v61 Geostatistics Tutorial

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Contributors
RowdyBristol

Product:GemcomSurpac6.1
TableofContents
Introduction..............................................................................................................8
Requirements................................................................................................................8
Objectives.....................................................................................................................8
Workflow......................................................................................................................8
RequiredFiles...........................................................................................................9
Overview.......................................................................................................................9
Requirements................................................................................................................9
Tutorialprofile..............................................................................................................9
Summary..............................................................................................................10
ImportantConcepts................................................................................................11
Overview.....................................................................................................................11
Requirements..............................................................................................................11
UnderstandtheDomains............................................................................................11
ValidatetheInputData...............................................................................................11
UnderstandEstimationMethodsandParameters.....................................................11
ValidatetheOutputModel.........................................................................................11
Summary..............................................................................................................11
2DCaseStudy:GradeControl..................................................................................13
Domains..................................................................................................................14
Overview.....................................................................................................................14
Requirements..............................................................................................................14
Theimpactofdomainsonestimatedvalues..............................................................14
ViewingandUsingDomains.......................................................................................15
Task:ViewDomains................................................................................................15
Task:Separatedataforeachdomain......................................................................16
Summary..............................................................................................................18
BasicStatistics.........................................................................................................19
Overview.....................................................................................................................19
Requirements..............................................................................................................19
Histograms..................................................................................................................19
BimodalDistributions.................................................................................................20
CreatingaHistogram..................................................................................................21
Task:CreateaHistogramFromStringData............................................................21
Task:CreateaLogProbabilityPlotFromStringData.............................................23
Menucommands:................................................................................................26
Outliers...................................................................................................................27
Overview.....................................................................................................................27
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Introduction Requirements
Requirements..............................................................................................................27
OutliersandTopcuts...................................................................................................27
MethodsofDeterminingaTopcutValue...................................................................27
Histogram............................................................................................................28
Confidenceinterval..............................................................................................28
Percentile.............................................................................................................28
Experience...........................................................................................................28
TopcuttingOutliers.....................................................................................................29
Task:ApplyingaTopcut..........................................................................................29
Summary..............................................................................................................29
Menucommands:................................................................................................29
Anisotropy..............................................................................................................30
Overview.....................................................................................................................30
Requirements..............................................................................................................30
Isotropyvs.Anisotropy...............................................................................................30
Task:DisplayBlockModelscreatedwithAnisotropy.............................................31
GeostatisticalEstimationUsingIsotropy....................................................................32
GeostatisticalEstimationUsingAnisotropy................................................................34
EllipsoidVisualiser......................................................................................................38
Task:DisplayAnisotropyusingtheEllipsoidvisualiser...........................................38
VariogramConcepts................................................................................................45
Overview.....................................................................................................................45
Requirements..............................................................................................................45
BasicVariogramConcepts...........................................................................................45
Nugget.................................................................................................................46
Sill........................................................................................................................46
Range...................................................................................................................47
VariogramCalculation................................................................................................47
TheImpactofModifyingtheLagDistance.................................................................50
OmnidirectionalVariograms.......................................................................................53
DirectionalVariograms...............................................................................................54
CalculatinganExperimentalVariogram...................................................................56
Overview.....................................................................................................................56
Requirements..............................................................................................................56
Task:Createandviewexperimentalvariograms....................................................56
TypesofExperimentalVariograms.............................................................................62
Task:Changethevariogramtype............................................................................62
Summary.....................................................................................................................64
ModellingaVariogram............................................................................................65
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Overview.....................................................................................................................65
Requirements..............................................................................................................65
Task:Openanexperimentalvariogramandmodel................................................65
TypesofVariogrammodels........................................................................................67
Variogrammodellingtips............................................................................................68
VariogramMaps......................................................................................................70
Overview.....................................................................................................................70
Requirements..............................................................................................................70
