Employing native-English-

speaking teachers in China:

Benefits, problems and solutions
Z HEN H U I R AO A N D H U A Y U AN

Providing native-English-speaking teachers with a local

pre-service training program and adopting a team teaching
approach are essential for enhancing their efficiency in the
Chinese EFL context

Introduction whether a given language form is acceptably cor-

rect. Furthermore, Widdowson (1994: 338) points
The beginning of this new century has witnessed
out, native-speaker expertise is assumed to extend
two important events in English language education
to the teaching of the language. They not only have
in China. The first is the expansion of English lan-
guage education into the primary curriculum. In
2001, the Chinese Ministry of Education (MOE)
required that primary schools located in cities and ZHENHUI RAO is a
county seats start to offer English classes at professor at Jiangxi Normal
University, China. He has a
Primary 3 from the autumn of 2001 and that the
PhD in applied linguistics
rest start to do so in the following year (MOE, from the University of South
2001). The second is the increase of enrolment in Australia. His recent
various types of Chinese colleges and universities. publications have appeared
For example, in 1999 the number of students in journals such as ELT
enrolled in Chinese higher education was six mil- Journal (2007), Modern
lion, but it rose to over 20 million in 2004 (Jin & English Teachers (2009),
Cortazzi, 2006). Such a rapid development of Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural
English language education has resulted in a num- Development (2010), and The Language Learning
ber of difficulties and challenges for EFL teaching Journal (2012). His main research interests are in
English teaching methodology and language
in China, but the most serious constraint comes
learning strategies. Email: rao5510@jxnu.edu.cn.
from the lack of qualified teachers (Rao, 2010).
To compensate for the shortage of English teachers, HUA YUAN is a lecturer in
many Chinese schools are endeavoring to attract Jiangxi Normal University,
more native-English-speaking teachers (henceforth China. She is currently a
NESTs) to fill up EFL teaching vacancies. In PhD student in applied
2006, for example, there were 150,000 foreign linguistics in Jiangxi Normal
EFL teachers working in China (Jeon & Lee, 2006). University. She has been
One crucial factor that leads Chinese administra- teaching English for 11
tors and teachers to adopt this measure is their years, and has published
belief in NESTs superiority both in the English several articles in academic
journals. Her main research
language and in English teaching (Phillipson,
interests are in English teaching methodology and
1992). NESTs can demonstrate fluent, idiomatical- second language acquisition. Email: yh3867@sina.
ly appropriate language, appreciate very subtle cul- com.
tural connotations of the language and assess

doi:10.1017/S0266078415000590
12 English Today 128, Vol. 32, No. 4 (December 2016). Printed in the United Kingdom 2015 Cambridge University Press
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 a patent on proper English, but on proper ways of
teaching it as well. While acknowledging the
advantages of NESTs in EFL teaching, some
researchers (e.g., Chun, 2014; Jin, 2005; Ma,
2012a, 2012b; Rao, 2010) have revealed a number
of problems in their classroom teaching. They have
found that many NESTs lack experience of teach-
ing English as a foreign language and are unable
to find appropriate teaching strategies in the class-
room. Numerous other studies (e.g., Chun, 2014;
Jeon & Lee, 2006; Ma, 2012a, 2012b; Medgyes,
1992; Phillipson, 1992; Rao, 2010) have con-
cluded that the EFL teaching offered by
NESTs is not as satisfactory as expected, and that
there is still a potential for NESTs to develop
their skills.
This paper proposes some ways to improve
NESTs efficiency in the Chinese EFL context.
But before offering advice on improving their
classroom performance, we will first look at the
benefits that NESTs do bring to the EFL class-
room. Next, we will analyze the problems they
encounter in their teaching process and trace the
roots leading to these problems. Finally, we will
put forward some solutions to these problems and
provide NESTs with detailed suggestions on how
to improve their EFL teaching.
Benefits of employing NESTs
The positive aspects of NESTs in EFL teaching have
been widely discussed in the literature, but the major
benefits that they bring to the EFL classroom can be
classified into three categories: linguistic strengths,
cultural familiarity and pedagogical strengths.
