Yokogawa - PMCA - Pressure

INPM Training Manual 83
Pa r t 3 - Pr e ssu r e
Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Training Department File No : TRG - 010600
INPM Training Manual Part 3 Principles of Pressure Measurement 84
A. Principles of Pressure Measurement
There are several different scales used t o quant ify force over area or pressure. The
st andard unit of pressure in t he English or foot - pounds- second ( FPS) syst em is
pounds per square inch, or PSI . I n t he m et er- kilogram - second ( MKS) syst em ,
pressure is expressed as kilogram s per square m et er. I n t he st andard I nt ernat ional
( SI ) unit s, pressure is m easured as Newt ons per square m et er, or as Pascal. I n t he
United States, pounds per square inch (PSI) is the term most widely used to quantify
pressure.
Once force has been accurat ely m easured, pressure can be det erm ined by dividing
t he force by t he area it is exert ed over ( P = F/ A) . For exam ple, wat er at 60 o F weighs
62.34 pounds per cubic foot and exert s a force of 62.34 pounds per square foot .
Since t here are 144 square inches in a square foot , t he am ount of pressure a cubic
foot of water exerts on a square inch is calculated as follows:
62.34(lbs.)
P
144in 2
= 0.433 pounds per inch square.
The pressure formula can also be used to determine how force is multiplied if a given
pressure is applied over a given area. According t o Pascal's Law, when- ever an
ext ernal pressure is applied t o any confined fluid at rest , t he pressure is increased at
every point in t he fluid by t he am ount of t he ext ernal pressure. The pract ical
consequences of Pascal's Law are apparent in hydraulic presses and j acks, hydraulic
brakes, and instruments used for measurement and calibration.
Figure 2- 1 illust rat es how force can be m ult iplied in a hydraulic press. I f a force of
100 pounds ( F1 ) is applied over an area of one square inch ( A1 ) , t he pressure is 100
pounds per square inch. This pressure wild be transmitted throughout the liquid to all
surfaces of t he cont ainer. To det erm ine t he pressure of a force of 100 pounds per
square inch ( F2 ) over an area of eight square inches ( A2 ) , F2 would be m ult iplied by
A2 (100 x 8). Therefore, there would be a total of 800 pounds of force at A2 .
Figure 2- 1. Force Multiplied in a hydraulic press.

INPM Training Manual Part 3 Manometers 85
Pressure will be slight ly affect ed by t he point on t he eart h's surface where it is

m easured. For exam ple, at sea level, t he gases and liquids t hat m ake up t he
at m osphere exert a pressure of approxim at ely 14.696 pounds per square inch.
At m ospheric pressure will decrease by about .036 PSI for each I 000 feet of
elevat ion. At an elevat ion of 3000 feet , t he at m osphere exert s a pressure of
approximately 14.588 pounds per square inch.
I n som e process syst em s, it m ay be necessary t o know if an indicat ed pressure

includes or excludes at m ospheric pressure. To dist inguish t his, t wo specific pressure
unit s are used - pounds per square inch gage, or PSI G, and pounds per square inch
absolute, or PSIA. PSIG is a reference to atmospheric pressure. This
I n som e process syst em s, it m ay be necessary t o know if an indicat ed pressure

includes or excludes at m ospheric pressure. To dist inguish t his, t wo specific pressure
unit s are used - pounds per square inch gage, or PSI G, and pounds per square inch
absolut e, or PSI A. PSI G is a reference t o at m ospheric pressure. This since t his is a
theoretical value, it cannot be completely obtained. A pressure measuring instrument
designed to indicate PSIA will read 14.696 pounds per square inch at sea level, when
it is not connect ed t o a process pressure, and t he sensing elem ent is exposed t o
atmospheric pressure.
In some cases, pressure measurement below atmospheric pressure is expressed as a

vacuum . A com m on t en- n used t o express vacuum is inches of liquid. Vacuum is
oft en m easured in inches of wat er ( I n H2 0) or m ercury ( I n Hg) . A pract ically perfect
vacuum would be indicated as 407.513 In H 2 0 or 29.9213 In Hg. Inches of liquid can
be used t o indicat e eit her gage pressure or absolut e pressure, depending on t he
method of measurement.
Differential Pressure
Different ial pressure ( AP) is t he difference in pressure m easurem ent s t aken at t wo
relat ed point s. I t is calculat ed by subt ract ing t he higher pressure reading from t he
lower pressure reading. Different ial pressure m ay be eit her absolut e or gage
pressure, as long as bot h point s are m easured in t he sam e unit s. Different ial
pressure transmitters are often used with flow and level measuring systems.
B. Manometer:
B- 1 . Principles of Operation.
A basic m anom et er ( see fig 3- 1) includes a reservoir t hat is filled wit h a liquid. The
reservoir is usually in- closed with a connection point that can be attached to a source
in order t o m easure it s pressure. A t ransparent t ube, or colum n, is at t ached t o t he
reservoir. The t op of t he colum n m ay be open, exposing it t o t he at m ospheric
pressure. Or, t he colum n m ay be sealed and evacuat ed. Manom et ers t hat have open
colum ns are usually used t o m easure gage pressure, or pressure in reference t o
atmospheric pressure. Manom et ers wit h sealed colum n are use t o m easure absolut e
zero. Manometers with sealed columns are also used to measure vacuum.
When a m anom et er is connect ed t o a process, t he liquid in t he colum n will rise or

falling according to the pressure of the source it is measuring. In order to identify the
am ount of pressure, it is necessary t o ident ify t he t ype of liquid in t he colum n, and
the height of the liquid.
Open Column Close Column.

