Introduction

The basic requirement for obtaining the direction of

arrival of received signals has become a complex system
An Analysis of Wide-Band problem in recent years. Today's requirements define
direction-finding (DF) systems that must operate over
Microwave Monopulse several octaves of bandwidth and provide rms bearing
angle accuracies on the order of 1 to 6 degrees. The
Direction-Finding overall system, which includes the antennas, receiver, and
processor, must handle multiple signals with a high proba-
Techniques bility of intercept and provide unambiguous direction-of-
arrival information while continuously observing relatively
large spatial fields of view.
L.G. BULLOCK, Member, IEEE To provide a data base in which to evaluate potential
G.R. OEH, Senior Member, IEEE
J.J. SPARAGNA, Member, IEEE
approaches that can satisfy these DF requirements and
Sylvania Electronic Systems performance goals in practical, cost-effective implementa-
Mountain View, Calif. 94040 tions, the analysis and performance characteristics of four
candidate wide-band direction-finding techniques are
presented. The basic DF techniques include pure ampli-
tude monopulse, phase and amplitude monopulse (two-
Abstract and three-channel configurations), and pure phase mono-
This paper presents the concept, theory of operation, characteris- pulse interferometer. These DF approaches, which repre-
tic equations, and error analysis of four wide-band monopulse
sent classical [1] -[3] as well as original concepts, are
techniques. The basic techniques described, which include pure
presented using the latest implementation of the frequen-
cy-independent class of log-periodic antenna elements.
amplitude monopulse, phase and amplitude monopulse (two- and
The basic broad-band system concept, theory of opera-
three-channel configurations), and pure phase monopulse inter- tion, characteristic equations, and error analysis have been
ferometer, are particularly applicable to monopulse direction- formulated for each of these systems. Consequently, this
finding systems that require frequency coverage over several oc- paper provides a single source of data that permits trade-
taves and open-loop angle bearing of several degrees. Sufficient off analysis to be made between these DF techniques for
detail and working formulas are included to permit a trade-off selection in specific hardware applications.
analysis to be made between the direction-finding techniques for
selection in specific hardware applications. Three-Channel Amplitude and Phase Comparison
Monopulse
In a three-channel phase and amplitude comparison
monopulse system, RF signals are received by each of
four antenna elements and then combined in a beam-
forming network to produce azimuth and elevation sum
and difference signals simultaneously.
The block diagram of the sum and difference mono-
pulse direction-finding system for extracting bearing
angles in both the elevation and azimuth planes is shown
in Fig. 1. The four antenna element radiation patterns are
combined in an RF beam-forming network, which consists
of four 180-degree hybrids, to generate a sum beam and
two orthogonal difference beams. The sum of the four
element radiation patterns is characterized by a single
beam whose maximum lies on the antenna axis, and the
difference by a split beam whose minimum or null lies on
the antenna axis with the lobes on opposite sides of the
antenna axis in antiphase. The principal plane sum and
difference beams are shown in Fig. 2. A three-channel
superheterodyne receiver is required to maintain the phase
relationship between the sum and two difference chan-
nels. Because the difference radiation pattern is in phase
with respect to the sum pattern on one side of the
Manuscript received January 9, 1970; revised August 25, 1970. antenna axis and out of phase on the other side of the

1 88 i88 II TRANSAC(lIONS ON ALROSPAC AND I LI CTRONIC SYSTE.MS VOL. Al S-7, NO. I JANUARY 1971
Fig. 1. Three-channel amplitude and phase comparison monopulse DF system block diagram.

Fig. 2. Computed principal phase I and A beams from an amplitude and phase comparison monopulse DF system as a function of
element phase center spacing.

90

antenna axis, bearing angle sense information (i.e., right
or left of the antenna axis) is determined by using a
phase detector. The precise bearing information is de-
termined by comparing the amplitudes of the signals
amplified in the sum (1) and difference (A) log IF strips,
the output voltage difference being proportional to the
ratio of the signal strengths received by the sum and
difference patterns (A/1). The bearing is determined by
equating the magnitude of the (A/z2) ratio to a particular
angle off the antenna axis.
To achieve wide-band operation with a three-channel
monopulse DF system, it is highly desirable to use an
antenna array that provides frequency-independent sum
and difference beams. In general, to maintain knowledge
of the difference-to-sum pattern ratio as a function of
angle-off-boresight for each frequency requires significant

BULLOCK et al.: WIDE-BAND MONOPULSE DF TECHNIQUES 189

processor core memory and computation time. An array The corresponding far zone patterns in decibels to be
of four log-periodic antenna elements mechanically con- used for comparison with measured data are given by the
figured so that their effective phase-center spacing is following equations:
constant with frequency will provide frequency-indepen-
dent performance. The antenna element type can be P= =
20 log IE9 (3)
chosen to provide either linear or circular polarization.
For circular polarization, which allows constant coupling P = 20 log IkEA . (4)
to horizontal, vertical, and rotating linear polarization, the
conical log spiral is the best element choice. In 1968, The ratio A/I used in the direction-finding system is then
Hahn and Honda [4] described the behavior of conical just
log spirals used in monopulse direction-finding systems.
Their work showed that the resultant sum and difference IA/E = Pa - Pz s (5)
patterns from conical log spiral arrays are independent of The phase associated with the sum and difference patterns
frequency and controlled primarily by the element spac- is given from the real and imaginary parts of (1) and (2),
ing. and may be written as

