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Questions Marks

Define pathogen 2

Describe 2 modes of
2
action of pathogens

Describe the mode of


action of phagocytotic 4
white blood cells

Describe cell-
mediated immunity 5
and humoral immunity

Describe the structure


and mode of action of 3
antibodies

Describe the synthesis


and the use of 2
monoclonal antibodies
Describe the principles
6
of vaccination

Outline the control of


5
heartbeat

Outline circulation 5

Describe the relation


between atheroma
5
and myocardial
infarction
Factors affecting
coronary heart 5
diseases

Describe aneurysm 2

Lung breathing
5
mechanism

Describe tuberculosis:
tranmission and mode 6
of action

Describe the cause


and effect of 5
emphysema
Describe the cause
4
and effect of fibrosis

Describe the cause


3
and effect of asthma

Adaptation of villus for


5
facilitating absorption

Describe how the


uptake of
5
carbohydrates and
water are connected
Describe cholera and
the principle behind 5
ORS treatment
Suggested answer
Includes bacteria, viruses, fungi and protists, pathogens are microorganisms that cause diseases

Pathogens cause diseases by damaging cells of the hosts, or by secreting toxins

1) Respond to chemical signals and approach pathogen


2) Engulfing the pathogen and forming a phagosome
3) Fuse with lysosome which contains hydrolytic enzymes / lysozyme
4) Pathogen is digested
5) Undigestable waste expelled via exocytosis

1) Invasion of pathogen, and engulfin of pathogen by phagocytes


2) Macrophages are phagocytes that will present undigested antigens on its cell surface
3) T-cells with complementary receptors are activated
4) Activated T-cells rapidly divide by mitosis to form clones that may specialize to stimulate phatocytes, stimulate B
cells to divide and produce antibodies (helper T-cells), directly kill infected cells (cytotoxic T-cells) or become T-
memory cells
5) B cells are next activated by T-cells. B cells will rapidly divide by mitosis and become either plasma cells, which
produce large quantities of antibodies. Or they can become memory cells.

1) Antibodies are proteins that have a variable region and a constant region
2) The variable region has a specific shape that is determined by protein tertiary structures
3) The specific shape allows the antibody to target antigens with complementary shapes
4) Antigen-antibody complexes are formed

1) A Plasma B-cell that is known to produce desired antibodies is isolated and fused with enucleated rapidly-
dividing cell
2) This hybridoma cell is cultured and replicated, and large quantities of a single kind of antibody can be produced
for industrial or commercial use
3) Common uses include immunoessay (pregnancy test), cancer treatment for targeting specific cancer cells
1) The purpose of vaccination is to trigger immune response
2) Vaccines contain antigens or dead pathogens or attenuated (weakened) pathogens
3) Triggers the body to synthesize memory cells specific for the encountered antigens
4) Upon a second invasion, a much large quantity of antibodies can be produced in a much shorter time
5) As the antigen first-time recognition processes are bypassed
6) Antibodies target pathogens by agglutinating them, making them easier to phagocytose, less mobile and less
likely to enter cells.
7) Fewer people to pass on disease.

1) The Sino-Atrial Node, located in the right atrium, initiates heartbeat and acts as a pacemaker
2) The heart muscles are myogenic
3) SAN sends waves of electrical impulses, causing both atria to contract
4) Atria force force blood into the ventricles as the electrical impulses arrive at the Atrio-Ventricular Node after a
short delay. This delay allows the atria to empty
5) AVN sends nerve impulses down the Bundle of His within the septa, and alon the Purkinje fibres embedded
within the ventricular walls
6) Ventricles contract from the base up

Deoxygenated blood enters from vena cava -> right atrium -> right ventricle through tricuspid valve -> pulmonary
artery through semi-lunar valves -> lungs for gas exchange (oxygen in and carbon dioxide out) -> pulmonary vein
-> left atrium -> left ventricle through bicuspid valuve -> aorta through semilunar valves

1) Athermoa is the accumulation of fatty deposits within arterial walls


2) Such fatty deposits can cause damage to the endothelium when they fall off the endothelium
3) A blood clot forms in the inner wall -- this is thrombosis
4) This leads to constricted vessels, decreased blood flow and high blood pressures
5) If clot forms in coronary artery and blocks the artery, this situation is known as myocardial infarction
6) Heart muscles cannot acquire oxygen and glucose, cannot respire and die
1) Age: Older people have high risk of getting CHD
2) Genetic predeposition: those with familry history of CHD are more prone
3) Gender: Males are more prone to CHD
4) Obesity
5) Physical inactivity
6) Smoking habits (decreases oxygen carrying capacity)
7) Dietary habtits (high fat content diet = likely obese)