Figure 3- 1. Basic Manometers
The t ype of liquid in t he colum n of a m anom et er will affect how m uch it rises or fall
in response t o pressure. Any liquid m ay be use t o indicat e pressure in a m anom et er.
The most widely used liquid are mercury,, water, and red oil. Water and mercury are
com m only used because m uch is known about t heir specific gravit y, t herm al
expansion, and m ass. Red oil is oft en used because, unlike m ercury, it is not t oxic
and will not cont am inat e wit h environm ent . Red oil can be obt ained wit h various
specific gravities that will be compatible with the measuring system.
B- 2 Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages:
Simple and time proven
High accuracy and sensitivity
Wide range of filling fluids of varying specific gravities.
Moderate cost
Part icularly suit able for low pressure and low different ial pressure
applications.
Disadvantages:
Lack of portability
Need of leveling.
Generally large and bulky.
Measure fluids must be compatible with the manometer fluid used.
No over- range protection.
Condensation may present problems.
B- 3 . Classification of Manometers:
B- 3.1 U- Tube Manometer
As shown in Fig. 1, a glass U tube is partially filled with liquid and both ends are
initially open to the atmosphere. When a gage pressure P2 is to be measured, it is
applied to the top of one of the columns and the top of the other column remains
open. When the liquid in the tube is mercury, for example, the indicated pressure h

is usually expressed in inches or millimeters of mercury. To convert to pounds per

square inch (or kilograms per square centimeter),
figure 1. Manometer U- tube.

P2 = dh
where
P2 = pressure psig (kg/cm2 ) d = density, lb/in (kg/cm3 )
h = height, in (cm)
For mercury, the density is 0.490 lb/in 3 at 60oF (I 5.6oC), and the conversion of
inches of mercury to pounds per square inch becomes
P2 = 0.490h
The density of water at 60o F (I 5.6o C) is 0.0361 lb/in3 , and if water is used in a
manometer, the conversion of inches of water to pounds per square inch becomes
P2 = 0.0361h
B- 3.2 Well Manometer
In industrial well manometers (Fig. 3) one leg is replaced by a large- diameter well
so that the pressure differential is indicated only by the height of the column in the
single leg. The ratio of the diameters is important and should be as great as possible
to reduce the errors resulting from the change in level in the large- diameter well.
A1
P2 P1 d 1 h
A2
where:
A1 = Area of smaller diameter leg. A2 = area of well
If the ratio of Al /A2 is small compared with unity, then the error in neglecting this
term becomes negligible, and the static balance relation becomes
P2 - P1 = dh

Figure 3. Well tube Manometer
On some manometers, this error is eliminated by reducing the spacing between scale
graduations by the required amount.
B- 3.3 Inclined- Tube Manometer
In this device (Fig. 4), so as to read small pressure differentials more accurately, the
smaller- diameter leg is inclined. This produces a longer scale so that
h = L sin
Figure 4 Inclined- tube Manometer

Where ;
L= Length of scale corresponding the height h. = Angle if inclination of small
Diameter leg.
For static balance:

A1
P2 P1 d 1 L sin
A2
for a small ratio of A1 /A2 . By reducing the angle a, the scale length can be greatly
increased. For good operation, however, the ratio of L to h should not exceed 1 0: 1.

INPM Training Manual Part 3 Elastic Element 89
C. Elastic Elements
C-1. Bellows Elements
C- 1.1 Principles of Operation:
A bellow is a cylindrical device t hat is usually ribbed and very flexible. A pair of
m at ch bellows can be used t o m easure absolut e pressure or different ial pressure.
Usually one of the bellow is attached to the transducer case and the other end is free
t o m ove. When t he pressure is applied t o t he inside of t he bellows, it will expand,
causing t he free end t o m ove. The m ovem ent of t he m ovable end is m easured in
order to identify the amount of pressure.
Materials:
Seam less bellows are m ade of brass, phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, Monel,
st ainless st eel, I nconel, and ot her m et als. Welded bellows are usually m ade of
st ainless st eel, Monel, I nconel- X, or Ni- span C. The choice of m at erial depend on
pressure and deflection specification and also the corrosion resistance required.
Bellows Spring Rate (Force Constant)

This is defined by:
F
RB
d
RB = Bellow spring rate , lb/in, kg/cm.
F = Force increment applied to the free end of bellows lb., kg.
d = deflection due to the force increment , in, cm.
Deflection with pressure:
If pressure is applied to an unrestrained bellows assembly, the resulting deflection of

the free end is
PA e
d
RB
P = Pressure increment. psi, (kg/cm2 )
Ae = Effective area of bellows, in2 , cm2
The empirical formula often used to calculate the effective area is

( A B) 2
Ae
16
WHERE:
A = outside diameter, in,cm.
B = inside diameter, in, (cm).
C- 1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantage:
High force delivered.
Moderate cost.
Adaptable for absolute and different pressure use.
Good in the low and moderate pressure range.
Disadvantages:
Needed ambient temperature compensation.
Not suited for high pressure.
Limited in the availability of metals- some tend to work hardened.
Require spring to accurate characterization.
C- 1.3 Range and Accuracy.
Range of bellows depend on its design for specific application. Belows ranges can be
summarized as follows:
Application Minimum Range Maximum Range
Vacuum 0- 5 in (12.7 cm.) H2 O 0- 30 in (76.2 cm)
Hg vacuum
Pressure 0- 5 in (12.7 cm.) H2 O 0- 200 psig (141
kg/cm2 )
Compound vacuum Any span within pressure and vacuum
and pressure range with a total span of 5 in H2 O
Accuracy is in the range of %.
Common types of bellows and methods of attaching fittings
C- 1.4 Application:
Below pressure elements are often used in application that requires the relatively
long strokes and high developed forces. The greatest use of bellows units is as
receiving elements for pneumatic recorders, indicators, and controllers. Belows are
widely used as the differential units for flow measurement, particularly for field
mounted recorders or controllers.

