Learner Views On English and English Language Teaching in China

International Multilingual Research Journal
ISSN: 1931-3152 (Print) 1931-3160 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hmrj20
Learner Views on English and English Language

Teaching in China
Na Liu, Chih-Kai Lin & Terrence G. Wiley
To cite this article: Na Liu, Chih-Kai Lin & Terrence G. Wiley (2016) Learner Views on English and
English Language Teaching in China, International Multilingual Research Journal, 10:2, 137-157,
DOI: 10.1080/19313152.2016.1147308
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2016.1147308
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INTERNATIONAL MULTILINGUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL
2016, VOL. 10, NO. 2, 137157
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/19313152.2016.1147308
Learner Views on English and English Language Teaching in China

Na Liu, Chih-Kai Lin, and Terrence G. Wiley
Center for Applied Linguistics
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Since the 1980s, China has represented one of the major growth areas in Learner views; English
the world for English language education, and studying English has been a language teaching; Chinese
priority among its foreign language educational policies. As English has learners of English
gained more popularity in China, some have noted the potential value of
English as a means to greater educational access and social mobility.
Others, however, see cause for concern by claiming that English language
instruction is not always effective or that learning English is a waste of time
and resources because the majority of English learners will most probably
not use English after they graduate from college. In considering these issues
and their implications for policy and practice, this article reports findings
from a research study of 1,613 Chinese undergraduates to understand how
learners of English view and experience English Language Teaching (ELT) in
China. Data were collected using an online survey questionnaire. Major
findings indicate that the majority of respondents have strong motivations
to learn English, based on the belief that English has beenand will
continue to beuseful and important in their studies and future work, as
they perceive themselves becoming more connected to the global econ-
omy and global affairs. Despite their motivations to learn and use English,
the majority of English learners in China indicated that they lacked oppor-
tunities to use English both in and outside of school. The survey also
investigated learner perceptions of their own strengths and weaknesses
as learners of English in various skill areas. The majority of respondents
reported reading and writing as their strengths and noted speaking and
listening as their areas of weaknesses. Additionally, statistical analyses of
data were conducted to examine the association between learner percep-
tions and learner characteristics such as gender, major, hometown, home
dialect, extramural studies, and parents level of education. The association
between students self-reported proficiency and their majors, hometown,
and parents level of education was statistically significant.
Introduction
English is spoken as a first language by around 375 million speakers, as a second language by another 375
million speakers, and as a foreign language by about 750 million speakers worldwide (Braine, 2011). In
the 21st century, more people than ever want to learn English; English learners are increasing in number
and decreasing in age (Graddol, 2006). Internationally, the global spread of English has been viewed with
both optimism and concern. As English has become more widely taught and used internationally, some
have predicted a world in which English will be the primary second language. Some have noted the
potential value of English as a means to greater educational access and social mobility. Others, however,
have expressed concerns by noting that English instruction is not always effective or that learning English
does not necessarily improve social mobility. Some fear that too much emphasis on English language
teaching (ELT) may push other languages out of the curriculum or even weaken the status of national
languages and speed the decline of other languages.
CONTACT Na Liu stellaliu2004@gmail.com Center for Applied Linguistics, 4646 40th Street NW, Washington, DC 20016.
2016 Taylor & Francis
138 N. LIU ET AL.
Of the 750 million English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) speakers, 390.16 million are in China (R.
Wei & Su, 2012). Graddol (2006) notes that Asia, especially India and China, probably now holds the
key to the long-term future of English as a global language. Thus, Chinese speakers of English are an
important stakeholder in the linguistic marketplace of global English (Norton & Gao, 2008). It is
useful to understand how Chinese learners of English themselves view and experience ELT in China.
The related research will expand the worlds understanding of EFL education in general.
The new English curriculum in China stipulates that English be offered as a required school
subject starting from the third grade through college to graduate school (Ruan & Leung, 2012),
which translates to over 10 years time spent on English language learning. In some large cities, like
Beijing and Shanghai, English study begins earlier (Lo Bianco, 2009a). Outside of regular public
schooling, some students invest in supplementing their English learning through extramural studies.
Accompanying the tremendous national and individual investment in English learning, increasing
amounts of research and publications have focused on English classrooms, curriculum, and teacher
quality during the past decade (Cheng & Sun, 2010; Jiang, 1997; Ling, 2012; Wu, 2001; Xu, 1996).
Emerging research has started to examine Chinese English learners perspectives on a number of
issues, such as the appropriateness and effectiveness of communicative and noncommunicative
activities in their EFL courses in China (Rao, 2002), the relationship between English learning
motivation types and self-identity changes among Chinese students (Gao, Zhao, Cheng, & Zhou,
2007), and motivation and English achievement for Chinese students of English learning (Wang,
2008). To build on other researchers work, this study is intended to expand the worlds under-
standing of Chinese English learners perspectives by providing insights into learner views on their
backgrounds and experiences of English learning, their motivation and investment, and the associa-
tion between learner perceptions and learner characteristics such as gender, major, hometown, home
dialect, extramural studies, and parents level of education. These data and recommendations will
shed light on the policy and practice regarding ELT in China.
English language teaching in China

The development of ELT in China has been strongly influenced by political, economic, social, and
educational needs at different times (G. Hu, 2002). The most recent development was triggered
by the end of the Cultural Revolution in 1976 and the Open Door Policy in 1978 (G. Hu, 2002).
Since then, the Chinese government has perceived English as a necessary means to help the
nation further open up to the world and realize modernization; Chinese English learners view
English as a key to a vast range of opportunities: to enter and graduate from university; to study
abroad; to secure jobs, especially in international companies; or to get promoted in professional
or higher education jobs (Cortazzi & Jin, 1996a; Liu, 2007; Maley, 1995; Ng & Tang, 1997; Pan,
2015; Pan & Block, 2011; Ross, 1992; Zhang, 1993). An impressive commitment to the teaching
and learning of English from all stakeholders, including the government, teachers, students,
parents, and society, has been witnessed in response to the increasing demand for English
(Boyle, 2000; Chen, 1989; Cortazzi & Jin, 1996a).
The most widely adopted methodology in Chinese public schools throughout the ELT history was
the Grammar-Translation method, which was characterized by systematic analysis of grammar, rote
memorization of vocabulary, and emphasis on reading and writing (G. Hu, 2002). Other teaching
methods, such as the Audio-Lingual Method (ALM) and Communicative Language Teaching (CLT),
were imported to China during different times in the 20th century but failed to receive widespread
support and popularity (G. Hu, 2002). Due to the dominance of the Grammar-Translation method,
the Chinese educational system tends to produce deaf-and-dumb English learners (R. Wei & Su,
2008), meaning that learners cannot use English for authentic communication even though they are
able to pass English exams in reading and writing. Fan (2010) also confirmed that English learners in
China do not have enough English to communicate effectively, so their English is called Dumb
English or Deaf English.
INTERNATIONAL MULTILINGUAL RESEARCH JOURNAL 139
To improve the situation, in the past decade the Chinese Ministry of Education has developed and
implemented a series of English curriculum standards for schools at all levels. The guidelines for
promoting English teaching in elementary schools in China (Chinese Ministry of Education, 2001a),
which were issued in January 2001, emphasized the productive use of English (speaking and writing)
over only the learning of receptive English skills (listening and reading). The guidelines to improve
English teaching for undergraduate students stressed an increase in the use of English as an
alternative medium of instruction. It recommended that 5% to 10% of all undergraduate teaching
should be conducted in a foreign language, meaning primarily English (Chinese Ministry of
Education, 2001b). The most recent English curriculum reform initiative was facilitated by the
publication of English Curriculum Standards for Compulsory Education (2011 version). The new
curriculum called for student-centered, task-based, and communicative instruction. The curriculum
goals and recommended instructional practices, however, are challenging to implement for various
reasons, including the lack of qualified teachers, absence of meaningful professional development
opportunities, and the drawbacks of a high-stakes summative testing structure (Ruan & Leung,
2012). Therefore, although the educational authorities have been working to promote CLT by
introducing the new curriculum objectives and textbooks, CLT has not gained wide popularity
among teachers (G. Hu, 2002). Many teachers claimed that they were in support of CLT, while in
reality they might not even have a clear understanding of the principles underlying CLT (Leng, 1997;
Ng & Tang, 1997; Ye, 2007)
Chinese learners of English