(pg'
-[(A1 +A2)ssin -' sinh (p2,0)-(Al +A2)sin csh42g'
cosh(p (30)]
oz = tan-I (6)
[(Al - A2)coCOS 2(- cosh (p 3)(Al -A2 ) COS 4'
.-sn( 2 3)

[(A1 - A2) sin 4 sinh (p2 40) (Al +A2 )sin ' cosh (p2 0 )]
I,a = tan-I T' 22' (7)
[(A l - A 2 ) COS I cosh ((p23)-
2 )-(Al1
( + A2 ) COS (p2 (3)]
sih(2:)
sinh

The theoretical amplitude and phase characteristics of The variables in (1) through (7) are as follows:
the frequency-independent DF system can be determined p2 = a constant proportional to element beam-
from a mathematical model of the array. To simplify the width, which changes as a function of polari-
mathematical model, the expressions for the principal zation and frequency
plane sum and difference patterns are presented only for
a two-element array, as shown in Fig. 3. The element A1, A2 =
a measure of the amplitude balance between
pattern shape is simulated with an exponential of the paired elements (including beam-forming
form network output ports)
-p202 s = effective element spacing, which is a func-
2 tion of polarization
where p2 is proportional to the element beamwidth. For 6 = phase imbalance between elements (includ-
a conical log spiral element, the exponential model is a ing variations due to the beam-forming
good approximation over a 45-degree angular field of network)
view. The sum and difference principal plane array pat- k = a constant, which is a function of the ampli-
terns (in voltage) that correspond to the geometry given tude imbalance between sum and difference
in Fig. 4 are given by the following expressions: ports of a beam-forming network.

2 o2
E =exPt- P +
(02+121 j[(AI +A2)cos ; cosh(p20)-(A1 -A2)C sinh (p2 (0)]

2
-e [(A +AA) sin sinh (p230) - (A1 - A2)
2
sinh 2(30)4 (1)

E,, P,(Q2+132)] {[(A, -A2)cos2 cosh(p2(0)-(Al +A2)cos- sinh(p2p0)]

- j[(A1 -A2) sin sinh (p2 30) - (A1 + A2) sin cosh (p2 03j} (2)
where
- 27rsx sin + 6

half the angular separation.

190 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS JANUARY 1971

 0. 30

0 10 20 30
ANGLE OFF BORESIGHT - &grow

Fig. 5. Computed conical spiral array error gradient as a func-

tion of element spacing.

There are several sources of error that one must con-

sider in the design of a practical antenna system using
frequency-independent elements. These errors result in
array characteristics that deviate from the theoretical
frequency-independent system. Some of the errors are
inherent in the antenna element itself; others are related
Fig. 3. A two-element frequency-independent array of conical log to the physical manufacture of the antenna element; and,
spirals. finally, errors in the beam-forming network used to
combine the arrayed elements must be considered. The
following error sources are found to be significant:
1) Errors inherent in the antenna element
a) beamwidth variation as a function of polariza-
tion and frequency
b) phase center variation as a function of polari-
zation
2) Errors inherent in manufacture of the element
a) tolerance errors that prevent accurate phase
and amplitude tracking between elements
ELEMENT
PHASE CENTER
3) Errors inherent in the beam-forming network
a) phase and amplitude errors between output
Al eUp (i +1 p [_E2 (
-p)2] A2 -P -P-(2e.
P[-0
(-19 ])
ports
Fig. 4. Frequency-independent array geometry.
b) amplitude imbalance between sum and differ-
ence ports
In
c) phase imbalance between sum and difference
practical design, the element spacing is determined
a
ports.
by a trade-off of angular field of view, sidelobe level, and
error gradient. The error gradient is a measure of the To illustrate the effect of the various error sources on
slope of the A/1 amplitude ratio and represents the accuracy, Figs. 6 and 7 have been prepared for a fre-
ability of the system to measure incremental changes in quency-independent array of conical log spiral antennas.
the ratio so as to accurately specify the bearing angle. The baseline separation and the nominal element beam-
The larger the error gradient, the greater the accuracy of width are 0.8 wavelength and 70 degrees,
the bearing angle measurements. Fig. 5 shows the calcu- The amplitude A/2 ratio envelope due to the respectively.
RF com-
lated error gradient as a function of element spacing for ponent errors is given in Fig. 6. The maximum amplitude
the two-element conical spiral array. The error gradient is excursion for all errors at 30 degrees is 4 dB; because
largest near the antenna axis and decreases as the angle- the gradient in this area of the curve is 0.57 dB per
off-antenna axis increases. In many cases, the error gradi- degree, the maximum angular error is on the order of
ent is the major factor that limits the angular field of 3.5 degrees. Similarly, Fig. 7 illustrates the effect of the
view. error sources on the antenna phase characteristics.