Linguistic strengths
Almost all the studies conducted so far indicate that
NESTs are often respected as models in the English
language learning process (Tang, 1997). Medgyes
(1992: 342) argues that the NESTs linguistic
competence constitutes an advantage. . . so sub-
stantial that it cannot be outweighed by other factors
prevalent in the learning situation, whether it be
motivation, aptitude, perseverance, experience, edu-
cation or anything else. This is particularly evident
in helping students improve pronunciation and
speaking. In investigating Chinese university stu-
dents perceptions of NESTs, Rao (2010) found
that the students were so engrossed by the NESTs
authentic pronunciation and intonation that they
could not help imitating NESTs ways of speaking.
Likewise, the Chinese secondary school students in
Mas (2012a) study used the words real, more
pure, and orthodox to describe NESTs oral
EMPLOYING NATIVE-ENGLISH-SPEA KING TEAC HERS I N CHINA
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English. Ma found that the students enthusiasm to
improve oral proficiency was greatly stimulated by
NESTs pronunciation and speaking skills.
In addition to authentic pronunciation and inton-
ation, NESTs idiomatic use of the English lan-
guage is another linguistic advantage that NESTs
exhibit in Chinese EFL teaching. For example,
many students in Raos (2010) study reported
that they benefited from NESTs critical informa-
tion about usage of the language. They commented
that NESTs could provide an insiders linguistic
knowledge of the target language community,
and that the students could learn subtle differences
of usage from NESTs classroom teaching. Similar
results also appeared in a study by Ma (2012a),
who stated that NESTs stock of colloquial expres-
sion, idioms and phrasal verbs contributed to the
improvement of Chinese students efficiency in
learning English.
The final linguistic benefit that Chinese students
can obtain in a NESTs classroom is a real life
communicative environment. In an English class
offered by a NEST, students have to speak
English because there is no other way to communi-
cate (Ma, 2012b). Mas (2012b) study also found
that many Chinese students regarded the mere pres-
ence of a NEST in a classroom as a motivating fac-
tor. They commented that their interest in
improving English was drastically increased
when speaking directly to NESTs.
Cultural familiarity
As an indispensable part of second language acqui-
sition, cultural knowledge of the target language is
of vital importance in helping students have a thor-
ough understanding of the English language. Since
NESTs were born and grew up in English-speaking
countries, they are generally viewed by EFL stu-
dents in China as authentic, walking, breathing
resources about English culture. This is evidenced
in Raos (2010) study, in which NESTs were found
to be possessed of a particularly acute awareness of
cultural elements in their EFL teaching, and that
they could tell students about their culture, tradi-
tions, history and people. In Mas (2012b) study,
the participants illustrated how the NESTs assisted
them in understanding more about the Wests cul-
ture and learning appropriate ways to get along
with Western people.
Cultural awareness and knowledge are espe-
cially important for an English reading course in
EFL contexts. The findings in a recent study by
Chun (2014) showed that NESTs were more com-
petent not only at providing cultural knowledge,
but also teaching reading skills despite linguistic
13
 constraints (p. 575). This was attributed to the fact
that the subjects in his study were university stu-
dents, and that almost all the texts used for teaching
these university students were directly or indirectly
adapted from the English publications in the West.
Chun argued that NESTs rich cultural knowledge
enabled them to explain cultural nuances and pro-
vide the necessary background knowledge of those
texts (p. 575).
Pedagogical strengths
A number of studies have found that classes taught
by NESTs are often seen as having a friendly,
relaxed and lively atmosphere (Tang, 1997). Such
a classroom atmosphere, according to Medgyes
(1992), mainly originates from their flexible teach-
ing methods. As products of well-developed edu-
cational systems in English-speaking countries,
NESTs have been exposed to a variety of advanced
language teaching methods and techniques. When
they are engaged in language teaching, they tend
to teach in the way as they were taught in their
own home countries. The findings in Raos
(2010) study demonstrated that NESTs employed
a variety of modern teaching methods, which
helped create a lively learning environment.
In addition, NESTs new and creative classroom
activities have also contributed to the development
of a relaxed classroom atmosphere in their
EFL teaching. The participants in Mas (2012b)
study reported that they enjoyed being taught by
NESTs because they found it interesting to partici-
pate in the games, role plays and debates organized
by these teachers. Similarly, Ma (2012b) found that
NESTs had more fun ideas, and were adept at
creating a fun learning environment by story-
telling, sharing life experiences, or making jokes
in classes. Raos (2010) study found that the
Chinese students motivation to learn English
was increased by NESTs use of visual aids, pic-
tures and multimedia equipments in classroom.