As China progresses toward CLT and learner-centered methodology, understanding who Chinese
learners are, how they learn, what they can do with English, and what influences their learning and
motivation has become important (Yin, 2008). As discussed in the previous section, Chinese learners
are labeled as dumb and deaf with regard to their English communicative ability. A survey
conducted by G. D. Wei (2001) revealed that a great majority of the students had only some
fragmentary knowledge of English grammar and recognized some English words but were very
weak in the four language skills. R. Wei and Su (2008) stated that only 21% of English learners in
China reported possession of a communicative competence in English that allowed them to sustain
conversations beyond initial greetings.
To assess what consequences English learning might have on Chinese education and learners, it is
necessary to review the linguistic context in which Chinese learners grew up (Lo Bianco, 2009a). There are
56 officially recognized ethnic groups in China, of which Han is the largest group (Teng & Weng, 2001).
The non-Han groups constitute about 8% of the total population. Han people speak the Chinese languages
of China, which encompasses a number of regional dialects (Norman, 1988). Broadly speaking, the
Chinese language is traditionally classified into seven major dialect groups, each with its own subvarieties:
Mandarin, Wu, Gan, Xiang, Hakka, Yue, and Min (Ramsey, 1987), which are mainly based on geographical
and linguistic-structural characteristics (Li, 1994). The dialect groups are not mutually intelligible with each
other. Mandarin is the official language and medium of instruction at school in China. A recent survey
study (Wiley, De Klerk, Li, Liu, & Teng, 2008) revealed that less than a third of respondents came from
monolingual Mandarin-only households. Among the non-Han groups, there are at least 61 ethnic minority
languages (Teng & Weng, 2001), the so-called non-Chinese languages. The Chinese government has issued
policies and taken significant steps to promote bilingual education, using Mandarin and minority
languages, in the areas with large numbers of minority-language speakers. The primary goals of these
programs are to maintain minority languages and develop their writing systems and to enhance minority
peoples acquisition of Mandarin (Teng & Weng, 2001). Given the linguistic diversity among Chinese
English learners, obligatory English learning might add to the complicated picture of language learning in
China (Lo Bianco, 2009b).
Motivation has been seen as one of the strongest factors in language learning (Gardner, 1979, 1985;
Gardner & Lambert, 1959). Gardner (1985) categorized motivation into two orientations: instrumental and
140 N. LIU ET AL.
integrative. Instrumental motivation indicates learners pragmatic reasons in learning a language, such as
getting a better job or passing required exams. Integrative motivation reflects an interest in learning the
language in order to identify with the target language community. A study by Liu (2007) on junior
undergraduate non-English majors indicated that the majority of these students held an instrumental
orientation toward English learning, such as getting promoted in career development, getting a good job,
etc. In addition, another instrumental orientation, passing examinations, plays a very important role in
English learning among Chinese learners (Wang, 2008). Motivated learners tend to invest in language
learning. The notion of investment . . . signals the socially and historically constructed relationship of
learners to the target language and their sometimes ambivalent desire to learn and practice it (Norton &
Gao, 2008, p. 110). If learners invest in learning a target language by spending time, energy, and money,
they do so with the understanding that they will acquire a wider range of resources (Norton & Gao, 2008),
including getting a good job and getting promoted in professions.
Gender, academic majors, and parents levels of education are often seen as major factors for
childrens education, including language learning. Different genders display different learning
styles in EFL/ESL classrooms (Oxford, 1995). A study that investigated foreign language reading
anxiety and its relationships to College English Test 4 and gender revealed that males displayed
significantly higher reading anxiety than females, and their English achievement was significantly
lower (Shi & Liu, 2006). A large-scale survey conducted among a group of adult Chinese EFL
learners on their vocabulary learning strategies showed that female students significantly out-
performed their male counterparts in vocabulary size and proficiency; science students slightly
outperformed arts students (though insignificantly) in vocabulary size, but arts students signifi-
cantly outperformed science students on the general proficiency test (Gu, 2002). In general,
parental education level is an important predictor of childrens educational outcomes (Davis-
Kean, 2005; Dearing, McCartney, & Taylor, 2001; Nagin & Tremblay, 2001). Parent education
would predict the quality of family interactions and child behavior at school (Dubow, Boxer, &
Huesmann, 2009; El Nokali, Bachman, & Votruba-Drzal, 2010; Topor, Keane, Shelton, &
Calkins, 2010). In this study, we are interested in finding out how parental education level
affects childrens English learning, including self-rated English proficiency, the ability to afford
extramural studies, and the opportunities to use English.
To expand the worlds understanding of Chinese English learners, this study aims to reveal their
motivation and investment and the association between learner perceptions and learner character-
istics such as gender, major, hometown, home dialect, extramural studies, and parents level of
education. These data and recommendations will help enhance and improve ELT in China.
Research questions
Given that English learners in China spend over 10 years in English learning in public schools,
plus extramural studies, this research hopes to sketch a profile of learners self-rated English
proficiency levels, opportunities for them to use English, and their perspectives on the impor-
tance of learning English. We also wanted to investigate other factors that might have an effect
on English learning, including learners gender, hometown, home dialects/languages, parents
education levels, and college majors. In addition, learners expectations of ELT in Chinese
classrooms were examined as well.
This study seeks to answer the following research questions:
(1) What are the contexts for learning and using English in China?
(2) What are potential factors that affect Chinese English learners learning, including learners
gender, hometown, home dialects/languages, parents education levels, and college majors?
(3) What are learners expectations of and recommendations for English language teaching and
teachers?
Survey methods
In order to examine these research questions, data were collected using an online survey question-
naire. The aim of survey research is to describe relevant characteristics of individuals, groups, or
organizations (Berends, 2006). Researchers have used survey methods to investigate many areas of
education, including school desegregation, academic achievement, teaching practice, and leadership
(Check & Schutt, 2012). Surveys can be an efficient way of collecting factual information and
attitudinal and affective data from a group (Willis, 2008). Surveys were employed in this study to
investigate Chinese English learner views and attitudes toward their English language learning
experiences in China.
The survey consists of 44 questions. In terms of question types, the majority of the questions are
of the nominal type (n = 17) and Likert-scale type (n = 13), using computerized point-and-click
response questions. Fourteen open-ended response questions are included to allow for optional
explanations or descriptions. With respect to the content of the questions, 17 questions are related to
demographic information, while eight and 19 questions are associated with learners motivation and
perception respectively. To assess the internal consistency of the survey questions, open-ended
question types and demographic questions were excluded; as such, the internal consistency
(Cronbachs alpha = 0.78) was based on 18 nominal type and Likert-scale type questions that are
related to learners motivation and perception. Given that all of the respondents had studied English,
the survey questions were in English; however, some key words were translated into Chinese to
ensure comprehension of more nuanced expressions. Respondents could also answer the open-
ended questions in Chinese if they chose to do so, as the survey software, Survey Monkey, supports
the Chinese script and input.
Data were collected through convenience sampling, a nonprobability sampling technique.
While convenience sampling provides the easiest way to access the population, it suffers from
biases because the sample included in the study is not representative of the population. The goal
of the survey was not to collect generalizable information, as random sampling was not feasible
in this study; however, the survey does aim to provide baseline data as a point of reference for
future larger-scale or more in-depth research. A link to the survey questionnaire was distributed
to Chinese undergraduates between 2013 and 2014 through the acquaintances of the researchers
involved in this study, who are English teachers in a number of universities in China. We
intentionally included universities in large metropolitan cities, like Beijing and Shanghai, and
small cities in both the northern and southern parts of China. Since the questionnaire is online,
we had no way to track how many students received this questionnaire. We received a total of
1,613 responses. Undergraduates were selected as the focus of this study for two reasons. First,
undergraduates have a more complete picture of English education in China as they have
undergone the K12 educational systems. Second, undergraduates are mentally mature enough
to seriously consider their views and experiences in English learning and what these mean to
them. All of the respondents completed the surveys anonymously, and no identifiable informa-
tion was included in this article.
SPSS was used to conduct the data analysis. Because some of our survey-item options were
intended to be nominal categories while others were designed to be scored on an ordinal scale,
either a chi-squared test or a linear-trend test of independence was conducted to examine the
association between students responses to two survey items. Chi-squared tests were conducted
for items with nominal responses (e.g., views toward studying English), and linear-trend tests
were conducted for those with ordinal responses (e.g., self-assessment of English proficiency).
The association between two categorical variables, be it nominal or ordinal, can be tested via a
chi-squared test; however, when there is a true association between an ordinal variable and a
binary variable (e.g., gender, English major vs. non-English major, etc.), an linear-trend test
using M2 statistic is more sensitive or has more statistical power in detecting that association
(Agresti, 1996).
142 N. LIU ET AL.
Results
The findings were organized and reported under each research question, except the demographic
information laid out at the beginning of this section to provide more background information about
the survey participants. The demographic breakdown for survey respondents can be found in
Table 1. This study targeted primarily undergraduates in Chinese universities; thus, not surprisingly
the respondents ages fall mostly within the range between 1824 years old. This generation of
students was born in the 1990s and grew up in an environment during which the national policy
placed a strong emphasis on English as one of the three required subjects in the National College
Entrance Exam. Because the survey was voluntary, it can be assumed that the sample is biased in
favor of those persons who already take an interest in or care about English learning. The results
show that more females (66.5%) completed surveys than males (33.5%), which might result from the
assumption that females are more interested in language learning than males. Of course, this is only
a speculation, since the respondents in this study cannot represent the population.
Table 2 indicates considerable native language variety among the respondents. Although
Mandarin Chinese is the official language in mainland China, not all respondents grew up
speaking Mandarin at home. About 40% of the respondents grew up in multidialectal environ-
ments or multilingually. Over 90% of respondents rated their Mandarin proficiency as being
very well or well in the four basic skill areas (listening, speaking, reading, and writing).
When asked to rate their English proficiency in the four areas, however, 50%60% of respon-
dents rated not well in listening and speaking areas. More than 60% of respondents rated their
proficiency in reading as well or very well; about half of them rated their writing skills as
well or very well (see Table 3). This picture matches the ones portrayed by G. Hu (2002) and
R. Wei and Su (2008).
Research Question 1: What Are the Contexts for Learning and Using English in China?
As noted previously, English is a required subject from the third grade in China; however, in
some large metropolitan areas such as Beijing and Shanghai, English is taught starting from
grade 1. Not surprisingly 67.5% of the survey respondents fit the profile of having learned
English from elementary school. Approximately 10% of the respondents started learning English
in preschool (see Table 4). Of those starting English instruction in grades 312, the majority of
respondents had spent 10 years in English learning by the time they reached college. Once in
college, non-English-major students are required to take another two years of English study and
pass the College English Test-Band 4 in order to receive their college degrees.
Table 1. Characteristics of Survey Respondents.