The weaking and bulging of blood vessels due to fatty material depositing on the endothelium of blood vessels

1) Inhalation starts with external intercostal muscles contracting


2) Diagram contracts and flattens
3) These cause the thoracic cavity to increase in volume
4) Lung pressure decreases
5) Air rushes in due to pressure difference
6) Reverse arguments for exhalation

1) Caused by mycobacterium tuberculosis, which is a bacterium


2) Transmitted via droplets
3) Bacterium engulfed but not destroyed by macrophages
4) Bacterium may be encased in structures such as tubercles and nodules
5) When immunosuppression happens, bacteria replicate and are released
6) Bacteria destroy alveoli, capillaries and epithelial cells
7) Bacteria lead to fibrosis, scar tissues, cavities and calcification
8) Less surface area for gaseous exchange
9) Bacteria are susceptible to spreading to other organs

1) Caused by the deteriation of the alveoli wall, including rupturing and thickening
2) Due to the loss of elastin
3) Longer diffusion distance, reduced concentration gradient, and less surface area for gaseous exchange
4) Alveoli cannot recoil efficiently, increased difficulty in exhalation
5) Less air leaves lungs or decreased tidal volume
6) Less carbon dioxide expelled, less oxygen uptaken into bloodstream
7) Less oxygen available for aerobic respiration
1) Asbestos, silica or other foreign agent inhaled, that causes an immune response
2) Alveolar macrophages within the immune system starts slowly depositing fibrous tissue in attempt to attack the
foreign agent
3) accumulation of fibrous scars lead to thickening of epithelium, causing loss of elasticity and increase diffusion
distance
4) reduced gaseous exchange capability
5) Symptoms include shortness of breath, dry cough and discomfort

1) Release of local messengers called histamines


2) Causing airway linings to inflame and thicken
3) Constricted airway, reduced gaseous intake and exhalation, reduced tidal volume
4) Symptoms include difficult in breathing, wheezing sounds and tight feeling in the chest

1) Large surface area overall hence more interface for simple diffusion
2) Epithelial cells have microvilli to further increase surface
3) Epithelial cells are only 1-layer thick to increase concentration gradient / minimize diffusion distance
4) Epithelial cells contain lots of mitochondria in order to generate energy / ATP for active transport
5) Underlying network of capillaries to carry away absorbed nutrients and maintain a steep concentration gradient
6) Central lacteal for absorping fatty acids
7) Lots of surface area for protein carriers, protein channels, sodium-glucose co-transporters
8) Membrane-bound digestive enzymes e.g. immobilized maltase

1) Carbohydrates digested into absorbable sizes (glucose) via hydrolysis by carbohydrase / amylase
2) Glucose and sodium are co-transported from the lumen into an intestinal epithelial cell through protein symport /
carriers on the cell surface
3) This lower the water potential of the epithelial cell
4) Water is then absorbed into the epithelial cell by osmisis down the water potential gradient.
1) Cholera is caused by a Vibrio cholerae, a bacteria that secrets a toxin the the intestinal lumen
2) This toxin cause chloride ion channels to be open and chloride ions to be lost to the lumen
3) Increase chloride ion concentration in the lumen results in lower water potential in the lumen, causing water to
osmose from the epithelial cells into the lumen
4) This causes watery faeces and diarrhea
5) ORS solution contains water to rehydrate tissues, sodium and glucose which are co-transported into the
epithelial cells, decreasing its water potential and prevent osmosis from the epithelial cells into the lumen
Questions Marks

Outline the cause of


4
variation

Describe the structure


3
of DNA

Outline the
relationship between
4
genes and
polypeptides

Outline the process of


4
meiosis

Outline events that


may reduce genetic 6
diversity
Describe the structure
and mode of action of 5
hemoglobin

Describe the
synthesis, chemical
structures and 6
functions of
polysaccharides

Describe differences
between general plant 3
and animal cells

Describe the
5
replication of DNA

Describe and explain


the activity of a cell
4
during various stages
of the cell cycle
Describe the
importance of cell
differentiation in the 3
development of
multicellular organism

Explain the
importance of size and
surface area-to-
3
volume ratio regarding
a mass transport
system

Describe how insects


3
undergo gas exchange

Describe gas
exchange in fish 3
species

Describe the
structural-function
relationship between 7
different types of
blood vessels

Describe how body


fluid is formed and
3
returned to the blood
system
Describe how water is
transported up a plant
according to the 5
cohesion-tension
theory

Describe how water


moves into the xylem 5
of the roots

Describe the
evidence that
3
classifying systems
are based on.