BULLOCK et aL: WIDE-BAND MONOPULSE DF TECHNIQUES

191
 20 / \
a0

30

0 10r40n4nn
20 3011 -30 -20 -10 0 10 20 30
ANGLE OFF BORESIGHT -- degrees ANGLE OFF BORESIGHT -- degrees
Fig. 6. Computed conical spiral array Fig. 7. Computed conical spiral array phase envelope;
amplitude envelope; 0.8-wavelength base- 0.8-wavelength baseline.
line.

Fig. 8. Computed rms bearing error as a function of signal-to-noise ratio and element
phase center spacing for a three-channel amplitude and phase monopulse DF system
(P= 1).

2.5

0
o 2.0
ce

:z
1.5

1.0

0.5

ANGLE FROM BORESIGHT -- degrees

192 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS JANUARY 197 1

 (SQUINTED ELEMENTS)
ANTENNA ORIENTATION

Fig. 9. Amplitude comparison monopulse DF system block diagram.

The following approximate expression [5] incorporates Fig. 10. Measured principal plane squinted radiation patterns
the effects of noise in both channels on the accuracy of a from an amplitude comparison monopulse DF system.
DF system:

EmS
Orm s =
7
K LjNS+ND
8.686 2P 1/2 (8)
where
Ns = effective noise-to-signal ratio in sum channel
ND = effective noise-to-signal ratio in difference
channel
P = number of pulses integrated
K = antenna error gradient in decibels per degree
Orms = standard deviation of the bearing error .

Fig. 8 illustrates the magnitude of the bearing error as

a function of thermal noise for the conical spiral array
with a constant phase center separation equal to 0.7
wavelength.

Amplitude Comparison Monopulse

A two- dimensional amplitude comparison monopulse
DF system generates four beams simultaneously, the
maxima of which are squinted off boresight to generate
noncoincident patterns in the principal planes. The angle
of arrival of a single pulse can be obtained by determining
the ratio of the signal strengths from the two beams in
each of the principal planes.
The simultaneous comparison of the four beams re-
quires using four receiver channels, which can be of
crystal video or superheterodyne type, but must be iden-
tical in amplitude characteristics if the comparison of the
four signals is to produce an accurate bearing. In the
block diagram shown in Fig. 9, the actual bearing is
determined by comparing the amplitudes of the signals
amplified in the log IF strips. The logged output voltage
difference is proportional to the ratio of the signal
strengths received by the two squinted radiation patterns.
The value of this ratio can be equated to a particular
bearing angle; furthermore, the greater the rate of change
of this ratio, the more accurately the bearing angle deter-
mination can be made.
For an amplitude comparison system, the offset or
squint angle (as shown in Fig. 10) is chosen to produce a
beam crossover level between -1.5 and -3 dB for a prac-
tical system. Ideally, for wide frequency ranges, an

BULLOCK et al.: WIDE-BAND MONOPULSE DF TECHNIQUES

193
antenna whose beamwidth is independent of frequency
will maintain this crossover level. In selecting an antenna + 11.0

for a practical frequency-independent amplitude compari-

son monopulse, it is necessary to consider several require- 10.0
ments. The antenna must have a pattern that is a figure
of revolution about the antenna axis, is circularly polar-
ized, and exhibits a good axial ratio at large angle-from-
boresight. There are several antennas that satisfy these
antenna requirements the cavity-backed planar equi-
angular spiral, the conical equiangular spiral, and the
crossed log-periodic dipole array.
c)

To determine the accuracy that one may expect using

these frequency-independent antennas in an amplitude
z0
ce
0

(2
comparison system, the system can be modeled theoreti- ce-

cally. In general, the pattern of these antennas may be

represented with anl exponential of the fornm :z
v:z
A exp [-a2 (0 + a)21 (9)
where
a = beamoffset angle
a2 - 2.776/(0B2) where OB is the antenna beam-
width measured between half-power points
of the same antenna pattern
0 = bearing angle measured from array axis
i 15 20 25
A = relative amplitude of antenna peak power .

ANGLE OFF BORESIGHT --degrees

Amplitude monopulse angular information is in the form Fig. 11. Computed rms bearing error as a function of signal-to-
noise and angle-off-boresight for an amplitude comparison mono-
of a ratio, which may be expressed by pulse DF system (P= 1).

