. We proved in Section 1.5 at a byecton berween ‘wo curves, under which the ar lengths he curvature sd the torson ae preserved, can be established only by a erentation preserving ne try ts matural wo stay the mappings under which only 1 are preserved ‘We shal ell such a mapping a dlomarion ofthe eure. The mort notable result along ths dieecuoe & the following theorem of A. Shut Ut for ‘ulate the geomec ft that if an ate scohed. the distance beteeen its endpoints becomes loge. By the curate ofa curve i ths ston, ‘we shal alvays mean it abeout value 4.2L, Theorem (A. Schur). Let C bea plane ae with cacatare xs) and tar length mck forms a comer care mth it chord AB, Let C* be an Of the same lnk fered the same paramere tha cura sO) cos oP rey since the cosine function i « monotone decreasing funtion ofits argue ‘ment i the range between Oand = Since Cts convex di equal to the projection of C ont chord 42: om [cose 29 On ester bad we ave o> [foo 7 6x) since the inter on the righthand side i eg! to the proection of C ence ofthe chord joining end points, on the tangent of C= at the point " conesponding to 0. Combining (321), (022), and (223) we obtain bea Seppose that ded? Then the inequalities (320), (421), and (2) all become equalities Thus the chord joining the end points 4%, BY of C* ‘most be parallel othe tangent of C* at Ov Since the equality must holdin (620, we have AP = TP 02) ‘which implies tht the images of 4"Q° and 80° ate on the uit cle, oF the arcs 4°" and B°Q* are plane acs, On the other hand, by using (319) TP BaP 1d. where Rise Dosti constaneand d the length ofthe line segment AB Let be a cele Frade B trough A,B. Then ihr LS the sharer er AB or Le longer are 4B on Prof. We Fist remark thatthe ssurpton R> | dis necessary fr the existence of the cre §. To prove the theorem we can awuime that LcAWR, since otherwise here's noting to prove. Then we compare C with an are Cf the same length of 5, Let be the length ofthe shord t (C The conditions of Schur’ theorem af satisied, and we obutin dd Hence ether L> the longer are ofS with the chord 4B or L« the sore arcof § with the chord 42. QED In parcuar, we consider ares joining 4. with cunatre «=1/R, 1234/2. Then he length of sch aes have 0 upper hounds as shows by the example of whelit: They have d as lower bound, but can be a lowe to das posible This is thetefore an example of «minimum problem svt to ston. "The discussion above leads to the minimum problem: determine the forest closed curve with curvature w<'i/RR being 8 pret posiive fonstnt Asa second application of Schurs theorem we bave the fellow ing shton of thie probe. 424 Theorem. The shortest closed curve with curvature x 1/R, R bing 1 ponte conto, i acl of rads Re ‘This theorem is motivated by the physica problem of finding the shores piece of wire whose end point can be put together without breaking the wit, that i without Increasing ils curvature a any poat beyond 1/R