PrimaryVariogramMap.............................................................................................70
Task:Createahorizontalvariogrammap...............................................................70
Task:Determine2Danisotropy...............................................................................73
InverseDistanceEstimation....................................................................................77
Overview.....................................................................................................................77
Requirements..............................................................................................................77
IsotropicvsAnisotropicInverseDistanceEstimation.................................................78
Task:PerformInverseDistanceEstimationusingIsotropy.....................................78
Task:ViewtheEffectofIncreasingInverseDistancePower..................................83
Task:PerformInverseDistanceEstimationonGradeControlData.......................84
OrdinaryKriging......................................................................................................90
Overview.....................................................................................................................90
Requirements..............................................................................................................90
ImpactoftheNugget..................................................................................................91
Task:PerformOrdinaryKrigingEstimationusingaZeroNugget............................91
ImpactoftheRange....................................................................................................96
Task:ViewtheImpactoftheRange........................................................................96
ImpactofDescretisation.............................................................................................97
Task:ViewtheImpactofDescretisation.................................................................97
Task:PerformOrdinaryKrigingEstimationonGradeControlData.......................99
ModelValidation...................................................................................................105
Overview...................................................................................................................105
Requirements............................................................................................................105
ComparingRawDatatoEstimatedValues...............................................................105
GradeTonnageCurves.............................................................................................105
BasicStatisticsofModelValues................................................................................107
IndicatorKriging.....................................................................................................109
Overview...................................................................................................................109
Requirements............................................................................................................109
IKConcepts...............................................................................................................109
Task:DisplayIKcalculations..................................................................................109
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Task:ViewIKcalculations.....................................................................................110
Task:TransformGradeControldataforIKVariogramMaps................................111
Task:Calculateanisotropyparametersforeachcutoff........................................112
Task:PerformIndicatorKriging.............................................................................114
Task:CalculateBlockvalues..................................................................................118
Task:ReportTonnesandGradeforanIKmodel..................................................122
ConditionalSimulation...........................................................................................126
Overview...................................................................................................................126
Requirements............................................................................................................126
NormalScoresTransformation.................................................................................126
Task:PerformaNormalScoresTransformation...................................................126
Task:Calculateanisotropyparametersfornormalscoretransformeddata........130
Task:PerformConditionalSimulationusingSGSIM..............................................132
Task:DisplayConditionalSimulationresults........................................................136
Task:ReportTonnesandGradeforaConditionalSimulationModel..................138
3DCaseStudy:OreReserve...................................................................................141
Domains.................................................................................................................142
Overview...................................................................................................................142
Task:ViewDomain....................................................................................................142
CreateComposites.................................................................................................144
Task:ExtractingDatawithaDomaininSurpac.....................................................144
BasicStatistics........................................................................................................147
Overview...................................................................................................................147
Requirements............................................................................................................147
DisplayingHistograms...............................................................................................147
Outliers..................................................................................................................150
Overview...................................................................................................................150
Requirements............................................................................................................150
Outliers.....................................................................................................................150
RemovingOutliers....................................................................................................150
VariogramMaps.....................................................................................................154
Overview...................................................................................................................154
Requirements............................................................................................................154
Task:ViewVariogramMapDipPlane...................................................................154
Task:CalcuatethePrimaryVariogramMap..........................................................155
Task:CalculatetheSecondaryVariogramMap....................................................161
AnisotropyEllipsoidParameters...............................................................................164
Task:Calculateellipsoidparameterswithamacro...............................................164
Task:Calculateellipsoidparametersmanually.....................................................167
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StepsforUsingVariogramMapstoCreateAnisotropyEllipsoidParameters..........171
UsethePrimaryVariogramMaptodefinethemajoraxis................................171
UsetheSecondaryVariogramMaptodefinethesemimajoraxis...................172
Createandviewanisotropyellipsoidparameters.............................................172
OrdinaryKriging.....................................................................................................174
Overview...................................................................................................................174
Requirements............................................................................................................174
Task:PerformOrdinaryKrigingEstimationona3DBlockModel.........................174
Summary............................................................................................................180
ModelValidation...................................................................................................181
Overview...................................................................................................................181
Requirements............................................................................................................181
ComparingCrosssectionalDatawithaModel........................................................181
GradeTonnageCurves.............................................................................................182
BasicStatisticsofModelValues................................................................................184
TrendAnalysis...........................................................................................................185
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Introduction
Geostatisticsisusedinfieldssuchasmining,forestry,hydrology,andmeteorologyinorderto
understandhowdatavalueschangeoverdistance.Probablythemostcommonuseofgeostatisticsisto
makeestimations,suchasthespecificgravityofrockforanareawherethereareonlyafewknown
samplevalues.Thisisoftendoneinthreedimensionalspace.Asetofestimatedpointsinspaceis
knownasamodel.AsGeorgeBox,aprofessorofStatisticsattheUniversityofWisconsinintheUnited
States,oncesaid,Allmodelsarewrong.Someareuseful.