Age Gender
1824 98.4% female 66.5%
2534 0.7% male 33.5%
3544 0.8%
4554 0.1%
55+ 0.1%
Note. The survey respondents represent all of the 23 provinces, five autonomous regions, and four autonomous cities in China,
with none from the two special administrative areas (Hong Kong and Macau). The academic majors of students cover a wide
variety, ranging from language and business majors such as Japanese and English, international business and trade, to science
and engineering majors such as civil engineering and computer engineering.
Table 2. Language Use While Growing Up.

Mandarin only 45.5%
Mostly Mandarin and another dialect 18.8%
Mostly another dialect of Chinese and some Mandarin 15.1%
Dialect only 14.6%
Some Chinese and another language 4.5%
Other 1.6%
Table 3. Self-Reported Language Proficiency.

Mandarin English
Very well Well Not well Not at all Very well Well Not well Not at all
Listen 73.5% 23.5% 2.6% 0.4% 5.2% 37.7% 53% 4%
Speak 52.9% 39% 7.6% 0.6% 3.8% 34.6% 57.6% 4.1%
Read 61.2% 33.6% 4.9% 0.3% 7.7% 56.3% 33.6% 2.4%
Write 57.7% 37% 4.8% 0.4% 4.6% 43.2% 49.4% 2.8%
Extramural English studies flourished in China over the past two decades largely as a result of the
overt emphasis on the College English Entrance Exam. Given the emphasis on English, 42% of the
respondents indicated that they had attended supplementary English schools outside of their regular
schooling. In addition, 68% of the respondents indicated that they had attempted to enhance their
use of English outside their classes. Their efforts to use English largely focused on browsing English
Web pages, reading English news/articles, listening to English songs, attending parties with foreign
teachers, and watching English movies. This finding indicates that they had few opportunities for
face-to-face communication outside of classrooms in their efforts to use English.
The vast majority of studentsover 90%indicated that they believed studying English to be
useful and important for their studies or needed in college. About 16% of respondents emphasized
the importance of English because they plan to study abroad in the future. Only 2.1% of respondents
reported that studying English has been a waste of their time, and 5% regard learning English as
useless (see Table 5 & 6), while 56.5% of respondents believe that English will be useful and
important for their job seeking, and 22.9% agree that English will be useful for their future job
promotion. These findings confirmed Pans statements (2015) that the instrumental value of English
is widely acknowledged by Chinese students.
Even if English were not required by the national policy in China, as many as 66% of respondents
would have studied it anyway for the following reasons (Table 7): (a) English has become a useful
language all over the world; (b) Its very important for my job seeking; (c) I want to go abroad
for future study; (d) International scholarly articles are published in English, so learning English
will grant me access to much new and advanced knowledge and broaden my perspectives; and (e) I
am interested in learning English. Others, however, indicated that if English were not required, they
Table 4. Response to Question, At What Education Level Did You Start to Learn English?.
Education level % respondents
Preschool 10%
Elementary School 67.5%
Junior High School 19.9%
Senior High School 0.5%
Colleges 1.9%
After College 0.2%
Table 5. Studying English Has Been.