P1(0) A1 exp; -a2 (0 + a)2]

R=
P2(0) A2 exp [ -a2 ( + a)2]
Thus, it is seen that the system accuracy is directly
A1 proportional to the amplitude imbalance between the two
- exp (4a2a0) antennas and inversely proportional to the error slope.
A2
The effects of thermal noise [calculated from (8)] on
and system accuracy as a function of signal-to-noise ratio and
A1L angle-off-boresight are shown in Fig. 11. For this exam-
R(dB) = 10 log10 AI + 17.372 a2aO ple, the following system parameters were assumed:
element half-power beamwidth of 70 degrees, offset angle
The error slope is, by definition, the rate of change of of 35 degrees, and a corresponding error slope of 0.343
R with respect to 0; therefore, differentiation of (11) dB per degree.
gives the error slope

dO
do Two-Channel Phase and Amplitude Comparison
[R(dB)] = 17.372a2a (dB/deg) (12)
Monopulse
The error slope is a function of the antenna beamwidth The two-channel direction-finding technique provides
and squint angle only and is independent of the angle- azimuth and elevation bearing angle information on a
off-boresight. In other words, the error slope is constant single pulse with two receiver channels and a single
for all (0) for which the antenna pattern may be approx- antenna element. The four-arm log-periodic spiral element
imated by the exponential form. (Fig. 12) is excited via a beam-forming network in such a
If the amplitude imbalance is measured in decibels, manner that both the sum and difference modes are
then generated simultaneously [6]-[8]. The phase and ampli-
,O=
A 2 /A 1
A2A tude of the received signals in the sum and difference
1 7.372a2a channels are then compared to obtain two-dimensional
or bearing information. This monopulse DF system is unique
amplitude imbalance in that only one four-arm antenna element and only two
angular lerrer err error slope receiver channels are required to produce both azimuth

194 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS JANUARY 1971

Fig. 12. Four-arm cavity-backed spiral antenna. Fig. 14. Measured sum (2) and difference (A) patterns of a four-
arm spiral antenna.

Fig. 13. Two-channel monopulse DF system block diagram.

r___
-

___1
IF E
..._T'_
; .]
I
I
AMPLITUDE RATIO
FORI ANGLE

PHASE DATA
FOR 4 ANGLE

and elevation bearing information, as compared to the relative power input to the receiver as a function of
other monopulse DF techniques that require three or four angle-off-boresight. The sum pattern can be expressed in
receiver channels. spherical coordinates (0, k) by
The block diagram of the two-channel monopulse DF
system is shown in Fig. 13. The four-arm spiral antenna,
when excited in the dual mode by the beam-forming Es = f(0) exp[ i In(flfo) ] exp (j0) (14)
network, generates both the sum and difference radiation
for an equiangular spiral, and the difference mode by
patterns shown in Fig. 14. These patterns are rotationally
symmetric about the antenna boresight axis (as shown in E, = g(0) expr
j2 In (f/fo) exp (20) (15)
the coordinates system of Fig. 15) and represent the L a I
BULLOCK et al.: WIDE-BAND MONOPULSE DF TECHNIQUES 195
 \t\V<\ ~~~~~~E
, , ( tg ),e ; 0
E=g(O)o29S
=

.4
B 60 40 20 0 20 40
ELEVATION ANGLE -- degrees
Fig. 15. Relationship of four-arm spiral coordinates
(0. q ) to antenna patterns and spatial coordinates. Fig. 16. Computed L2IA ratio of a dual-
mode four-arm spiral antenna.
wh(ere
0 the measure of the angle from boresight of
= Fig. 17. Computed Y and A channel phase
the emitter response versus rotational angle about the
antenna boresight.
= the measure of the rotational angle about
the antenna boresight of the ernitter plane
a = a constant related to the rate of expansion 630
of the spiral arms 1'<V
540 = X
f = frequency 0
.2
g(6) = difference mode antenna pattern
f(O) sum mode antenna pattern lu
'A 360 1- /fT
The receiver uses the sum and difference signals from
the antenna and associated beam-former to develop two z 270 ______ '/ Et
outputs for processing. One is the difference-over-sum
amplitude ratio, V)

_E_ g(O)
_
(16) 90
IE, f(O)
360 1 270
The other is the difference in electrical phase between the 0 901E80 270 360r,
,f BEARiNG ANGLE degree,
signals in the two channels, --