Spring loaded belows gage Belows absolute pressure gage.
C- 2 Bourdon Tube
The original patent of E. Bourdon in 1852, the Bourdon tube was describe as a
curved or twisted tube whose traverse section differed from a circular. In principle, a
tube closed at one end with an internal cross section that is not a perfect circle, if
bent or distorted, has the property of changing its shape with internal pressure
variation. An internal pressure increases causes the cross section to become more
circular and the shape to straighten, resulting in motion of the closed end of the tube
provided t he open end is held rigid. This m ot ion com m only called t ip t ravel is
shown in arrow T in fig 17 (rising pressure). The amount of tip travel is a function of
tube length, wall thickness, cross section geometry, and modulus of the tube
material.
The tube when formed in a specified manner, becomes a bourdon spring element.
Common are C, helical, and spiral.
The C type is formed by winding the tube circularly to form a segmented circle (fig
17 a).
The spiral type is winding ore than one turn in the shape of the spiral about a
common axis. The helical type is formed by winding more than one turn of the helix
in the shape of the helix. Forming of both cross section and shape frequently is done
by the same winding operation.
The type of burdon spring used is primarily a design requirement. The allotted space
in an instrument case is one of the main considerations. What can be accomplished
in one type can be duplicated by the other types, provided the proper length of the
tubing materials can be used. In general, spiral and helical types, having greater
tube length, are used where more tip travels is needed or where a reduction in
stress level of the tube is required.
Bourdon Tube design:
An exact analysis of the behavior of a bourdon tube under pressure is extremely

complicated. At the present time, no analytical development have been progressed
to the point where a sufficient reliable determination of the bourdon tube deflections

has been possible. Bourdon tube design in practice has been based on empirical
equations derived from practical observations.
The deflection of the Bourdon Tube , is expressed by ( see Bourdon dimensions
below ).
aP
a K A, B, t , R
E
a = angular deflection of element tip, deg.
K = empirical constant determined by test on a number of bourdon tubes.
a = total subtended by the bourdon tube element, deg.
P = Differential pressure between inside and outside of tube, psi.
E = modulus of elasticity of tube material.
A,B = cross section length and width of tube, in.
t = thickness of tube, in.
R = radius of curve tubing, in (in- c type and helical type elements, this is a constant;
in a spiral type a variable).
One form of this relationship can take is;

x y z
aP R A A
a K
E t B t
where x,y,z, as well as K , are constant which must be determine by running test on
a number of bourdon tubes.
A typical equation on a flat, cross sectional type of tube as shown in fig. 18 is
1/ 5 1/ 3 3
aP R A A
a 0.05
E t B t
Dimension, in Observed Calculated Error

Bourdon tube number
A B t R aE/ap aE/ap %
1 0.639 0.115 0.014 1.462 21050 21800 - 3.5
2 0.649 0.135 0.031 2.025 1900 1810 +5
3 0.649 0.136 0.031 2.031 1850 1810 +2
4 0.649 0.126 0.031 1.444 1660 1732 -4
5 0.635 0.186 0.042 2.031 563 566 - 0.5
6 0.635 0.193 0.042 1.998 552 556 - 0.5
7 0.638 0.176 0.042 1.480 586 561 +4.5
8 0.635 0.200 0.056 1.995 237 243 -2.5
9 0.635 0.199 0.056 2.027 233 244 - 4.5
Bourdon dimensions

Helical element with 2 turns; (Usable deflection 25o )

A = 0.604 + t; B = 0.027 + t; R = 0.469;
Tourque
Pressure,
gradient, g Torque
psi/angular Empirical
Thickness cm. Per Gradient
Material degree Kt Constant
t, in angular Constant
Deflection K
degree C
P/ a
deflection.
Type 316
stainless
steel 0.011 4.83 79 0.0069 0.63 16.4
0.019 17.0 270 0.0115 0.61 15.9
0.025 30.0 485 0.0160 0.64 16.1
Trumpet
metal 0.012 3.30 35 0.0074 0.62 10.6
0.0165 6.80 83 0.0104 0.63 12.2
0.023 14.3 177 0.0146 0.63 12.4
0.0265 20.0 235 0.0162 0.62 11.7
Performance of element of one manufacturer follows the formula;

1/ 5 1/ 3 t
aP R A A
a (0.63t )
E t B t
Table 7 list data from bourdon element design for industrial instrument.
Advantage and disadvantage:
Advantage:
Low cost
Simple construction.
Years of experience in application.
Available of wide variety of ranges, including very high range.
Adaptable to tranducer design for electronic instrument.
Good accuracy, especially when considered in relation to cost.
Disadvantage:
Low spring gradient below 50 psig.
Susceptible to shock and vibration.
Subject to hysteresis.

C- 2.3 Range and Accuracy.
Range of Bourdons depend on its design for specific application. Bourdon ranges can
be summarized as follows:
Application Minimum Range Maximum
Range
Vacuum 0- 30 psig (76.2 cm) Hg. vacuum ---------
Pressure 0- 5 psig (0.35 kg/cm2 ) 0- 100,000
psig
Compound vacuum Any span within pressure and vacuum --------------
and pressure range with a total span of 12 psi (0.84
kg/cm2 )
Type Accuracy
C 0.1 % to 5%
Spiral 0.5 %
Helical 0.5 % to 1%
Pressure Assembly of Pressure Gage
C- 3 Diaphragm:
A diaphragm is a mechanical pressure tranducer that is used to detect slight changes