Useful and important in my studies 61.7%
Important because it is required and needed for college 32%
A burden on top of my other studies 4.3%
A waste of my time 2.1%
Table 6. Studying English Will Be.

Useful and important for my job seeking 56.5%
Useful for my future job promotion 22.9%
Useful and important for my future study abroad 15.7%
Useless in my future life 5%
144 N. LIU ET AL.
Table 7. If English Were Not Required.

I would have studied it anyway because_______ . 66.1%
I would not have studied it but would have studied another language such as___because________ . 16.1%
I would not have studied any other foreign language. 17.9%
would either have studied Japanese, French, Spanish, or German because they were interested in
those languages or they would not have studied any other foreign language. These findings confirm
the statements by Liu (2007) and Wang (2008) that the majority of Chinese learners of English are
motivated to learn English due to instrumental orientations. A small number of respondents claimed
that they studied English out of interest, an integrative orientation. Pan and Block (2011) mentioned
that English was described as more international and global than other languages and thus was
studied from both instrumental and integrative motivations. Additionally, some respondents ima-
gine themselves as having global identities, and English will be used to communicate with people
from other countries and access resources in the world. As such, 87% of respondents plan to
continue their English learning and use of English in the current study.
With the time invested in teaching and learning English as a result of the governments
push, the opportunities to use English in school are expected to be sufficient, but the
opportunity to use English outside of school might continue to be few. The findings confirmed
this assumption that about 65% of respondents have had some or many opportunities to use
English in school (see Table 8). They mostly reported that they had opportunities to use
English in English classes, English corners, or if they participated in English drama or debate
competition held on campus. About 64% of respondents had few or no opportunities to use
English outside of school (see Table 9). The only opportunities respondents have to use
English outside of school is when they meet foreigners, which can be rare in some small cities
or remote areas.
Table 10 lists more detailed information on how often respondents use English on different
occasions. Again, findings here resonate with those presented in Table 8 that respondents use
English in school often. Additionally, a majority of respondents seem to watch English movies
frequently. As expected, respondents do not seem to use English on a regular basis with other
Chinese students, again as Mandarin Chinese is the official language and primary language for
communication in China.
While slightly more than 40% of the respondents selected reading skill as a strength, only about
19%, 17%, and 15% of them selected writing, speaking, and listening as a strength respectively
(Table 11). These data roughly matched the findings in Table 3. However, interestingly, the findings
indicate that the lack of confidence in writing, speaking, and listening does not result from the lack
of emphasis in those skills in English classes. Table 12 shows that in English classes teachers focused
on all of the four skills almost evenly. It is suspected that this discrepancy might result from students
varied experiences from different majors or with different teachers or different grade levels they were
Table 8. In My Recent Experiences, I Have Had.

Many opportunities to use English in school. 26.5%
Some opportunities to use English in school. 38.8%
Few opportunities to use English in school. 31.2%
No opportunities to use English in school. 3.5%
Table 9. In My Recent Experiences, I Have Had.

Many opportunities to use English outside of school. 12.2%
Some opportunities to use English outside of school. 24%
Few opportunities to use English outside of school. 44.3%
No opportunities to use English outside of school. 19.5%
Table 10. Response to Question, When and How Often Do You Use English?.
Very often Often Sometimes Very little Not at all
In school 20% 29.9% 38.4% 10.2% 1.5%
On the Internet 5.3% 16.7% 46.2% 25.3% 6.5%
Watch English movies 20.9% 38.7% 28.9% 9.1% 2.4%
Read English magazines/books 8.4% 20.6% 38.3% 25.2% 7.5%
With English speaking friends 7% 13.4% 24.1% 30.7% 24.8%
With other Chinese students 5.1% 9.8% 30.7% 36.9% 17.6%
Table 11. In Using English, I Think My Strengths Are.

Reading 42.1%
Writing 19.1%
Speaking 16.5%
Listening 15.3%
All of the above 7.1%
Table 12. In Teaching English, My English Teachers Focus Primarily On.