In (f/fo)
a
(17)
The IE,/LE amplitude ratio (Fig. 16) is proportional
to the angle-off-boresight (0) of the emitter and is, ac-
cordingly, ambiguous, because the patterns are rotational-
ly symmetric about the antenna boresight. The electrical
phase 4P between the sum and difference signals is propor-
tional to 0 (Fig. 17). 0 is a measure of the angle about
the boresight and resolves the ambiguity of the 0
measurement; i and 0 together locate the spatial angle of
arrival with respect to the azimuth and elevation plane.
The angle at which the sum and differenice signals are in
phase, 0, rotates about the boresight axis at a rate
=
determined by the logarithm of the frequency change
(f/fo) and the spiral geometry. To maintain a constant
phase reference with frequency, it is necessary to either
precalibrate the receiver for each particular frequency, or
to construct a compensating phase-shifter over the fre-
quency band of interest.
The planar spiral antenna, being two-dimensional, has a
bidirectional circularly polarized radiation pattern. To
obtain the unidirectional radiation pattern (required in
196 9EE F[RANSACTlIONS
DF systems), the spiral is backed by a cavity on one side,
which restricts the useful bandwidth. If flush mounting is
not a requirement, the conical log spiral antenna radiates
a circularly polarized unidirectional radiation pattern over
essentially unlimited bandwidths. The conical antenna
does not have the limitations imposed by the cavity, and
has one additional design parameter, namely, the cone
angle that can be used to vary or broaden the radiation
patterns of the sum and difference modes.
For the system under consideration, the angle 0 is
measured by determining the ratio f(0)/g(0), and the
accuracy of the measurement of 0 is related to the rate of
change of this amplitude ratio with respect to 0 or error
gradients. The gradient varies with angle-from-boresight,
and has been plotted in Fig. 18. The gradient is a maxi-
mum at boresight and decreases to about 0.15 dB per
degree at 45 degrees. Both the theoretical and measured
error gradient have been plotted in Fig. 18. The theoreti-
cal curve was derived from (14) and (15), while the
experimental curve was derived from patterns of a flat
cavity-backed four-arm spiral antenna. The slight depar-
ON ALROSPACE AND ELECIRONIC SYSILEMS JANUARY 1971
 I13.0
I12.0
11.0
a 10.0 ANTENNA CENIERED IN
I 9.0 ANTENNA CENTERED IN 0. W' THICK RADOAE
4 8.0
0. 033" TH CK R
AND SKEWED J.DOME AND SKEWED 10'
(O CORD I NATE)
.0.

9
6. 0 www-ow
lo-COORDINATE)
. ;;;Oe
- -
-

or0
Pi 5.0 -
FLUSH MOLWED AUINST
THIN RADOtAE
4.0 (#-COORDINATE)
3.0
FLUSH MOUNTED
2.0 AGAINST THIN RADOW
1.0 (O COORDINATE)
-

15 20 25 30 0 5 10 35
2C 40
An 45
ACIC

ANGLE OFF BORESIGHT degrees

ANGLE OFF BORES IGHT degree

Fig. 18. Error gradient as a function of angle-off-boresight for Fig. 19. Measured rms bearing error as a function of angle-off-
two-channel Y_ and A~ monopulse antenna. boresight.

Fig. 20. Computed angular error in 0 coordinate due to thermal noise (P 1).

~ ~ ~ ~ SM 2

30

0
ce
2.0

0 4 12 16 20 24 28 32 3
THETA (0E ) ANGLE MEASURED FROM BORESIGHT degrees

from theoretical boresight is with angle-from-boresight is due to the decrease in error

ture of the experimental near

due primarily to null shift caused by the beam-forming gradient. The small error gradient causes small antenna

network errors and construction tolerances in the an- errors to result in very large DF bearing errors. In

tenna. addition, reflections from the radomes and ground planes

Experimental antenna errors for the various mounting tend to have more effect at large angle-from-boresight.
function of The effect of thermal noise on the bearing angle
configurations are plotted in Fig. 19 as a

calculated by measurements is calculated from (18). The bearing

angle-off-boresight. The errors were com-

thermal noise error as a function of angle-off-boresight for

paring antenna patterns with the theoretical pattern that
for flush signal-to-noise ratios equal to 20, 30, and 40 dB is given
would be used for the look-up table. The errors

mounting are relatively small; however, when the antenna in Fig. 20.

is mounted behind a hemispherical radome, reflections

significant increase in the antenna The (18)

cause a errors.
(Orins, (rm s) =

primary reason for the large increase in antenna error

BULLOCK et al.: WIDE-BAND MONOPULSE DF TECHNIQUES 19 197

 measured in the vertical plane of the baseline and the
horizontal plane, as shown in Fig. 23. The angle a in the
horizontal plane measures the azimuth, and 0 in the
vertical plane measures the elevation of the direction
vector. The advancing wavefront strikes antenna I first
and must travel anl additional distance (d sin a cos,) to
0.30 reach the second antenna. During the time required for
Z SN0NDB the wavefront to travel to antenna 2, the phase of the
signal produced in antenna I will change by an amount c
given by

= -N
:-
.

d sin a cos (1 9)

where
a geoinetric azimuth angle off of array broad-
0.06 \ E side in the plane of the array
- geometric elevation angle in the plane per-
pendicular to the plane of the array
0 10 20 30 40 50
electrical phase angle
THETA ( 6 ) ANGLE MEASURED FROM BORESIGHT -- degrees