in pressure. A diaphragm is a single disk that is exposed to a process (see fig. 12).
Since process pressure is exerted over a relatively large area, this instrument is
more sensitive to small changes in pressure. This principle is based on the basic
pressure equation, P=F/A. If a small pressure is exerted over a large area, the force
will be relatively large, and will cause the diaphragm to flex. A mechanical device,

such as a pin, rod, or bar, is usually connected to the diaphragm so that the amount
of flex can be measured in order to determine the amount of pressure exerted.
According t o Pascal s law, since fluids is non- compressible, any movement produced
by the side of the diaphragm that is exposed to the process will be transmitted
undiminished to the other diaphragm. The rod or pin that is attached to the
diaphragm will move in response to change in pressure. This motion can be
measured to determine pressure.
Advantages and Disadvantages:
Advantages:
Moderate cost..
High over- range characteristics.
Good linearity.
Adaptability to absolute and differential pressure.
Available in several materials for good corrosion resistance.
Small in size.
Adaptable to slurry services.
Disadvantages:
Does not have good vibration and shock resistance.
Difficult to repair.
Limited to relatively low pressure (except for button diaphragm type).
Deflection With Pressure:
Deflection is dependent on variety of factors:(1) diameter, (2) metal thickness, (3)

shape of corrugation, (4) number of corrugations, (5) modulus of elasticity, (6)
applied pressure. An empirical formula often used to calculate this deflection is:
4
PKD
d
t 1 .5
d = Deflection, in
P = pressure increment, psi
K= Const ant involving Young s m odulus of Elast icit y and corrugat ion design.
T = metal thickness, in
Range and Accuracy
Diaphragm elements are used in vacuum and pressure services , in motion and force
balance units and for both pneumatic and electronic instrument.
Slack diaphragm units are available for extremely low span of 0- 0.5 inches water.
Normal application range for diaphragm elements is for vacuum service up to 200
psig. Special buttons diaphragm units are available for pressures to 10,000 psig.
Accuracies range from to 1 percent full span.

INPM Training Manual Part 3 Electrical Pressure Element 96
Application:
Metal diaphragms are frequently used in gages and control devices. Most
often used in pressure transducers is the diaphragm capsule. This type of
diaphragm is actually two metal diaphragms that are connected at the edge.
The area between the two diaphragm is filled with a fluid that has low
freezing point, a high boiling point, low viscosity, and a low coefficient of
thermal expansion. For process temperatures between 0oC and 400oF,
conventional fill fluids, such as kerosene, toluene, mercury, etc., are typically
used. For process temperature below 0oF special fill fluids such as kerosene
and toluene are usually used.
Diaphragm capsules are frequently used as isolation devices.
Diaphragms capsules are commonly used in control transmitter, pressure
gage, and differential pressure transmitter.
Diaphragm capsule
Control Valve with slack Diaphragm
D. Electrical Pressure Element

Electro- m echanical pressure t ransducers convert t he m ot ion produced by m echanical
sensing elem ent s int o changes in elect rical signals. There are m any different designs
of elect rical pressure t ransducers. These devices are widely used t o m onit or and
control process pressure.

D - 1 Wheatstone Bridge Principles :
One com m on design of an elect rical pressure t ransducer circuit is t he Wheat st one
bridge. Figure 5- 1 illust rat es a sim ple Wheat st one bridge circuit configurat ion. This
configurat ion has t wo parallel legs t hat form a bridge. A volt age source is connect ed
t o t he bridge so t hat current will flow t hrough each leg. A t ypical Wheat st one bridge
also has a m easuring circuit inst alled across t he bridge. This circuit provides a pat h
for current flow if t he bridge is not balanced. The bridge circuit includes four
resist ors. I t is designed so t hat when t he resist ance of all four resist ors is exact ly
equal, the current flow through each leg is equal and there is no current flow through
the circuit across the bridge. At this point the bridge is balanced.
Wit h t he design of t his Wheat st one bridge, if t he resist ance of one of t he resist ors
changes, t he current flow t hrough each leg w ill no longer be equal. For exam ple, if
t he resist ance of Resist or 2 in Figure 5- 1 is decreased, but t he volt age rem ains t he
same, there will
Figure 5- 1 Simple Wheatstone Bridge
be m ore current flow t hrough t he leg t hat has Resist or 2 t han t hrough t he leg t hat
has Resistor 1. However, if the resistances of Resistors 3 and 4 remain the same, the
current flow t hrough t he part of t he circuit t hat has t hese t wo resist ors will not
change. This sit uat ion creat es an im balance in t he bridge. Current will flow t hrough
t he m easuring circuit connect ed across t he bridge. The am ount of current flow is
direct ly proport ional t o t he am ount of im balance in t he Wheat st one bridge.
Therefore, in order t o m onit or t he im balance in t he bridge, a m et er m ay be inst alled
in the measuring circuit across the bridge.
When a Wheat st one bridge is used as a pressure m easuring inst rum ent , one of t he
resist ors in t he bridge circuit is replaced wit h a resist ance t hat is connect ed t o a
pressure sensing elem ent . The pressure sensing elem ent is exposed t o t he changes
in process pressure. When t here is no process pressure, t he resist ance of Resist ors
1, 2, 3, and 4 is equal and t he bridge is balanced. Therefore, t here will be no current
flow t hrough t he circuit across t he bridge and t he inst rum ent will indicat e zero
pressure.
However, if pressure changes, t he pressure sensing elem ent will respond t o t he
change in pressure and win change t he resist ance in t he bridge. The change in
resist ance will cause an im balance in t he bridge circuit . When t his happens, t he
measuring instrument will indicate the pressure change.