Reading 18.4%
Writing 16.8%
Speaking 16.1%
Listening 16.3%
referring to, which can serve as a future topic to investigate in a follow-up study using focus group or
individual interviews. For example, one student wrote in the open-ended response area that while
his/her senior high school teacher focused more on reading and writing in classes, his/her under-
graduate teacher emphasized more speaking and listening. On respondents wish lists, they do hope
that their teachers would focus more on cultivating their speaking and listening skills (Table 13).
The analyses so far mainly focus on responses regarding English learning experience and their
English language use in China. The following section will discuss the more in-depth analysis of the
relationship between these responses and respondents background characteristics, such as gender,
parental education levels, majors, home languages, hometown locations, and cities in which they
were enrolled in college.
Research question 2: What are potential factors that affect Chinese English learners learning,
including learners gender, hometown, home dialects/languages, parents education levels,
and college majors?
The following subsections present cross-tabulations of respondents background characteristics with
their responses to selected survey items.
Gender. Table 14 cross-tabulates respondents self-reported English proficiency with their gender.
Descriptively, one can observe that learners self-assessment of their English skills does not seem to
be associated with their gender. For example, a similar percentage of female and male learners is
distributed within each of the self-reported categories in listening (3% vs. 5% for Not at All, 54%
Table 13. If I Had a Choice, I Wish My English Teachers Focused More On.
Reading 6.5%
Writing 11.4%
Speaking 36.6%
Listening 22.8%
146 N. LIU ET AL.
Table 14. Self-Reported English Language Proficiency for Female vs. Male.
Self-reported English skills Gender Not at all Not well Well Very well Total M2
Listening Female 3% 54% 37% 5% 100% 0.3
Male 5% 51% 38% 6% 100%
Speaking Female 4% 58% 34% 4% 100% 0.0
Male 5% 56% 35% 4% 100%
Reading Female 2% 33% 57% 8% 100% 0.6
Male 2% 36% 55% 7% 100%
Writing Female 3% 48% 45% 5% 100% 2.0
Male 3% 53% 40% 5% 100%
vs. 51% for Not Well, 37% vs. 38% for Well, and 5% vs. 6% for Very Well). Moreover, because
self-reported English proficiency is an ordinal variable, a linear-trend test of independence was
conducted between self-reported English proficiency and gender to see if the slight differences in
percentage between female and male yield any statistical significance. The ordinal response category
of Not at All for the self-reported English proficiency was coded as 1, while Very Well was coded
as 4. As mentioned earlier, when there is a true association between an ordinal variable and a binary
variable, a linear-trend test using M2 statistic (df = 1) is more sensitive in detecting the association.
For the binary variable of gender, the M 2 statistic was not statistically significant for listening
(M2 0:3; df 1; p 0:57), for speaking (M2 0:0; df 1; p :98), for reading
(M 0:6; df 1; p :42), and for writing (M 2:0; df 1; p :16). These results provide
2 2
further statistical support for the findings that there is no strong evidence of an association between
gender and self-reported English proficiency.
Table 15 cross-tabulates respondents gender with their responses to whether respondents have
supplemented their English learning with extramural activities (Outside of regular schooling, I have/
have not supplemented my English learning through extra paid study) and with their responses to
whether they have attempted to enhance their English in general (Beyond formal English study, I have/
have not attempted to enhance my use of English). Descriptively, one can observe that respondents
inclination to supplement their English learning with extra paid activities does not seem to be dependent
on their gender. For instance, a similar percentage of female and male learners is observed for those who
paid for extramural activities (42% vs. 43%) and those who did not pay for such activities (58% vs. 57%).
Nevertheless, female learners in general seem to enhance their English use more than male learners do
(72% vs. 62%). Because responses to items Outside of regular schooling . . . and Beyond formal
English study . . . are nominal variables, a chi-squared test of independence was conducted between
responses to these two items and gender to see if the differences in percentage between female and male
yield any statistical significance. The 2 statistic was not statistically significant for item Outside of
regular schooling . . .2 0:07; df 1; p 0:79; Cramer0 sV 0:01, but it was statistically signifi-
cant for item Beyond formal English study . . . 2 9:6; df 1; p :002; Cramer0 sV 0:10. Given
that the proportion of females who were English-related majors was higher than that of male English-
related majors in our data (21% for female and 7% for male), after controlling for respondents majors the
Table 15. Items Outside of Regular Schooling . . . and Beyond Formal English Study . . . for Female vs. Male.
I have supplemented my I have not supplemented my
English learning through extra English learning through extra
Item Gender paid study. paid study. Total 2
Outside of regular Female 42% 58% 100% 0.07
schooling Male 43% 57% 100%
I have attempted to enhance I have not attempted to enhance
Item Gender my use of English. my use of English. Total 2
Beyond formal Female 72% 28% 100% 9.6*
English study Male 62% 38% 100%
*p < .05.
association between gender and item Beyond formal English study . . . remained statistically signifi-
cant. These results provide further statistical support for the findings that there is no strong evidence of
an association between gender and paid extramural activities, but there is strong evidence that female
learners in general tend to enhance their English use more than male learners do via other means.
Table 16 cross-tabulates responses to item Studying English will be . . . with respondents
gender. One can observe that there is a slight dependency between learners gender and their
responses to the item, such that female learners seem to believe that studying English will be useful
more than male learners do, particularly in terms of job seeking (58% for female and 53% for male).
Additionally, results from the chi-squared test of independence show that the association between
learners view of studying English and their gender was statistically significant Cramer0 sV 0:11,
suggesting that female learners tend to have a more positive view of studying English than male
learners do. The observation that female learners have a more positive view of studying English may
explain why female learners tend to enhance their use of English more than male learners do.
Table 17 cross-tabulates respondents gender with the extent to which they used English in school
and outside of school. The ordinal response category of no opportunities to use English . . . was
coded as 1, while many opportunities to use English . . . was coded as 4. It can be observed that the
association between learners gender and their opportunities to use English either in school or
outside of school seems to be weak. For example, a similar percentage of female and male learners is
distributed within each of the response categories for opportunities to use English in school (3% vs.
4% for no opportunities, 31% vs. 32% for few opportunities, 39% vs. 38% for some opportu-
nities, and 27% vs. 25% for many opportunities). Results from the linear-trend tests of indepen-
dence show that the associations between learners gender and their opportunities to use English in
school and outside of school were not statistically significant, suggesting that there is no strong
evidence of an association between learners gender and the degree to which they used English either
in school or outside of school.
Parental education level. Respondents parental education levels were categorized into a binary
variable with those who have a bachelors degree or higher and those whose education levels
Table 16. Item Studying English Will Be . . . for Female vs. Male.
Useful for my Useless in
Useful and important for Useful and important future job my future
Item Gender my future study abroad for my job seeking promotion life Total 2
Studying Female 16% 58% 22% 3% 100% 13.5*
English
will be Male 15% 53% 23% 8% 100%
*p < .05.
Table 17. Item In My Recent Experiences, I Have Had . . . for Female vs. Male.
No opportunities Few opportunities Some opportunities Many opportunities
to use Eng in to use Eng in to use Eng in to use Eng in
Item Gender school school school school Total M2
In my recent Female 3% 31% 39% 27% 100% 2.3
experiences, I
have had Male 4% 32% 38% 25% 100%
No opportunities Few opportunities Some opportunities Many opportunities
to use Eng outside to use Eng outside to use Eng outside to use Eng outside
Gender school school school school Total M2
Female 19% 44% 26% 12% 100% 3.1
Male 21% 45% 21% 13% 100%
148 N. LIU ET AL.
are below the equivalence of bachelors degree. Table 18 cross-tabulates respondents self-
reported English proficiency in four skills with their parental education levels. Descriptively,
one can observe that learners self-assessment of their English skills seems to be associated
with their parental education levels. For instance, looking at the response category Well or
Very Well column, the percentage of those whose parents have a bachelors degree or higher
is consistently higher than those whose parental education levels are below a bachelors degree
across the four English skills. Additionally, results from the linear-trend tests of independence
show that the associations between learners self-reported English proficiency in the four skills
and their parental education levels were statistically significant, providing further statistical
support for the findings that higher parental education levels tend to be associated with more
confidence in learners self-assessment of English skills.
Table 19 cross-tabulates respondents parental education levels with their responses to
whether respondents have supplemented their English learning with extramural activities
(Outside of regular schooling . . . ) and with their responses to whether they have attempted
to enhance their use of English in general (Beyond formal English study . . . ). It can be
observed that respondents inclinations to supplement their English learning with extra paid
activities and to enhance their use of English via other means seem to be associated with their
parental education levels. For example, the percentage of those who paid for extramural
activities is lower for learners whose parental education levels are below a bachelors degree
than those whose parents have a bachelors degree or higher (38% vs. 48%). This discrepancy
was also apparent in the percentage of those who attempted to enhance their English (65% vs.
73%). Moreover, results from the chi-squared tests of independence show that the associations
between responses to the two items and parental educational levels were statistically signifi-
cant, suggesting that higher parental educational levels tend to be associated with higher
inclination for paid extramural activities Cramer0 sV 0:10 and for other attempts to
enhance respondents English use Cramer0 sV 0:08.
Table 20 cross-tabulates responses to the item Studying English will be . . . with respondents
parental education levels. Descriptively, one can observe that there is a dependency between learners
