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Define pathogen 2
Describe 2 modes of
2
action of pathogens
Describe cell-
mediated immunity 5
and humoral immunity
Outline circulation 5
Describe aneurysm 2
Lung breathing
5
mechanism
Describe tuberculosis:
tranmission and mode 6
of action
1) Antibodies are proteins that have a variable region and a constant region
2) The variable region has a specific shape that is determined by protein tertiary structures
3) The specific shape allows the antibody to target antigens with complementary shapes
4) Antigen-antibody complexes are formed
1) A Plasma B-cell that is known to produce desired antibodies is isolated and fused with enucleated rapidly-
dividing cell
2) This hybridoma cell is cultured and replicated, and large quantities of a single kind of antibody can be produced
for industrial or commercial use
3) Common uses include immunoessay (pregnancy test), cancer treatment for targeting specific cancer cells
1) The purpose of vaccination is to trigger immune response
2) Vaccines contain antigens or dead pathogens or attenuated (weakened) pathogens
3) Triggers the body to synthesize memory cells specific for the encountered antigens
4) Upon a second invasion, a much large quantity of antibodies can be produced in a much shorter time
5) As the antigen first-time recognition processes are bypassed
6) Antibodies target pathogens by agglutinating them, making them easier to phagocytose, less mobile and less
likely to enter cells.
7) Fewer people to pass on disease.
1) The Sino-Atrial Node, located in the right atrium, initiates heartbeat and acts as a pacemaker
2) The heart muscles are myogenic
3) SAN sends waves of electrical impulses, causing both atria to contract
4) Atria force force blood into the ventricles as the electrical impulses arrive at the Atrio-Ventricular Node after a
short delay. This delay allows the atria to empty
5) AVN sends nerve impulses down the Bundle of His within the septa, and alon the Purkinje fibres embedded
within the ventricular walls
6) Ventricles contract from the base up
Deoxygenated blood enters from vena cava -> right atrium -> right ventricle through tricuspid valve -> pulmonary
artery through semi-lunar valves -> lungs for gas exchange (oxygen in and carbon dioxide out) -> pulmonary vein
-> left atrium -> left ventricle through bicuspid valuve -> aorta through semilunar valves
The weaking and bulging of blood vessels due to fatty material depositing on the endothelium of blood vessels
1) Caused by the deteriation of the alveoli wall, including rupturing and thickening
2) Due to the loss of elastin
3) Longer diffusion distance, reduced concentration gradient, and less surface area for gaseous exchange
4) Alveoli cannot recoil efficiently, increased difficulty in exhalation
5) Less air leaves lungs or decreased tidal volume
6) Less carbon dioxide expelled, less oxygen uptaken into bloodstream
7) Less oxygen available for aerobic respiration
1) Asbestos, silica or other foreign agent inhaled, that causes an immune response
2) Alveolar macrophages within the immune system starts slowly depositing fibrous tissue in attempt to attack the
foreign agent
3) accumulation of fibrous scars lead to thickening of epithelium, causing loss of elasticity and increase diffusion
distance
4) reduced gaseous exchange capability
5) Symptoms include shortness of breath, dry cough and discomfort
1) Large surface area overall hence more interface for simple diffusion
2) Epithelial cells have microvilli to further increase surface
3) Epithelial cells are only 1-layer thick to increase concentration gradient / minimize diffusion distance
4) Epithelial cells contain lots of mitochondria in order to generate energy / ATP for active transport
5) Underlying network of capillaries to carry away absorbed nutrients and maintain a steep concentration gradient
6) Central lacteal for absorping fatty acids
7) Lots of surface area for protein carriers, protein channels, sodium-glucose co-transporters
8) Membrane-bound digestive enzymes e.g. immobilized maltase
1) Carbohydrates digested into absorbable sizes (glucose) via hydrolysis by carbohydrase / amylase
2) Glucose and sodium are co-transported from the lumen into an intestinal epithelial cell through protein symport /
carriers on the cell surface
3) This lower the water potential of the epithelial cell
4) Water is then absorbed into the epithelial cell by osmisis down the water potential gradient.