Describe the mode of


antibiotics on bacteria,
and explain how
6
species of bacteria are
acquire antibiotic
resistance
Suggested answer

DNA replication:
A mutation is a random change in the genetic base sequence;

Meiosis:
Independent random assortment: Homologous chromosomes line up and pairs and non-homologous c
line up randomly
Independent segregation: Eac member of a homologous pair is separated into different haploid cells
Chiasmata formation: Exchange of sections of chromosomes between 2 homologous chromosomes, re
recombination of alleles of linked genes;

Environmental:
Environmental factors will cause different levels and different timings of gene expressions

Double helix with 2 antiparallel strands;


Nucleotides contains sugar (deoxyribose), phosphate and one of adenine, guanine, cytosine or thymin
Contains a sugar-phosphate backbone containing phosphodiester bonds;
Complementary base pairing between opposite strands: A-T and C-G

Genes occupy fixed positions, called loci, on a particular strand of DNA;


Genes are sections of sequences of bases which are recognized as triplet codons;
Each triple code represents a specific amino acid;
Base sequence of a gene determines the amino acid sequence in a polypeptide;
Polypeptides determine the nature and development of organisms;
A change in base seuquences as a result of mutation produces one or more alleles of the same gene

Meiosis involves the prophase, anaphase, metaphase, telophase cycle twice;


Crossing over happens during prophase 1, resulting in genetic recombination;
Independent segregation of homologous chromosomes happen in metaphase / anaphase 1, resulting i
combinations of maternal and paternal chromosomes in the daughter cells;
4 haploid cells are formed as a result. The are in the form of 2 pairs of genetically different gametes.

Differences in DNA lead to genetic diversity;


Artificial selection of animals and plants for domestic and agricultural processes lead to reduction in d
The found effect: When a few individuals within a population colonizes a new habitat, the resulting col
genetic similarity to the pioneering ancestor and not so much to the entire population where the foun
originated from.
Genetic bottlenecks: When a population suffers a drastic decline, the recovered population will show g
similarity to the survivors.
Hemoglobins are a group of quaternary structure proteins;
Adult Hemoglobin contains 4 tertiary structures -- 2 alpha subunits and 2 beta subunits;
Hemoglobins contains the prosthetic heme group which contains iron;
Hemoglobin binds to oxygen where surrounding oxygen partial pressure is high;
The binding of 1 oxygen to 1 heme increases the affinity for oxygen by the 3 remaining hemes;
Oxygen dissociates in tissues where oxygen partial pressures are low;
Myoglobin and fetal hemoglobin each have higher oxygen affinities than hemoglobin at the same surr
oxygen partial pressure, hence facilitating delivery of oxygen to muscles / growing fetus

Glucose can be in the alpha. or beta- form.;


Glucose molecules are joined together by glycosidic bonds via condensation reactions;
Starch is a long chain of alpha-glucose, which coils up to form a helix;
Starch is a suitable plant storage sugar because of its large size, low solubility and compactness;
Cellulose is a long chain of beta-glucose;
Cellulose is a suitable plant cell wall material due to its strength and chemical stability;
Glycogen is a polymer of alpha-glucose containing 1,4 ad 1,6 glycosidc bonds;
Glycogen is large and insoluble and is a suitable storage sugar for animals (and yeasts)

Plant cells have cell wall, animal cells don't;


Plant cells contain chloroplasts, animal cells don't;
Plant cels contains a large vacuole, animal cells have no permanent vacuoles;
Animal cells have centrioles, plant cells have a microtubule-organizing centre;
Plant cells may have starch granules, animal cells may have glycogen granules;

DNA helicase unwinds the double helix and breaks the hydrogen bonds between the two strands;
Incoming free DNA nucleotides form hydrogen bonds with each exposed template strand;
Base pairing rules are adenine - thymine and cytosine - guanine;
DNA polymerase joins the sugar-phosphates of the incoming nucleotides into a new backbone;
DNA replication is semiconservative as each new helix consists of one new strand and one old strand