Table 18. Self-Reported English Language Proficiency and Parental Educational Levels.
Self-reported English skills Parental education levels Not at all Not well Well Very well Total M2
Listening others 5% 58% 32% 4% 100% 30.2*
BA & up 2% 44% 48% 6% 100%
Speaking others 4% 61% 32% 2% 100% 14.9*
BA & up 4% 51% 39% 6% 100%
Reading others 3% 37% 54% 7% 100% 13.9*
BA & up 1% 28% 61% 9% 100%
Writing others 3% 52% 40% 4% 100% 11.1*
BA & up 2% 44% 50% 5% 100%
*p < .05.
Table 19. Items Outside of Regular Schooling . . . and Beyond Formal English Study . . . for Parental Educational Levels.
I have supplemented my I have not supplemented my
Parental education English learning through extra English learning through extra
Item levels paid study. paid study. Total 2
Outside of regular others 38% 62% 100% 9.1*
schooling BA & up 48% 52% 100%
Parental education I have attempted to enhance I have not attempted to
Item levels my use of English. enhance my use of English. Total 2
Beyond formal others 65% 35% 100% 7.1*
English study BA & up 73% 27% 100%
*p < .05.
parental education levels and their responses to the item, such that 12% of the learners whose
parental education levels are below a bachelors degree believed that studying English will be useful
for future study-abroad opportunities, compared to 22% of the learners whose parents have a
bachelors degree or higher. This discrepancy was also apparent in the percentage of those who
believed that studying English will be useful for future job promotion (25% for parents whose
education levels are lower than a bachelors degree vs. 18% for parents who have a bachelors degree
or higher). This interesting finding indicates that learners whose parental education levels are below
a bachelors degree tend to view English as a means for social mobility, while those whose parents
have a bachelors degree or higher learn English for greater educational access, such as studying
abroad. Additionally, results from the chi-squared test of independence show that the association
between learners view of studying English and their parental education levels was statistically
significant Cramer0 sV 0:14, providing further statistical support for the findings that there is
strong evidence of an association between learners parental education levels and learners view of
studying English.
Majors. Respondents majors were categorized into a binary variable with those who were English-
related majors and those who were non-English majors. Table 21 cross-tabulates respondents self-
reported English proficiency in four skills with their majors. As expected, it can be easily observed
that learners self-assessment of their English skills seems to be associated with their majors. For
example, looking at the response category Well or Very Well column, the percentage of those
who were English-related majors is consistently higher than those who were non-English majors
across the four English skills. Moreover, results from the linear-trend tests of independence show
that the associations between learners self-reported English proficiency in the four skills and their
majors were statistically significant, providing further statistical support for the findings that
English-related majors tend to be more confident of their English skills.
Table 22 cross-tabulates respondents majors with their responses to whether respondents have
supplemented their English learning with extramural activities (Outside of regular schooling . . . )
and with their responses to whether they have attempted to enhance their use of English in general
(Beyond formal English study . . . ). Descriptively, one can observe that respondents inclination to
supplement their English learning with extra paid activities seems to be marginally dependent on
Table 20. Item Studying English Will Be . . . for Parental Educational Levels.
Parental Useful for my UIseless in
education Useful and important for Useful and important future job my future
Item levels my future study abroad for my job seeking promotion life Total 2
Studying others 12% 58% 25% 5% 100% 21.3*
English
will be
BA & up 22% 54% 18% 5% 100%
*p < .05.
Table 21. Self-Reported English Language Proficiency for English Majors vs. Non-English Majors.
Self-reported English skills Parental education levels Not at all Not well Well Very well Total M2
Listening non-Eng 5% 56% 35% 5% 100% 35.2*
Eng 1% 37% 54% 8% 100%
Speaking non-Eng 5% 61% 31% 3% 100% 44.8*
Eng 1% 40% 52% 7% 100%
Reading non-Eng 3% 36% 55% 6% 100% 27.2*
Eng 0% 23% 63% 14% 100%
Writing non-Eng 3% 52% 41% 4% 100% 18.5*
Eng 1% 38% 56% 6% 100%
*p < .05.
150 N. LIU ET AL.
Table 22. Items Outside of Regular Schooling . . . and Beyond Formal English Study . . . for English Majors vs. Non-English
Majors.
I have supplemented my English I have not supplemented my English
Item Majors learning through extra paid study. learning through extra paid study. Total 2
Outside of non-Eng 42% 58% 100% 1.3
regular
schooling
Eng 38% 62% 100%
Item Majors I have attempted to enhance I have not attempted to enhance Total 2
my use of English. my use of English.
Beyond formal non-Eng 67% 33% 100% 6.6*
English
study
Eng 77% 23% 100%
*p < .05.
their majors. For instance, a similar percentage of non-English majors and English-related majors is
observed for those who paid for extramural activities (42% vs. 38%) and those who did not pay for
such activities (58% vs. 62%). Nevertheless, English-related majors in general tend to enhance their
English more than non-English majors do (77% vs. 67%). Additionally, results from the chi-squared
tests of independence show that the association between inclination to pay for extramural activities
and majors was not statistically significant Cramer0 sV 0:04, but the association between
attempts to enhance English use and majors was statistically significant Cramer0 sV 0:08, sug-
gesting there is no strong evidence of an association between English/non-English majors and paid
extramural activities, but there is strong evidence that English-related majors in general tend to
enhance their use of English more than non-English majors do, as expected.
Table 23 cross-tabulates responses to the item Studying English will be . . . with respondents
majors. Descriptively, one can observe that non-English majors seem to believe that studying English
will be useful for future job promotion more than English majors do (24% vs. 18%). On the other hand,
English majors tend to believe that studying English will be useful for job seeking more than non-English
majors do (66% vs. 55%). Finally, results from the chi-squared test of independence show that the
association between learners view of studying English and majors was statistically significant
Cramer0 sV 0:10, providing further statistical support for the findings that there is strong evidence
of an association between learners majors and their view of studying English.
Table 24 cross-tabulates respondents majors with the extent to which they used English in school and
outside of school. As expected, it can be observed that there seems to be an association between learners
majors and their opportunities to use English either in school or outside of school. For instance, a higher
percentage of English-related majors have had many opportunities to use English in school than non-
English majors have (43% vs. 23%). Similarly, a higher percentage of English-related majors have had
many opportunities to use English outside school than non-English majors have (16% vs. 11%). Results
from the linear-trend tests of independence show that the associations between learners majors and their
opportunities to use English in and outside of school were statistically significant, providing further support
for the findings that English-related majors tend to use more English either in school or outside of school.
Table 23. Item Studying English Will Be . . . for English Majors vs. Non-English Majors.
Useful and Useful for my Useless in
Useful and important for important for my job future job my future
Item Gender my future study abroad seeking promotion life Total 2
Studying non-Eng 16% 55% 24% 5% 100% 10.1*
English
will be
Eng 14% 66% 18% 2% 100%
*p < .05.
Table 24. Item In My Recent Experiences, Ive Had . . . for English Majors vs. Non-English Majors.
No opportunities Few opportunities
to use Eng in to use Eng in Some opportunities Many opportunities
Item Major school school to use Eng in school to use Eng in school Total M2
In my recent non-Eng 4% 35% 38% 23% 100% 54.8*
experiences,
I have had
Eng 1% 14% 42% 43% 100%
Major No opportunities Few opportunities Some opportunities Many opportunities Total M2
school school school school
non-Eng 21% 45% 23% 11% 100% 9.2*
Eng 12% 45% 27% 16% 100%
*p < .05.
Home languages. Respondents home languages were grouped in two ways. First, their home
languages were categorized into a binary variable with those who speak Mandarin Chinese as
their home language and those who speak other non-Mandarin languages as their home
languages. Second, the home languages were categorized into a binary variable with those who
speak minority languages (e.g., Mongolian, Korean, etc.) as their home languages and those
speak nonminority languages as their home languages. Results suggest that there is no strong
evidence of an association between learners home languages and their self-assessment of English
skills, their views of studying English, their responses to whether they have supplemented their
English learning with extramural activities, their responses to whether they have attempted to
enhance their use of English, and their opportunities to use English in school. Nevertheless, the
data suggest that those who speak Mandarin Chinese as their home language seem to have more
opportunities to use English outside of school than those who speak other non-Mandarin
languages as their home languages (see Table 25 for the cross-tabulation of respondents home
languages with the extent to which they used English outside of school).
Hometown. Respondents hometown locations were categorized into a binary variable with those whose
hometown locations are in Beijing or Shanghai and those in other cities in China. Beijing and Shanghai
are regarded as Tier 1 metropolitan cities in China, with dense population and abundant resources and
opportunities. Table 26 cross-tabulates respondents self-reported English proficiency in four skills with
their hometown locations. Descriptively, one can observe that learners self-assessment of their English
skills seems to be associated with their hometown locations. For example, looking at the response
category Well or Very Well column, the percentage of those whose hometown is in Beijing or
Shanghai is consistently higher than those whose hometown is in other cities across the four English
skills. Results from the linear-trend tests of independence show that the associations between learners
hometown locations and their self-reported English proficiency in listening and speaking were statisti-
cally significant, but the associations were not statistically significant for the language domains in reading
Table 25. Item In My Recent Experiences, I Have Had. . . for Mandarin Chinese and Non-Mandarin Chinese as Home Languages.
No opportunities to Few opportunities Some opportunities Many opportunities
Home use Eng outside to use Eng outside to use Eng outside to use Eng outside
Item lg. school school school school Total M2
In my recent non- 17% 54% 23% 6% 100% 6.5*
experiences, I Mand
have had
Mand 20% 41% 25% 14% 100%
*p < .05.
152 N. LIU ET AL.
Table 26. Self-Reported English Language Proficiency for Hometown Locations.