D - 2 Principles of Potentiometric Transducers:
Anot her t ype of elect rical t ransducer is t he pot ent iom et ric t ransducer. This
t ransducer usually ut ilizes a Wheat st one bridge circuit in which one of t he bridge
resist ors is replaced by a pot ent iom et er. A pot ent iom et er is a wire- wound resist or
wit h a m ovable slide on it ( see Figure 5- 2) . The slide is usually connect ed t o som e
t ype of m echanical pressure sensing elem ent . As t he m echanical pressure sensing
elem ent m oves in response t o pressure changes, it m oves t he slide on t he
pot ent iom et er. When t he slide m oves, t he resist ance value of t he pot ent iom et er
changes. This changes the resistance in the bridge circuit.
Figure 5- 2 Potentiometer
When a pot ent iom et er t hat is at t ached t o a m echanical pressure sensing elem ent is
connect ed t o a t ypical Wheat st one bridge circuit , t he circuit can be used t o m easure
pressure. For exam ple, Figure 5- 3 shows a Wheat st one bridge w it h Resist or 2
replaced by a pot ent iom et er. I n t his case, when t he pressure of t he m easured
variable is at zero, t he pot ent iom et er has t he sam e resist ance as Resist ors 1, 3, and
4. Therefore, t he current flow t hrough t he t wo legs would be equal, and t here will be
no m easurable difference in pot ent ial across t he bridge. Since t here will be no
current flow across the bridge, the meter will indicate zero pressure.
I f t he pressure changes, t he slide on t he pot ent iom et er will be m oved by t he

m echanical pressure- sensing elem ent . This will change t he resist ance of t he
pot ent iom et er, creat ing an im balance in t he bridge circuit . For exam ple, if t he
change in pressure causes t he pot ent iom et er resist ance t o decrease, it s resist ance
will be less t han t he resist ance of Resist or 1, while t he values of Resist ors 3 and 4
will remain equal. Consequently, a current will flow across the measuring circuit. This
current will be proport ional t o t he change in pressure t hat caused t he slide on t he
pot ent iom et er t o m ove. A m et er or cont rol circuit connect ed across t he bridge will
measure this current flow and provide an indication of process pressure.
A pot ent iom et ric pressure t ransducer has a lim it ed response t o pressure changes. I n
addit ion, pulsat ing pressures can easily wear and dam age t he windings of t he
pot ent iom et ric t ransducer. For t hese reasons, it is im port ant t o consider t he
charact erist ics of t he process pressure being m easured wit h t his t ype of t ransducer
and to exercise care when using it.

Figure 5- 3. Wheatstone Bridge with Potentiometer
D - 3 Principles of Linear Variable Capacitor Transducers
A linear variable capacit or is anot her t ype of elect rical pressure t ransducer. A
capacit or is a device t hat opposes current flow in an AC circuit . I t consist s of t wo
m et al plat es t hat are separat ed from each ot her by an insulat ing m at erial called a
dielect ric. The am ount of opposit ion t o current flow t hat a specific capacit or provides
will depend on t he area of t he plat es, t he dist ance bet ween t he plat es, and t he t ype
of dielect ric t hat separat es t hem . I f any or all of t hese elem ent s change, t he am ount
of opposition to current provided by the capacitor will also change.
Figure 5- 4 Linear variable Capacitor

On a linear variable capacit or elect ric t ransducer, t he dist ance bet ween t he plat es is
adj ust ed t o det ect and indicat e changes in process pressure ( see Figure 5- 4) . I n t his
case, t he capacit or is connect ed in a circuit . A m et er or syst em cont rol device is
connect ed t o t he circuit out put t o m easure t he changes in current flow t hat result
from changes in capacit ance. One plat e of t he capacit or rem ains st at ionary. The
ot her plat e is m ovable and is connect ed t o a m echanical pressure elem ent , such as a
diaphragm.
When pressure is applied t o t he m echanical pressure elem ent , it m oves t he m ovable
plat e of t he capacit or. Since t he ot her plat e is fixed, t his m ovem ent changes t he
distance between the two plates. When the distance between the plates changes, the
capacit ance of t he capacit or changes. Changes in capacit ance change t he opposit ion
t o current flow t hat a capacit or insert s in an AC circuit . Therefore, by m easuring t he
current flow in t he circuit , changes in pressure can be det ect ed and indicat ed. I f t he
out put of t he capacit or circuit is connect ed t o a process cont rol syst em , changes in
process pressure can be used to control a process variable.
The linear variable capacit or t ransducer has several charact erist ics t hat m ake it ideal
for measuring low input levels. These characteristics include
production of large changes in capacitance with small movement

minimum hysteresis due to internal friction fast response
minimum self- heating effects
resistance to difficult environments Linear Variable Differential
D - 4 Linear Variable Transformer Transducers
Anot her widely used elect rical pressure t ransducer is t he linear variable different ial
transformer or LVDT (see Figure 5- 5). When this device is used to measure pressure,
an AC volt age is connect ed t o t he prim ary ( P) winding of t he t ransform er. The
secondary winding consist s of t wo windings ( SI and S2) t hat are connect ed so t hat
t heir out put s are at opposit e polarit ies. A m ovable core is at t ached t o a m echanical
pressure- sensing device, such as a bellows or diaphragm . When t he core is in t he
cent er posit ion, t he out put s of SI and S2 will be equal and of opposit e polarit y. At
this point, the output is zero and the transducer indicates zero pressure.
Figure 5- 5 Linear Variable Differential Pressure Transformer