Cell cycle involves interphate (G1, S, G2) and mitosis (PMAT in full)
G1 and G2:
Cell carries out its normal metabolic processes (e.g. protein synthesis) in order to serve the organism;
Cell increases in size and number of organelles in order to prepare for cell division;
S:
Cell undergoes DNA replication in order to ensure that each daughter cell after mitosis will be genetic
to each parent cell;
During mitosis the cell focuses on properly separating the genetic material and distributing organelles
cells in order to ensure that 2 functional daughter cells are formed by the end of mitosis
Cells in the same individual have the same genetic sequences;
Only a few genes in each cell are expressed;
This allows cells to adapt and specialize into particular types of tissues and carry out specific function
Example of cells in animals or plants

Single-celled organism have small size and does not need a transport system;
Material and heat (absorbing nutrients, removing wastes and dissipating heat) can be exchanged effe
simple diffusion;
Larger organisms having smaller surface area-to-volume ratio will need a transport system to facilitate
materials

Spiracles openings are controlled by valves;


Spiracles connect to trachea, tracheoles and muscle fibres;
Gases diffuse down their own conentration gradient;
Muscle movement helps the ventilation process.

Water is taken in by mouth and passed over gill filaments which have large surface area;
Gill lamella are structures on gill filaments that contains capillaries ;
Countercurrent flow between water and blood;
Allows the maintainence of steep gas concentration gradients;
Short diffusion distances overall

Arteries:
Tough outer layer to withstand pressure;
Thick muscle layer to generate contraction (pulses);
Elastic layer allows blood pressure to b maintaind;
Narrow lumen to allow small volume hence high pressure;
Smooth endothelium lining to ensure smooth blood flow;
Veins:
Outer layer / muscle / elastic layer not as thick as pressure is lower than that of arteries;
Wide lumen to allow high flow volume;
Valves to prevent backflow of blood;
Capillaries:
One cell-thick to minimize diffusion distance to faciliate material exchange;
Large collective surface area to provide lots of opportunities for material exchange;

As blood vessels narrow, the hydrostatic pressure builds up at the arterial eneds of the capillaries;
This forces fluid out of blood plasma, becoming tissue fluid in the process;
Excess tissue fluid is carried by the lymphatic system,
Lymph is returned back to the main circulationby hydrostatic pressure and muscle contractions;
Valves prevent backflow;
Lymph rejoins the subclavian vein
Evaporation at the leaves / water vapor diffusing out of the stomata down its concentration gradient;
Causing mesophyll cells to draw water from the veins via osmosis;
This causes low hydrostatic pressure at the upper part of the plant xylem
This low hydrostatic pressure allows water to be draw up xylem tubes and against gravity;
Aided by adhesive forces due to hydrogen bonding between the xylem wall and water molecules;
Aided by cohesive forces due to hydrogen bonding between water molecules;
The upward flow of water is called the transpiration pull

Root hair cells absorb water vias osmosis;


Water travels along the cortex of the root;
Symplastic route involves water diffusing along plastmodesmata or osmosing across partially-pearmea
membrane;
Apoplastic route involves water travelling along cell walls due to adhesive forces;
Casparian strip in the endodermis blocks the apoplastic pathway;
Active transport of minerals into the xylem will lower the xylem water potential;
This allows water to subsequently enter the xylem via osmosis;
Water enter the xylem constitutes root pressure which will aid the eventual upward movement of wate

Organisms were classified based on appearance;


Cladistics involves comparing the DNA base sequences of organisms;
DNA hybridization relates the melting points of hybrid DNA obtained from 2 different organisms to eva
genetic similarity;
Comparison of amino acid sequences in common proteins can be used to deduce genetic similarities

Antibiotic kills microorganism by inhibiting cell wall closure;


Contents leak and cell undergoes lysis;
Individual bacterium exhibit variation in antibiotic resistance due to mutations;
Those who possess means ot tolerating the antibiotic will be at a selective advantage over individuals
As bacterium undergoes cell division, the genes that confer antibiotic resistance will be passed onto o
Over many generations, a higher proportion of the population will be tolerant against the same antibio
gene transmission);
Bacterium can also exchange genetic material with other individuals (same or different species) via co
(horizontal gene transmission), making more individuals antibiotic resistant in the process.

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