Problems of employing NESTs
While NESTs are perceived to have a number of
advantages in EFL teaching in the Chinese context,
there also exist some problems in their classroom
teaching practice. Based on the relevant literature
available, three types of major problems in
NESTs teaching can be summarized: insensitivity
to students linguistic problems, conflicts in teach-
ing and learning styles, and unfamiliarity with local
cultural and educational system.
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Insensitivity to students linguistic problems
Of all the problems that NESTs encounter in
Chinese EFL classroom, insensitivity to their stu-
dents linguistic problems is considered as the
most serious obstacle (Rao, 2010). Two factors
may have contributed to this problem: one is
NESTs lack of experience of learning English as
a second or foreign language, and the other is
their ignorance of the students mother tongue.
Learning a second language is universally recog-
nized as a long and complex process in which lear-
ners are expected to confront various difficulties.
However, since English is their mother tongue,
NESTs have not gone through the process of learn-
ing English as a second language. Therefore, they
lack insight into the typical problems of their stu-
dents, and cannot anticipate or prevent certain
language difficulties encountered by Chinese lear-
ners of English. In the teaching of grammar, for
example, the students in Mas (2012b) study
found that NESTs knew what was wrong in their
students grammar exercise answers, but they
could not explain why it was wrong or tell them
what they should do to prevent it in the future.
The second factor that makes many if not most
NESTs less aware of students linguistic problems
is their ignorance of their students mother tongue.
For a long time, a heated debate has been going on
concerning the function and use of students first
language in the process of second language acquisi-
tion (for a recent survey, see Cook 2010). However,
there is growing realization that the EFL students
first language is not a problem but a resource in
helping them learn a second language (Medgyes,
1992). Although EFL students in China benefit a
lot from NESTs authentic oral English, they find
it hard to adapt to English medium instruction with-
out any use of their mother tongue. One student in
Mas (2012a) study commented on being taught by
a NEST like this, Because she didnt know about
Chinese or Cantonese, she used more and more dif-
ficult words to explain easier words (p. 293). Such
an explanation of a new word would, of course, lead
to more confusion rather than understanding.
Conflicts in teaching and learning styles
Learning styles refers to habitual and preferred
ways of learning (Keefe, 1987). Keefes research
(1987) shows that people from identifiably different
cultural groups overwhelmingly exhibit certain
learning style preferences. In research conducted
worldwide, NESTs are repeatedly found to be
equipped with global, open, intuitive-random and
hands-on teaching styles while Chinese students
D ec e mb er
 are reported to have analytical, closure-oriented,
concrete-sequential and visual learning styles
(Oxford, et al., 1992). The findings in the study
by Rao (2010) have provided additional evidence
corroborating these previous research results. For
example, most Chinese students in Raos study
reported that they felt uncomfortable with NESTs
global style in their reading class. One student com-
plained that foreign teachers often asked us to use
holistic strategies such as guessing or inferencing,
to search for the main ideas, but seldom paid atten-
tion to the analysis of linguistic details (p. 64).
Another NEST practice identified as incompat-
ible with Chinese learning style is the preference
for what Oxford et al. (1992) refer to as an open
teaching style. Traditionally, Chinese students are
considered as having a closure-oriented learning
style, which is to say that they tend to avoid ambigu-
ity and expect an accurate and authoritative answer
to any question in their learning process (Oxford,
et al., 1992). However, Chinese EFL students
often feel disappointed when they ask NESTs ques-
tions. One student in Raos (2010) study reported,
Whenever I ask a foreign teacher a question, he
or she would provide me with multiple correct
answers (p. 64). Although some students with
high English proficiency in this study commented
favorably on NESTS heuristic ways of teaching,
they noted that it was difficult for students to accept
them in the Chinese examination-oriented education
background.
Unfamiliarity with local culture and educational
system
Though NESTs solid knowledge of English cul-
ture facilitates their EFL teaching, they often
know little about Chinese cultural values. As EFL
teaching in China is deeply rooted in the Chinese
context, a lack of knowledge of Chinese culture
may hinder NESTs from teaching English effect-
ively. Ma (2012b) found that NESTs, due to their
unfamiliarity with the cultural background of
Chinese students, did not know what the students
liked or disliked. As a result, the games, tasks and
activities that they designed for the Chinese stu-
dents were often perceived as either too easy or
too difficult. Ma also reported that the cultural dif-
ferences between NESTs and local students made
them less comfortable with talking to each other.