I f process pressure changes, t he m echanical sensing elem ent will m ove, causing t he
m ovable core t o m ove. For exam ple, in Figure 5- 6 t he core has m oved alm ost
com plet ely out of secondary winding S2 and covers t he ent ire surface of secondary
winding SI . Therefore, t he volt age induced int o St will be great er t han t he volt age
induced int o S2. Consequent ly, t he out put of SI will be great er dm t he out put of S2.
I f an inst rum ent is connect ed t o t he out put of t he t ransform er, it will indicat e t hat
SI is predom inant . I f t he t ransducer is designed so t hat increased out put from S2
indicat es an increase in pressure, t he inst rum ent will indicat e an increase in
pressure. In this case, if the core moved out of winding S I and covered almost all of
S2, the instrument would indicate a decrease in pressure.
One advant age of an LVDT is t hat it is rugged, and t herefore will not be easily
dam aged. Also, since t he m ovable core does not have t o t ouch t he t ransform er
windings, there is no need to compensate for friction.
Figure 5- 6 linear variable Differential Transformer

With Core moved
D - 5 Principles of Variable Inductor Pressure Sensors
A variable induct or pressure sensor is anot her device used t o det ect pressure ( see
Figure 5- 7) . I n t his t ype of sensor, t wo coils are wired in opposit ion t o form t wo legs
of an AC bridge. A diaphragm m ade of a m agnet ic m at erial is placed bet ween t he
t wo coils. Pressure from t he m easured process is applied t o one side of t he
diaphragm while t he ot her side of t he diaphragm is exposed t o a reference pressure,
such as atmospheric pressure. Changes in process pressure will cause the diaphragm
t o flex and m ove t oward one of t he coils and away from t he ot her. This creat es a
small air gap bet ween t he diaphragm and t he coils. The gap allows t he diaphragm t o
t ouch t he core face and prot ect s it from dam age caused by overloads. As t he
diaphragm m oves, t he relat ive induct ance of t he coils changes. These changes in
relat ive induct ance change t he circuit out put . Therefore, t he circuit out put can be
measured as pressure.
The const ruct ion of t he variable induct or pressure sensor m akes t hem ext rem ely
rugged and st able in perform ance. Ot her advant ages of t his t ype of sensor include a
high out put and dependable overload prot ect ion. However, t wo disadvant ages of
variable induct or pressure sensors are t hat t heir frequency response is lim it ed and
they sometimes produce nonlinear output.
INPM Training Manual Part 3 Electronic Pressure Element 102
Figure 5- 7 Variable Inductor Pressure.
E. Electronic Pressure Element
E- 1. Strain Gage Transducers
1. Principles of Operation:
Many of the smaller electronic pressure transducers use strain gages to vary the
resistance in an electric circuit. Strain gages consist of a series of wires that are
supported by some type of insulation.
The basic principle of a strain gage is that the cross sectional area of the wire will
affect its resistance. If the cross sectional area is changed, the wire's resistance will
also change. A wire's resistance can be manually adjusted by stretching or straining
the wire. The resulting changes in resistance allow strain gages to indicate changes
in process pressure.
Strain Gage Classification:
There are two types of strain gages un- bonded strain gages and bonded strain
gages.
A. Un- bonded St rain Gage: Figure 6- 1 is an illust rat ion of an un- bonded st rain
gage. I t consist s of a st at ionary m em ber and a m ovable arm at ure. Bot h t he
st at ionary m em ber and t he m ovable arm at ure have insulat ed pins t hat
support a series of sm all wires. These wires are connect ed so t hat t hey will
respond t o changes in pressure. The m ovable arm at ure of an un- bonded
st rain gage is connect ed t o a m echanical sensing elem ent , such as a bellows
or a diaphragm . When pressure changes, t he m echanical pressure elem ent
will m ove t he m ovable arm at ure t o change t he t ension on t he wires in t he
st rain gage. Changing t he t ension on t he wires will change t he resist ance. I n
t his way, t he gage indicat es changes in pressure. Un- bonded inst allat ions
offer high sensit ivit y and m oderat e accuracy ( short t en- n accuracy of 1% ) .
However, due t o creep and hyst eresis, un- bonded gages m ust be frequent ly
recalibrat ed. Also, wit h un- bonded gages, zero t ends t o shift because of long
term changes in wire resistivity and stress relief.

Figure 6- 1 Un- bonded Strain Gage
B. Bonded St rain Gage: I n bonded st rain gages ( see Figure 6- 2) , sm all wires or
pieces of foil are bonded t o a piece of insulat ing m at erial wit h adhesive.
Usually, bonded st rain gages have t wo set s of wires or foil. One set is called
the active strain gage element and will be subjected to strain. The other set is
the slip, or dummy, element and will not be strained.
When used t o m easure pressure, a bonded st rain gage is fast ened t o som e
movable part of a m echanical pressure- sensing elem ent . For exam ple,
bonded gages are oft en glued t o diaphragm s or force beam s t hat will bend or
flex when pressure changes. The slip, or dum m y, is glued t o som e part of t he
pressure elem ent t hat does not m ove. The act ive st rain gage elem ent is
connect ed in a way t hat allows it t o bend or st rain in response t o t he
movement of the pressure sensing element. As the active strain gage element
bends or st rains, t he wires or foil in t he bonded st rain gage will be st rained.
The tension of the wires or foil will change their resistance.
Fig. 6- 2 Bonded Strain gage
Typically, in strain gage transducers, a wire, foil, or semiconductor resistor element