Self-reported English skills Hometown locations Not at all Not well Well Very well Total M2
Listening Other cities 4% 54% 37% 5% 100% 5.1*
BJ or SH 7% 25% 57% 11% 100%
Speaking Other cities 4% 59% 34% 3% 100% 9.5*
BJ or SH 7% 26% 52% 15% 100%
Reading Other cities 2% 34% 56% 7% 100% 2.7
BJ or SH 7% 11% 67% 15% 100%
Writing Other cities 3% 50% 43% 4% 100% 0.3
BJ or SH 7% 37% 48% 7% 100%
*p < .05.
and writing. These findings suggest that those whose hometown is in Beijing or Shanghai tend to be more
confident with their English listening and speaking skills.
Other results suggest that there is no strong evidence of an association between learners home-
town locations and their views of studying English, their responses to whether they have supple-
mented their English learning with extramural activities, their responses to whether they have
attempted to enhance their use of English, and their opportunities to use English either in school
or outside of school.
College locations. Respondents college locations were categorized into a binary variable with those
who studied in Beijing or Shanghai and those who studied in other cities in China. Table 27 cross-
tabulates respondents self-reported English proficiency in four skills with their college locations.
Interestingly, it can be observed that the extent to which learners self-assessment of their English
skills is associated with their college locations seems to vary across the four skills. For instance,
similar percentage of those who studied in Beijing or Shanghai and of those who studied in other
cities is distributed within each of the self-reported categories for listening, speaking, and writing
skills. However, looking at the response category Well column for reading, the percentage of those
who was enrolled in colleges in either Beijing or Shanghai was higher than those who was enrolled in
colleges in other cities (63% vs. 53%). Results from the linear-trend tests of independence show that
the association between learners college locations and their self-reported English proficiency in
reading was statistically significant, but the associations were not statistically significant for the
language domains in listening, speaking, and writing. These findings suggest that those who went to
colleges in Beijing or Shanghai tend to have more confidence in their English reading skills.
Table 28 cross-tabulates respondents college locations with their responses to whether
respondents have supplemented their English learning with extramural activities (Outside of
regular schooling . . . ) and with their responses to whether they have attempted to enhance
their use of English in general (Beyond formal English study . . . ). Descriptively, one can
observe that respondents inclination to supplement their English learning with extra paid
activities seems to be associated with their college locations. For instance, a higher percentage
of learners who went to colleges in other cities was found having paid for extramural activities
Table 27. Self-Reported English Language Proficiency for College Locations.