Fig. 21. Computed angular error in ) coordinate due d = antenna element spacing
to thermal noise (P 1). N = wavelength.
Equation (19) is the basic interferometer equation relating
the electrical phase shift to the direction angles.
where At least two independent phase measurements are
to solve (19) for the desired azimuth and eleva-
ko - anitenna error gradient in 0 channel (dB/deg) required
tion angles. Two interferometer antenna arrays with base-
koq = antennia error gradienit in 0 channel (dB/deg) lines displaced by an angle y can be used to yield a set of
p =number of pulses integrated simultaneous equations for obtaining two-dimensional
Nli -effective noise-to-signal power in sum chan- angle information:
Inel 0 I ::2 sin a cos (20)
NV, = effective noise-to-signal power in difference
channel =mrd sin (a + -y) cos f3 (21)
irms standard deviation of the bearing error in (i
coordinate In principle, the two measurements may be made either
simultaneously or in rapid time sequence. It is convenient,
Orns = standard deviation of the bearing error in 0 but not essential, to set y = 90 degrees, so that sin (a + -y)
coordinate.
equals cos a.
The i angular bearing thermal noise error for signal- Ambiguity resolution is required even with a four-
to-noise ratios of 20, 30, and 40 dB is summarized in Fig. element interferometer system, as long as either pair in
21 as a function of angle-from-boresight. The 0 angular the orthogonal baseline configuration is greater than X/2
error decreases as the angle-off-boresight increases up to 0 [9]. The number of possible ambiguous azimuths (in the
equal to 30 degrees. Beyond this point, the noise error range 45 degrees) that correspond to a given phase
increases. At boresiglt, the noise error approaches a difference i is obtained by specifying d, A, and ,B, and
maximum value equal to Tr. substituting b = 2n7r in (24), where n = d/X is 0 or any
positive integer. With two perpendicular interferometers
Phase Comparison Monopulse having equal baselines. n must be included with each of
the two measured phase differences, and (20) and (21)
In a phase monopulse DF system, the differential phase become
between two antennas is compared to determine the
direction of arrival of an incident RF wavefront. Fig. 22 iP + 2nr1W sin a cos,B = (22)
shows the block diagram of a typical single plane (azi-
mutlh or elevation) phase monopulse DF system.
The direction of arrival can be defined in three-dimen- + n27 =
2i7d i2
N COSacosa
3 (23)
sional space by two spherical coordinate angles, : and a,

198 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS JANUARY 1971

 ANTENNA
ORIENTATION
Fig. 22. Single-plane phase interferometer monopulse DF system simplified block diagram.

Fig. 23. Geometry of a typical phase interferometer. From (20) and (21), with y = rr/2, we have
DIRECTION OF
INCOMING
SIGNAL A01 = 27yd ( -sin a sin
tAI + cos a cos 3Aa) (26)

I02 =-X ( - cos a sin(A3- sin a cos OAa)- (27)

ANTENNA Defining
tA2 = zA1 2 + IA2 2
we then have
AO (=
= d)
[sin2 gAg2 + COS 2 03Aa2 I (28)
The first-order error components are given for each plane
by [10]
Solving (22) and (23) simultaneously, the following ex- a = Aq (29)
pression is obtained for 3: 2rrn cos a
cosa= 2 d v/( + 2n1r)2 + (02 + 2n27)2
AO = 2n
27rn Assin:0 (30)
(24)
where
Any pair of integers n1 and n2 (positive, negative, or Aa and AO3 = geometric angular error in space
zero) that make this quantity no greater than 1 corres-
pond to a possible target direction and give a unique AO = electrical phase measurement resolution
elevation angle ,B. The azimuth angle a is then derived n = antenna separation to wavelength ratio.
from (22) and (23).
The DF accuracy of the interferometer is found by Equations (29) and (30) imply that for a highly ac-
considering the derivative of (24): curate system, AO should be small and n large. While the
long baseline system is highly accurate (n large), it is also
27rd ambiguous; the electrical phase (f) corresponds to
do= X (-sin a sintdf + cos 3cos ada) . (25)
(_l)k-l(kqT-O) radians, where k = 0, 1, 2 .... The prin-
cipal ambiguous phase difference occurs at k = +1 or iT 0
Replacing the differentials by increments A, we can evalu- radians. -

ate the effect of system errors. Fig. 24 shows the corresponding principal am-
biguous bearing angle, a, as a function of n for 0 =r
BULLOCK et al.: WIDE-BAND MONOPULSE DF TECHNIQUES
199
 a I(n < 4) a-In > 4j

70 -I 7

60 6

S D
8
-

0 50
0
I
0
-8
40
0
z
ce
30 3 us
ui

'o
0
q:E 20 -1 U14
z 1 E
10

Q 2 3 4 6 8 I0 12 14 16 18 2t:
ANTENNA SPACING TO WAVELENGTH RATIO

Fig. 24. Principal ambiguous angle (a1). 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

ANTENNA SEPARATION TO WAVELENGTH RATIO

Fig. 26. Maximum permissible phase error (p).