is bonded to a diaphragm. The deflection of the diaphragm alters the gage resistance
and unbalances an associated bridge. Strain gage transducers are usually part of a
bridge circuit, such as the Wheatstone bridge shown in Figure 6- 3. In this example,
G I and G2 represent strain gage elements. GI is an active strain gage element and
is connected to the pressure- sensing element so that it win tension the wires. G2 is a
dummy because it is connected to a part of the pressure element that will not cause
it to be tensioned. When the resistances of G I and G2 are equal and resistors RI and
R2 are equal, the bridge is balanced; there is no current flow across the bridge and
through the measuring instrument. In an installed and calibrated instrument, "s
condition should always exist when process pressure is at zero.
Figure 6- 3. Wheatstone Bridge with strain Gage
When a volt age is applied t o t he bridge, current flow t hrough bot h branches in t he
bridge will be equal as long as t here is no process pressure. This m eans t hat t here
wild be no current flow across t he bridge and t he inst rum ent will indicat e zero
pressure. However, as syst em pressure increases, t he m echanical sensing elem ent
will m ove, increasing t he t ension on t he wires of t he act ive st rain gage ( GI ) . The
increased t ension on t he wires will increase t he resist ance of st rain gage GI .
Therefore, t he resist ances of GI and G2 are no longer equal. To com pensat e for t he
increase in resist ance of G 1, m ore current will flow t hrough t he leg of t he bridge t o
which G2 is connect ed. Meanwhile, resist ors RI and R2 will st ill be equal. To balance
t he current flow t hrough t hese t wo resist ors, som e current win flow from t he leg
connect ed t o st rain gage G2 t hrough t he inst rum ent and int o t he leg of resist or RI .
The specific am ount of t his current flow will depend on t he resist ance of st rain gage
GI . Since t he resist ance of GI depends on t he pressure of t he process, t his circuit
configuration can be used to detect and indicate pressure.
2. Advantages and Disadvantages
Advantages
Strain gage elements are ideal for taking dynamic measurements.

They offer fast response.
Low source impedance and minimum mechanical motion.
Small size and weight.
Strain gage works equally well with AC or DC power.
Disadvantages:
Loss of accuracy in use due to hysteresis.

Costly output measurement devices.
A fairly recent developm ent in t he field of st rain gage sensors is t he use of a silicon
diaphragm on which N and P t ype sem iconduct or gages are diffused. These sensors
are very useful for specialized applicat ions. They can be designed wit h diaphragm s
wit h 0.1 inch diam et ers and st ill produce an out put of several hundred m illivolt s. I n
addit ion, wit h t hese sensors, repeat abilit y, hyst eresis, and drift have been virt ually
eliminated.
E- 2 Piezoelectric Transducers
1. General Principles of Operation:
When pressure or st rain is applied t o cryst als such as quart z, rochelle salt , and
barium- t it anat e, t he cryst als will produce a m easurable volt age. This volt age can be
monitored to measure pressure.
The quart z piezoelect ric gage ( see Figure 6- 4) is one of t he oldest form s of pressure
t ransducers. I t consist s of one or m ore quart z cryst als st acked bet ween appropriat e
insulat ors, connect ors, and load dist ribut ion plat es. These plat es are usually exposed
t o a m echanical sensing elem ent t hat m oves in response t o pressure. As t he
pressure elem ent m oves, it applies pressure t o t he cryst als t hrough t he load
dist ribut ion plat e. This will cause a m easurable charge or volt age t o appear across
t he cryst al. The am ount of volt age is direct ly proport ional t o t he am ount of pressure
or st rain on t he cryst al. The power of t he out put from t he cryst al is ext rem ely sm all
and will not apply any load t o t he low powered m iniat urized elect ronic circuit s in t he
t ransducer. However, because t he power out put is so sm all, t he signal m ust be
amplified to be usable in pressure control circuits or measuring instruments.
Two t ypes of t herm al t ransfer gages are in wide usage. The sim plest is t he
t herm ocouple gage ( see Figure 6- 5) . The elem ent in t his t ype of gage is a fine wire
or ribbon heat ed elect rically and im m ersed in a gas whose pressure is t o be
m easured. The st eady- st at e t em perat ure at t ained by t he heat ed wire depends,
am ong ot her t hings, on t he loss of heat by conduct ion t hrough t he surrounding gas.
The t herm al conduct ivit y of t he gas varies wit h pressure in a range of vacuum
condit ions. Thus, t he t em perat ure of t he ribbon will vary wit h gas pressure. The
t herm ocouple gage m easures t he t em perat ure of t he st rip wit h a t herm ocouple.
Since t herm al conduct ivit y varies am ong gases, t he gage m ust be individually
calibrated to the gas for good accuracy.
Figure 6- 4. Piezoelectric Pressure Transducer

plat e. This will cause a m easurable charge or volt age t o appear across t he cryst al.
The am ount of volt age is direct ly proport ional t o t he am ount of pressure or st rain on
t he cryst al. The power of t he out put from t he cryst al is ext rem ely sm all and will not
apply any load t o t he low powered m iniat urized elect ronic circuit s in t he t ransducer.
However, because t he power out put is so sm all, t he signal m ust be am plified t o be
usable in pressure control circuits or measuring instruments.
Two t ypes of t herm al t ransfer gages are in wide usage. The sim plest is t he
t herm ocouple gage ( see Figure 6- 5) . The elem ent in t his t ype of gage is a fine wire
or ribbon heat ed elect rically and im m ersed in a gas whose pressure is t o be
m easured. The st eady- st at e t em perat ure at t ained by t he heat ed wire depends,
am ong ot her t hings, on t he loss of heat by conduct ion t hrough t he surrounding gas.
The t herm al conduct ivit y of t he gas varies wit h pressure in a range of vacuum
condit ions. Thus, t he t em perat ure of t he ribbon will vary wit h gas pressure. The
t herm ocouple gage m easures t he t em perat ure of t he st rip wit h a t herm ocouple.
Since t herm al conduct ivit y varies am ong gases, t he gage m ust be individually
calibrated to the gas for good accuracy.
The ot her t ype of t herm al t ransfer gage is t he Pirani gage ( Figure 6- 6) . I n t he Pirani
gage, t he wire elem ent is m ade int o an elect rical resist ance wit h t wo wire elem ent s,
one of which is sealed in a vacuum as a reference. The t wo elem ent s are t wo
elect rical resist ance form ing t wo legs of a Wheat st one bridge. The cooling effect on
t he elem ent exposed t o t he syst em unbalances t he bridge t o provide an out put
signal. Sensitivity is higher than with a thermocouple gage,
and accuracy is som e + 5 percent . I ndividual calibrat ion is again required. Therm al
t ransfer gages are universally used because t hey are sim ple, inexpensive, and easy
to use.
Figure 6- 5 Thermocouple Gage
One t ype of ionizat ion gage is t he hot - cat hode ionizat ion gage ( see Figure 6- 7).
I n hot - cat hode ionizat ion gages, elect rons em it t ed from a cat hode m ove t owards a
grid. Som e of t he elect rons collide wit h m olecules of t he gas whose pressure is t o be
m easured. The gas m olecules lose elect rons as a result of t he collisions, producing
posit ive ions. The rem aining elect rons are collect ed on t he grid. The posit ive ions,
however, are at t ract ed t o t he negat ively charged collect or. Each ion so collect ed
causes a pulse of current to flow in the collector circuit. The number of ions produced
depends on t he m olecular densit y of t he gas. This m eans t hat collect or current is