Self-reported English skills College locations Not at all Not well Well Very well Total M2
Listening Other cities 4% 51% 38% 6% 100% 0.2
BJ or SH 3% 54% 39% 4% 100%
Speaking Other cities 4% 56% 36% 4% 100% 0.3
BJ or SH 5% 57% 34% 4% 100%
Reading Other cities 3% 37% 53% 8% 100% 9.8*
BJ or SH 1% 27% 63% 9% 100%
Writing Other cities 3% 51% 41% 5% 100% 2.8
BJ or SH 1% 48% 46% 5% 100%
*p < .05.
Table 28. Items Outside of Regular Schooling . . . and Beyond Formal English Study . . . for College Locations.
I have supplemented my English I have not supplemented my English
Item College learning through extra paid study. learning through extra paid study. Total 2
Outside of Other 45% 55% 100% 5.0*
regular cities
schooling
BJ or 37% 63% 100%
SH
Item College I have attempted to enhance I have not attempted to enhance Total 2
my use of English. my use of English.
Beyond formal Other 68% 32% 100% 0.5
English study cities
BJ or 70% 30% 100%
SH
*p < .05.
(45% for other cities vs. 37% for Beijing or Shanghai). Nevertheless, the proportion of learners
enrolled in colleges in other cities and those enrolled in colleges in Beijing or Shanghai was
similar with respect to their general attempts to enhance their English use (68% vs. 70%).
Additionally, results from the chi-squared tests of independence show that the association
between the inclination to pay for extramural activities and college locations was statistically
significant Cramer0 s V 0:07, but the association between attempts to enhance English use
and college locations was not statistically significant Cramer0 s V 0:02, suggesting there is
strong evidence that those who went to colleges in other cities tend to be more inclined to pay
for extramural activities than those who went to colleges in Beijing or Shanghai, but there is
no strong evidence of an association between college locations and learners attempts to
enhance their English use in general.
Table 29 cross-tabulates respondents college locations with the extent to which they used English
in and outside of school. It can be observed that there seems to be an association between college
locations and learners opportunities to use English either in or outside of school. As expected, a
higher percentage of learners who went to colleges in Beijing or Shanghai have had many
opportunities to use English in school than those who went to colleges in other cities have (29%
vs. 26%). What is contrary to expectations is that a higher percentage of learners who went to
colleges in other cities have had many opportunities to use English outside school than those who
went to colleges in Beijing or Shanghai have (14% vs. 9%). Results from the linear-trend tests of
independence show that the associations between college locations and learners opportunities to use
Table 29. Item In My Recent Experiences, I Have Had . . . for College Locations.
No opportunities Few opportunities
to use Eng in to use Eng in Some opportunities Many opportunities
Item College school school to use Eng in school to use Eng in school Total M2
In my recent Other 4% 34% 36% 26% 100% 16.3*
experiences, cities
I have had
BJ or 1% 25% 45% 29% 100%
SH
College No opportunities Few opportunities Some opportunities Many opportunities Total M2
school school school school
Other 19% 42% 25% 14% 100% 7.9*
cities
BJ or 21% 49% 20% 9% 100%
SH
*p < .05.
154 N. LIU ET AL.
English in school and outside of school were statistically significant, providing further support for
the findings that learners who went to colleges in Beijing or Shanghai tend to have more opportu-
nities to use English in school, whereas learners who went to colleges in other cities seem to have
more opportunities to use English outside of school.
Research question 3: What are learners expectations of and recommendations for English
language teaching and teachers?
The survey also elicited respondents suggestions on how to improve English language teaching in
China. Some suggestions include arouse students interest, focus on communication and culture,
use multiple sources of materials, and adopt task/project-based teaching methods. Motivation and
interest, as stated earlier, play a central role in language learning. Therefore, rather than cramming
students for standardized testing, teachers are encouraged to arouse students interest in learning
English and create real-time authentic opportunities for students to use English, as the new curriculum
and guidelines called for. One respondent recommended that teachers should attract my interest to
English. Give me more chance to answer to the questions. Another respondent wrote that recently I
believe that we should motivate our students as much as possible, give them a reason to use English.
This way, students will have immediate opportunities to put what they learn in classes into practice,
which in turn will boost students sense of achievement and interest in learning English.
Contrary to the traditional Grammar-Translation method that was used often in Chinese class-
rooms, one student described her/his best English teacher by saying, she makes us realize the
importance of spoken English, and she puts much effort on it. Developing students oral commu-
nication abilities should be set up as a priority or daily goal in the English classrooms. In addition,
respondents believe that culture and Western civilizations should be incorporated into their English
classes due to the fact that language and culture can never be separated.
Some respondents suggested that teachers should use multiple sources of materials, which can
include video clips, movies, novels, songs, and radios. In addition to including a variety of materials,
some respondents highly recommend project/task-based instruction. Small-group projects, speech
contests, debates, and presentations were mentioned by respondents as interesting class activities in
which they can actively get involved to use and practice their English.
Conclusions
This article reports findings on Chinese English learner-user perspectives on learner experiences,
attitudes toward English, their motivations for learning the language, and their perceptions of best
practices and areas for improvement. Research findings indicate that the majority of respondents
have strong motivation to learn English, with the belief that English has been and will continue to be
useful and important in their studies, work, and lives. These respondents views on English learning
in China are mostly positive toward an instrumental orientation. Learning English is practical in the
sense that it may promote their social mobility by gaining access to opportunities that require
English skills (e.g., job promotion). These echoed Pans findings (2015) that proficiency in English is
viewed as a key to opportunities in China. Learners whose parental education levels are below a
bachelors degree tend to view English as a means for social mobility, while those whose parents have
a bachelors degree or higher learn English for greater educational access, such as studying abroad.
With Chinese educational policies emphasizing English in the curriculum and Chinese English
learners valuing English as an important and useful skill, the researchers suggest that further
research should examine the actual utilization of English in students work and lives after they
graduate from college in order to complete the picture of Englishs status and roles in China.
While the respondents tend to be most confident in their English reading skills, they seem to have
the least confidence in their English speaking, listening, and writing skills, and they wish that their
teachers could focus more on cultivating those skills. This confirms the dumb and deaf English
learners the Chinese educational system tended to produce (Pan, 2015; R. Wei & Su, 2008). It is
suggested that curriculum writers and English teachers focus more on promoting speaking and
listening skills and designing more interactive activities to involve and inspire students to use English
in classrooms. Most respondents indicated that they had some opportunities to use English in
school, while having very few or no opportunities to use English outside of school. The main
opportunities for them to use English include attending English classes, watching English movies,
reading English articles/magazines, or talking to foreigners. Opportunities outside of school should
be encouraged and guided so that students can use English in multiple meaningful contexts. For
example, an internship in international organizations or companies will provide opportunities for
students to use English in real-life and meaningful situations.
Statistical analyses of data were conducted to examine the association between learner perceptions
and learner characteristics such as gender, major, hometown, home dialect, extramural studies, and
parents level of education. The association was statistically significant. Female learners in general
tend to have a more positive view of studying English and thus, enhance their English use via other
means more than male learners do. Higher parental education levels tend to be associated with more
confidence in learners self-assessment of English skills and higher inclination for paid extramural
activities and for other attempts to enhance respondents English use. English-related majors are
more confident with their English skills and use more English either in or outside of school. Learners
whose hometown is Beijing or Shanghai feel more confident with their English listening and
speaking skills. These findings confirmed our assumptions that English learning has associations
with gender, major, hometown, and parents level of education. Teachers need to know students
background in order to meet different students needs and design differentiated instruction in
classrooms.
We used student self-rated English proficiency as the sole source of information, which is a
limitation of this study. It would be helpful to have information about respondents proficiency levels
based on the type of exams they have passed, such as CET4 (College English Test 4), CET6, TOEFL
(Test of English as a Foreign Language), and GRE (Graduate Record of Examinations), etc. In
addition, further research using interviews or focus group interviews is recommended to expand the
findings presented in this study.
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International Multilingual Research Journal

ISSN: 1931-3152 (Print) 1931-3160 (Online) Journal homepage: http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/hmrj20

Learner Views on English and English Language

Na Liu, Chih-Kai Lin & Terrence G. Wiley

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Learner Views on English and English Language Teaching in China

English language teaching in China

Chinese learners of English

Table 1. Characteristics of Survey Respondents.

Table 2. Language Use While Growing Up.

Table 3. Self-Reported Language Proficiency.

Table 5. Studying English Has Been.

Table 6. Studying English Will Be.

Table 7. If English Were Not Required.

Table 8. In My Recent Experiences, I Have Had.

Table 9. In My Recent Experiences, I Have Had.

Table 11. In Using English, I Think My Strengths Are.

Table 12. In Teaching English, My English Teachers Focus Primarily On.

Table 26. Self-Reported English Language Proficiency for Hometown Locations.

Table 27. Self-Reported English Language Proficiency for College Locations.

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