Fig. 25. SNR error contributions.
17

16 independent, these may be formulated with the following

15
basic equation.
14
A02meas = /\2 SNR + ALb2EQ (31)

g 13 where
12 \<meas = the resulting standard deviation of the elec-
z
z 11
trical phase error
0
o 10 AOSN R = the electrical phase error component due to
cY

0
SNR (standard deviation)
9
0w AOE Q = the error component due to equipment
s 8 electrical phase mismatch (standard devia-
0
ui-j 7 tion)
6
where the expression for AOSNR is given by [from (8)]
[N/S, +V/S2 '

4S N R [L 2P
where
N/S1 and N/S2 = noise-to-signal ratio in the inter-
ferometer channels, respectively
0 10 25 30
P = number of pulses integrated .
15 20

INPUT SIGNAL-TO-NOISE RATIO -- dB

The resultant phase interferometer equations that describe
the system accuracy in each plane may then be written as
radians. This is a graph of a = sin-I(n/2), where a is laid
out on an expanded scale for n>4, for accuracy. 1 N(N/S, N/S2 )
+Aq /I (32)
Contributions to the phase error are derived from two
basic sources: the ability of the equipment to hold phase
match, and the effect of signal-to-noise ratio of the +A EQI] (33)
=

k F( 2P )
incoming signal. Because these two sources of error are

200 I[F.F TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE ANE) ELECI'RONIC SYSTEMS JANUARY 1971

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318VI
where k is the error slope (in degrees per degree) given by
(57.30/2rrn cos a) and (57.30/2irn sin 3), respectively, for
each plane.
The design accuracy of a practical system is determined
by estimating the error gradient and the resultant phase
measurement error composed of equipment phase im-
balances and phase imbalance due to signal-to-noise ratio.
The basic parameters are presented in Figs. 25 and 26.
Fig. 25 is a graph of the angular error contribution due to
signal-to-noise ratio (,A4S N R) for various signal-to-noise
ratios and numbers of measured pulses (P). Fig. 26 is a
plot of angular accuracy as a function of total phase error
and antenna element separation for a signal on boresight
of the antenna. For other angles in the plane, for exam-
ple, the angular accuracy is obtained by multiplying Aa
by cos a. As an example, using the two-wavelength separ-
ation from Fig. 24, the principal ambiguous angle a is 15
degrees. The accuracy from the array is obtained from
Fig. 26. For a system that can hold 10 degrees rms of
phase imbalance between channels, the array will yield a
0.7-degree rms accuracy on boresight. The 10-degree rms
phase imbalance is the result of using the equipment
phase imbalance component and the signal-to-noise ratio
phase imbalance component. This later value can be
obtained from Fig. 25 for a given number of received
pulses and given signal-to-noise ratios. The equipment
phase imbalance must be estimated by making up a phase
error budget similar to those shown in the comparison
table discussed in the Conclusion (Table 1).
Conclusion
This paper summarizes a number of investigations into
broad-band direction-finding (DF) techniques to provide a
data base from which to perform trade-off analysis in
selection of DF approaches. The concept, theory of
operation, and error analysis of four candidate wide-band
direction-finding techniques were described on a common
basis. The discussions represented consideration of the
broad-band aspects of hardware applications that are
representative of the most recent advances in microwave
direction finding. The use of conical and planar log-
periodic antenna elements was considered integral to the
broad-band DF measurement techniques, permitting
multioctave operation with the DF techniques.
Table I was prepared to give an overall DF accuracy
comparison of the four DF techniques discussed. The
comparison inclades the major system error sources con-
tributing to the DF accuracy estimate of each particular
DF technique. The table was derived by considering the
accuracy of each system at discrete angles over a
30-degree spatial field, and then averaging these errors.
The antenna and receiver errors were derived from experi-
mental data, the mechanical alignment and quantization
errors were estimated, and the thermal noise errors were
calculated from (8).
202 IFE TRANSACTIONS ON AEROSPACE AND ELECTRONIC SYSTEMS
The ultimate accuracy of the DF antenna system is
realized by minimizing the receiver and processor error
contributions in making the estimate of the angle of
arrival. Several calibration techniques may be used to
correct these basic phase and amplitude error imbalances
introduced in wide-band operation with a large amplitude
dynamic range. The calibration techniques consist of: 1)
injecting a reference at the intercept frequency derived
from the local oscillator (LO) and correcting system bal-
ances referenced to the injected signal level; 2) dividing
the target signal into two paths with a coupler to correct
at the exact frequency and amplitude level; and 3) using a
crossover switch that will alternate between processing
channels to remove imbalances with respect to the target
signal at the exact frequency and amplitude level. In
practice, these techniques can yield an overall receiver and
processor amplitude imbalance of 1 dB (rms) and phase
imbalance of 5 electrical degrees (rms). Error contribu-
tions due to signal-to-noise ratio must be considered in
the calibration system in the same manner as that used on
the basic DF measurement of the desired signal.
The final system selection of a particular DF technique
involves many other considerations not included in this
paper, such as the vehicle installation constraints, number
of production units, and other economical factors that
can be combined with this basic DF accuracy estimate for
final selection in practical applications.
Peferences
[1] W. Cohen and C.M. Steinmetz, "Amplitude- and phase-
sensing monopulse system parameters," Microwave J., pt. 1.
2, pp. 27-33, October 1959; pt. II. 2, pp. 33-38, November
1959.
[2] D.R. Rhodes, Introduction to Monopulse. New York.
McGraw-Hill, 1959.
[31 N.H. King, "Principles of monopulse radar," AWA Tech.
Rev., vol. 12, no. 1, pp. 1-15, 1962.
141 G. Hahn and R. Honda, "Conical spiral arrays for passive
direction-finding," presented at the 18th Ann. USAF
Antenna Symp., Robert Allterton Park, Monticello, Ill.,
October 1968.
[5] L.G. Bullock, G.R. Oeh, and J.J. Sparagna, "Precision
broadband direction-finding techniques," presented at the
1967 USRI-IEEE-GAP Internatl. Symp., University of
Michigan, October 17-19, 1967.
[6] G.G. Chadwick and J.P. Shelton, "Two-channel monopulse
techniques-theory and practice," Rec. 1965 Conf on
Military Electron. (Washington, D.C.), pp. 177-181, Septem-
ber 1965.
[71 S.B. Franklin, C.L. Hilbers, and W.E. Kosyder, "A wide-
band two-channel monopulse technique," Rec. 1965 Conf
on Military Electron. (Washington, D.C.), pp. 174-176,
September 1965.
[81 L.G. Bullock, G.R. Oeh, and J.J. Sparagna, "A dual-mode
log-periodic spiral antenna for bearing determination," 1970
NVAECONRec., pp. 194-199.
[91 -, "A 3:1 bandwidth monopulse interferometer incor-
porating a dual-mode spiral resolver antenna element,"
presented at the 1970 Internatl. IEEE/G-AP Symp. and Fall
USNC/URSI Meeting, September 14-17, 1970.
[101 J .J. Sparagna, "DF vectoring: Application to stationary
synchronous satellites," IEEE Trans. Aerospace and Elec-
tronic Systems, vol. AES-3, July 1967.
JANUARY 1971
 Louis G. Bullock (M'66) was born in Chicago, Ill., on November 16, 1929. He received
the B.S.E.E. degree from the University of Arizona, Tucson, in 1961. He is currently a
candidate for the M.S. degree in applied mathematics at the University of Santa Clara,
Santa Clara, Calif.
During 1961 he was a Research Engineer with the Jet Propulsion Laboratory,
Pasadena, Calif., and from 1961 to 1963 he was a Research Assistant in the Electrical
Engineering Department of the University of Arizona, and held a Research Fellowship
there. In the summer of 1962 he was employed by the U.S. Naval Radiological
Defense Laboratories, San Francisco, Calif. From 1963 to 1965 he was at Dalmo
Victor, Belmont, Calif., where he was engaged in the development of high-gain
monopulse arrays and stripline components. Since 1966 he has been with Sylvania
Electronic Systems, Western Division, Mountain View, Calif., engaged in the develop-
ment of precision broad-band tracking and direction-finding systems. He is Head of the
Antenna Systems Section.
Mr. Bullock is a member of Tau Beta Pi.