proportional to gas molecular density, or pressure.
Figure 6- 6 Pirani Gage
Anot her t ype of ionizat ion gage is t he cold- cat hode gage ( see Figure 6- 8) . The cold-
cat hode gage consist s of an open anode loop bet ween t wo cat hode surfaces wit h a
high volt age im pressed bet ween t hem . A m agnet ic field deflect s elect rons from
t raveling direct ly t o t he anode and causes t hem t o oscillat e am ong t he m agnet ic
lines of flux. Wit h t he increased m ean free pat h, a significant num ber of ionizing
collisions wit h gas m olecules occur. The charge on t he field builds up t o an
equilbrium , where each ion leaving t he field causes an ion t o ent er. This current is
t hen a m easure of m olecular densit y, or pressure. The cold- cat hode gage account s
for half the ionization gages used.
Figure 6- 7 Hot Cathode Gage
The Knudsen gage consist s of a very light vane and m irror support ed on a delicat e
t orsion suspension. Adj acent t o t he suspended vane are t wo fixed vanes heat ed
elect rically. A rarefied gas in t he regions bet ween t he vanes produces a force
whereby t he suspended vane is repelled against t he t orsion of it s suspension. The
result ing deflect ion is read on a calibrat ed scale. The Knudsen gage finds lit t le

indust rial applicat ion because of it s m echanical awkwardness and lack of convenient
remote indication.
Figure 6- 8 Cold- Cathode Gage
2. Application:
Mass spect rom et ers of t he m agnet ic deflect ion t ype are used in t he m easurem ent of
ult rahigh vacuum s. High sensit ivit y is provided in one m odel by a nine- st age
elect ron m ult iplier, wit h m agnesium - silver dynodes, which gives a gain of 10 3 t o 10 6
elect rons per ion. This sensit ivit y perm it s part ial gas pressure m easurem ent t o 10 12
mm Hg.


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INPM Training Manual 83

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

A. Principles of Pressure Measurement

Figure 2- 1. Force Multiplied in a hydraulic press.

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Pressure will be slight ly affect ed by t he point on t he eart h's surface where it is

I n som e process syst em s, it m ay be necessary t o know if an indicat ed pressure

I n som e process syst em s, it m ay be necessary t o know if an indicat ed pressure

In some cases, pressure measurement below atmospheric pressure is expressed as a

When a m anom et er is connect ed t o a process, t he liquid in t he colum n will rise or

Open Column Close Column.

B- 2 Advantages and Disadvantages

B- 3.1 U- Tube Manometer

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

is usually expressed in inches or millimeters of mercury. To convert to pounds per

figure 1. Manometer U- tube.

B- 3.2 Well Manometer

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Figure 3. Well tube Manometer

B- 3.3 Inclined- Tube Manometer

Figure 4 Inclined- tube Manometer

For static balance:

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

C-1. Bellows Elements

C- 1.1 Principles of Operation:

Bellows Spring Rate (Force Constant)

Deflection with pressure:

If pressure is applied to an unrestrained bellows assembly, the resulting deflection of

The empirical formula often used to calculate the effective area is

C- 1.2. Advantages and Disadvantages

C- 1.3 Range and Accuracy.

Accuracy is in the range of %.

Common types of bellows and methods of attaching fittings

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Spring loaded belows gage Belows absolute pressure gage.

C- 2.1 Principles of Operation:

Bourdon Tube design:

An exact analysis of the behavior of a bourdon tube under pressure is extremely

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

One form of this relationship can take is;

Dimension, in Observed Calculated Error

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Helical element with 2 turns; (Usable deflection 25o )

Performance of element of one manufacturer follows the formula;

Advantage and disadvantage:

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

C- 2.3 Range and Accuracy.

Pressure Assembly of Pressure Gage

C- 3.1 Principles of Operation:

A diaphragm is a mechanical pressure tranducer that is used to detect slight changes

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Advantages and Disadvantages:

Deflection With Pressure:

Deflection is dependent on variety of factors:(1) diameter, (2) metal thickness, (3)

Range and Accuracy

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

Control Valve with slack Diaphragm

D. Electrical Pressure Element

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

D - 1 Wheatstone Bridge Principles :

Figure 5- 1 Simple Wheatstone Bridge

Yokogawa Philippines, Inc DOC No : 00-TRG-TM-101

D - 2 Principles of Potentiometric Transducers:

I f t he pressure changes, t he slide on t he pot ent iom et er will be m oved by t he