Similarly, a lack of understanding of the Chinese
education system may also lead to some problems
in NESTs classroom teaching. In China, teachers
are regarded as authorities and good examples for
students to follow; thus Chinese teachers are sup-
posed to behave appropriately both in and outside
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classroom. However, the participants in Raos
(2010) study reported that they were astonished
by some NESTs casual behavior in classroom,
such as he rushed into our classroom and sat on
the table, took off his glasses and started clean-
ing them on his new shirt (p. 65). Additionally,
many students in this study mentioned that some
NESTs did not follow the school syllabus and
failed to match their instruction with the schools
expectations or with the students needs.
Solving the problems
Facing the challenges that NESTs encounter in EFL
teaching, many researchers and teachers have been
searching for strategies to tackle these problems
(e.g., Liu, 1998; Brutt-Griffler & Samimy, 1999;
Carrier, 2003). On the basis of the findings in the
previous studies and our collaborative teaching
experience with NESTs, we will now offer two
sets of suggestions for helping NESTs: (1) by pro-
viding NESTs with a local pre-service training pro-
gram, and (2) by adopting a team teaching approach
that brings together NESTs and non-native English
speaking teachers (NNESTs).
Providing NESTs with a local pre-service training
program
Although English teaching in EFL contexts may
share many things in common, it also varies in one
way or another in different countries. Therefore, it
is of vital importance for local Chinese schools to
offer a training program for NESTs before they
start working. Given opportunities for attending to
lectures, discussion, and classroom observation in
this program, NESTs could be helped to understand
local EFL teaching practices, explore successful
teaching strategies and reflect on issues specific to
their own EFL teaching in China.
Several approaches could be taken to make
NESTs aware of difficulties in their new teaching
positions and adapt themselves to Chinese EFL
teaching. First, they could be offered an introduc-
tory course about the general EFL teaching situ-
ation in local schools in China. For this purpose,
lectures could be delivered to inform NESTs
about the following issues:
1. an overall introduction to the school (e.g.,
history, population, hierarchy, culture);
2. the general situation of teaching English at the
school;
3. students characteristics and preferred ways of
learning;
4. expectations from the school and parents.
15
 Such an introduction would provide NESTs with an
opportunity to understand why students in a par-
ticular country want to learn English; what the pol-
icy of the government of the country regarding
English is; what constraints on the teachers innova-
tiveness might exist and what social, cultural, and
academic adjustments the prospective teachers will
have to fit into the existing setup (Govardhan,
et al., 1999: 124). It would also enable them to
gain the ability to assess the propriety, feasibility,
applicability, and practicality of any one or all of
the methods against a certain set of political, social-
cultural, and pedagogic situation that they are going
to be working in (Govardhan, et al., 1999: 123).
A second approach could be for the schools to
organize opportunities for NESTs and NNESTs
to meet and exchange opinions and ideas on EFL
teaching. Such discussions should mainly focus
on topics such as:
1. details of the curriculum and where the NESTs
and NNESTs courses fit in;
2. the types and schedules of English examina-
tions that students are required to take;
3. the roles of the textbooks in the curriculum
(e.g., Is it necessary to cover everything in
the textbooks? Are examinations based on
textbook content?);
4. the types of teaching methodology students are
used to.
At the beginning of a discussion, local EFL tea-
chers should explain to NESTs what they normal-
ly do in their teaching practice, and then seek
NESTs opinions on this. Next, the two groups
of teachers should work out a teaching model
that suits both groups of teachers. Such interac-
tions between NESTs and NNESTs would enable
them to understand each other and work together
to address such issues as culture clashes, conflict
management, interpersonal communications and
classroom performance.
At the final stage of this training program, it
would be advisable for local schools to invite
NESTs to observe some classes being taught by
local EFL teaching experts. This step is crucial
for NESTs to know exactly what really happens
in an EFL classroom in a Chinese school. By
observing what local EFL teachers do in the class-
room, NESTs can gain an understanding of how
successful NNESTs manage the demands of their
teaching context. After observing a class, NESTs
could reflect on how the local EFL teaching is
affected by such factors as teacher preparation
and classroom management, and by the students
preferred learning styles and cultural values, and
16
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consider how they might take these factors into
account in their own teaching.