George R. Oeh (M'63-SM'70) was born in Tacoma, Wash., on August 29, 1936. He
received the B.S.E.E. and M.S.E.E. degrees from the University of Washington, Seattle,
in 1958 and 1962, respectively.
From 1958 to 1960 he served as a Radar and Communication Officer in the U.S.
Air Force, and he was an Instructor at the University of Washington from 1961 to
1962. In the summer of 1961 he was employed by The Boeing Company, Seattle, as a
Research Engineer in the Antenna and Radomes Department. From 1962 to 1963 he
was a Senior Engineer at Philco's Western Development Laboratory, Palo Alto, Calif.,
where he designed and developed advanced space vehicle antennas. From 1963 to 1965
he was employed as a Senior Research Engineer at Lockheed Missiles and Space
Company, Sunnyvale, Calif., where he was involved in the design and development of
mechanically erectable and unfurlable space vehicle antennas. Since 1966 he has been
with Sylvania Electronic Systems, Western Division, Mountain View, Calif., engaged in
the development of precision broad-band tracking and direction-finding antenna
systems. He is Deputy Manager of the Electromagnetics Department.
Mr. Oeh is a member of Tau Beta Pi, the National Management Association, and the
Association of Old Crows.

Joseph J. Sparagna (M'68) was born in Chicago, Ill., on April 23, 1937. He received
the B.S.E.E. degree from Christian Brothers College, Memphis, Tenn., and has taken
graduate courses at the University of Santa Clara, Santa Clara, Calif.
He has been working in electronic systems analysis and technical engineering management
of aerospace/avionic radar, communications, telemetry, and command systems for
the past 10 years. From 1959 to 1961 he was a member of the Radar and Communi-
cation Section of the Cook Research Laboratories, Morton Grove, Ill. From 1961 to
1966 he was a Senior Electronic Research Engineer with the Advanced Systems
Section of Lockheed Missiles and Space Company, Research and Development Division.
He is presently Manager of the Avionics System Department of Sylvania Electronic
Systems, Western Division, Mountain View, Calif. He is also a member of the ECM
Laboratory, and is responsible for system analysis and design of advanced airborne
direction-finding, integrated active/passive ECM receiving, and data processing systems.
He is the author of twelve professional publications, and has received a patent for an
unambiguous phase monopulse direction-finding system.
Mr. Sparagna is a member of the Association of Old Crows.
BULLOCK et al.: WIDE-BAND MONOPULSE DF TECHNIQUES

203