1) Cholera is caused by a Vibrio cholerae, a bacteria that secrets a toxin the the intestinal lumen
2) This toxin cause chloride ion channels to be open and chloride ions to be lost to the lumen
3) Increase chloride ion concentration in the lumen results in lower water potential in the lumen, causing water to
osmose from the epithelial cells into the lumen
4) This causes watery faeces and diarrhea
5) ORS solution contains water to rehydrate tissues, sodium and glucose which are co-transported into the
epithelial cells, decreasing its water potential and prevent osmosis from the epithelial cells into the lumen
Questions Marks
Outline the
relationship between
4
genes and
polypeptides
Describe the
synthesis, chemical
structures and 6
functions of
polysaccharides
Describe differences
between general plant 3
and animal cells
Describe the
5
replication of DNA
Explain the
importance of size and
surface area-to-
3
volume ratio regarding
a mass transport
system
Describe gas
exchange in fish 3
species
Describe the
structural-function
relationship between 7
different types of
blood vessels
Describe the
evidence that
3
classifying systems
are based on.
DNA replication:
A mutation is a random change in the genetic base sequence;
Meiosis:
Independent random assortment: Homologous chromosomes line up and pairs and non-homologous c
line up randomly
Independent segregation: Eac member of a homologous pair is separated into different haploid cells
Chiasmata formation: Exchange of sections of chromosomes between 2 homologous chromosomes, re
recombination of alleles of linked genes;
Environmental:
Environmental factors will cause different levels and different timings of gene expressions
DNA helicase unwinds the double helix and breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two strands;
Incoming free DNA nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with each exposed template strand;
Base pairing rules are adenine - thymine and cytosine - guanine;
DNA polymerase joins the sugar-phosphates of the incoming nucleotides into a new backbone;
DNA replication is semiconservative as each new helix consists of one new strand and one old strand
Cell cycle involves interphate (G1, S, G2) and mitosis (PMAT in full)
G1 and G2:
Cell carries out its normal metabolic processes (e.g. protein synthesis) in order to serve the organism;
Cell increases in size and number of organelles in order to prepare for cell division;
S:
Cell undergoes DNA replication in order to ensure that each daughter cell after mitosis will be genetic
to each parent cell;
During mitosis the cell focuses on properly separating the genetic material and distributing organelles
cells in order to ensure that 2 functional daughter cells are formed by the end of mitosis
Cells in the same individual have the same genetic sequences;
Only a few genes in each cell are expressed;
This allows cells to adapt and specialize into particular types of tissues and carry out specific function
Example of cells in animals or plants
Single-celled organism have small size and does not need a transport system;
Material and heat (absorbing nutrients, removing wastes and dissipating heat) can be exchanged effe
simple diffusion;
Larger organisms having smaller surface area-to-volume ratio will need a transport system to facilitate
materials
Water is taken in by mouth and passed over gill filaments which have large surface area;
Gill lamella are structures on gill filaments that contains capillaries ;
Countercurrent flow between water and blood;
Allows the maintainence of steep gas concentration gradients;
Short diffusion distances overall
Arteries:
Tough outer layer to withstand pressure;
Thick muscle layer to generate contraction (pulses);
Elastic layer allows blood pressure to b maintaind;
Narrow lumen to allow small volume hence high pressure;
Smooth endothelium lining to ensure smooth blood flow;
Veins:
Outer layer / muscle / elastic layer not as thick as pressure is lower than that of arteries;
Wide lumen to allow high flow volume;
Valves to prevent backflow of blood;
Capillaries:
One cell-thick to minimize diffusion distance to faciliate material exchange;
Large collective surface area to provide lots of opportunities for material exchange;
As blood vessels narrow, the hydrostatic pressure builds up at the arterial eneds of the capillaries;
This forces fluid out of blood plasma, becoming tissue fluid in the process;
Excess tissue fluid is carried by the lymphatic system,
Lymph is returned back to the main circulationby hydrostatic pressure and muscle contractions;
Valves prevent backflow;
Lymph rejoins the subclavian vein
Evaporation at the leaves / water vapor diffusing out of the stomata down its concentration gradient;
Causing mesophyll cells to draw water from the veins via osmosis;
This causes low hydrostatic pressure at the upper part of the plant xylem
This low hydrostatic pressure allows water to be draw up xylem tubes and against gravity;
Aided by adhesive forces due to hydrogen bonding between the xylem wall and water molecules;
Aided by cohesive forces due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules;
The upward flow of water is called the transpiration pull