Adopting a team teaching approach by NESTs
and NNESTs
Extensive research has been conducted to find out
how to make the best use of NESTs in EFL con-
texts. Given the above discussion of the relative
strengths and weaknesses of NESTs in the
Chinese EFL context, we would argue that a
team teaching approach by NESTs and NNESTs
may be the most promising strategy. NESTs pos-
sess native language authenticity, cultural familiar-
ity and new methodological insights in EFL
teaching. These strengths, according to Carless
and Walker (2006), are generally the relative weak-
nesses of NNESTs, whose own strengths, on the
other hand, reflect the relative weaknesses of
NESTs. Medgyes (1992) found that NNESTs
were more sensitive to students needs and pro-
blems, more able to anticipate students difficulties
in learning English, and they could take advantages
of students mother tongue to explain complex
language points. In addition, NNESTs are more
familiar with local syllabi and examinations
(Tang, 1997). Ma (2012b) also emphasizes that
NESTs and NNESTs strengths and weaknesses
are complementary, and that this complementari-
ness lays an ideal foundation for them to carry out
a team teaching approach in the EFL classroom.
The first step for good team teaching is to set up
an equal relationship between NESTs and
NNESTs. As stated above, both NESTs and
NNESTs have advantages and disadvantages in
EFL teaching, and neither one is inherently superior
to the other (Ma, 2012a, 2012b; Medgyes, 1992).
To work together successfully and harmoniously,
NESTs and NNESTs should maintain friendly rela-
tionships and treat each other as fellow teachers on
equal terms. They should see to it that each team
member has an equal say in what they should
teach and how they should teach. One essential
step to ensure a successful implementation of
these measures is a sensible pairing of NESTs and
NNESTs. Instead of being appointed to work in a
team randomly, team teachers could be granted
opportunities to select their own teaching partners.
This would make it easier for a teacher to pair up
with another teacher whose personal and profes-
sional qualities are compatible with their own.
Following the establishment of an equal relation-
ship, NESTs and NNESTs should get together to
discuss and negotiate ways for carrying out their
collaborative teaching. They should, first of all,
set up the goals and objectives in their team
D ec e mb er
 teaching and schedule regular meetings before they
teach. Next, both groups of teachers should decide
how team teaching is to be implemented. Instead of
following fixed ways of teaching in a team, team
teachers should have multiple team teaching
approaches to meet different pedagogical needs.
They should keep themselves open to any number
of possible team teaching styles, depending on the
combinations of individual team teachers.
Finally, team teachers should work out a team
plan for their classroom teaching. They should
first learn how to make their knowledge explicit
and accessible to their team partner. For example,
since NNESTs understand the constraints that tea-
chers may experience in the Chinese EFL class-
room, they will be best placed to assess how to
meet both teachers and students expectations.
Similarly, as native English speakers, NESTs are
in a better position to know what is appropriate in
contexts of language use and to contribute their
vast understanding and knowledge of English dis-
course. The next thing for them to do in team plan-
ning is to work out the detailed teaching methods
and procedures needed to cope with different teach-
ing tasks for a specified student population. They
should, according to Vaughn, et al. (1997), take
the following issues into consideration:
1. What are students going to be taught?
2. What materials are needed?
3. What kind of role does each teacher perform?
4. What responsibilities does each teacher take
when implementing different teaching tasks?
5. How will co-teachers evaluate students learning?
6. What follow-up measures should be taken to
help students who need further attention?
Additionally, agreement on the teaching content
and types of teaching activities will need to be
reached through patient negotiation.
Conclusion
Recent expansion of English language education
in Chinese schools has created an escalating
demand for qualified English teachers, and
NESTs have nowadays become a well-established
force in Chinese EFL teaching. However, extensive
research shows that there is still a room for NESTs
to improve in terms of teaching quality. In order to
help NESTs enhance their teaching efficiency, we
have in this article examined the benefits that they
could bring to EFL teaching, and then analyzed pro-
blems they encountered in their teaching process.
We have proposed that a pre-service training pro-
gram could help NESTs understand the general
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EFL teaching situation in Chinese schools, so that
they could adapt themselves more effectively to
the local EFL teaching context. We have also
argued that a team teaching approach involving
both NESTs and NNESTs could enable each to
learn from the others strong points, therefore
greatly improving their teaching efficiency.
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