Requirements
Priortoproceedingwiththistutorial,youwillneedtohaveinstalledSurpac6.1orlaterfromaCD.
Additionally,youshouldhaveagoodunderstandingofthefollowingconceptsinSurpac:
1. GeologicalDatabase
2. Solidmodelling
3. Blockmodelling(howtocreateandconstrainamodel)
4. Tclscripts
Caution:Ifyoudonothaveagoodbackgroundinthesesubjects,manypartsofthistutorialmaybe
difficulttofollow.
Objectives
Theprimaryobjectiveofthistutorialistohelpyoubecomefamiliarwiththemethodsforperforming
geostatisticaloperationswithSurpac.Also,thistutorialwillintroduceyoutosomegeneralgeostatistical
concepts,andprovidesomeguidanceonmakinggeostatisticaldecisions.Ultimately,themodelsyou
createareyourresponsibility.Thereareoftenmoremethodsthanthosedescribedheretoobtaina
model.
Workflow
Therecanbemanydifferentworkflowsforapplyinggeostatisticaltechniques.Thedecisionofwhich
techniquestoapply,andwhichordertheyareappliedinisusuallysomethingthatonlyexperiencewill
teachyou.
Hereisagenericprocessforperformingageostatisticalanalysis:
1. IdentifyDomains
Foreachdomain:
2. Createcomposites
3. PerformBasicstatistics
4. TopcutOutliers
5. CalculateAnisotropyandVariogramParameters
6. PerformKrigingNeighborhoodAnalysis
7. PerformOrdinarykriging
8. ValidatetheModel
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Required Files Overview
RequiredFiles
Overview
Thischapterwillhelpyoufindthefilesrequiredforthistutorial.
Requirements
Inordertoperformtheexercisesinthistutorial,youshould:
InstallSurpacv6.1
Thefilesanddirectorystructureforeachtutorialwillonlybepresentifyouhaveinstalledthesoftware
fromtheCD.
IfyouhavenotinstalledthesoftwarefromaCD:
1.Createthefollowingdirectory:
<installationdirectory>/demo_data/tutorials/geostatistics
Note:<installationdirectory>willbesomethinglike:c:\documentsandsettings\allusers\gemcom
software\surpac61
2.Downloadthegeostatisticstutorial/data(containedinasinglezipfile)from:
http://www.gemcomsoftware.com/support/default.asp?id=tutorials
3.Unzipthefilegeostatistics.zipintothedirectoryyoucreated.
Tutorialprofile
Profilesareacollectionofmenubarsandtoolbars.Thetutorialprofilecontainsasetofmenusthatassist
youwithlearningvariousaspectsofthesoftware.
Todisplaythetutorialsprofile:
1. Rightclickintheblankareatotherightofthemenus.
2. Fromthepopupmenu,chooseProfiles>tutorials.

Anewmenubarwillbedisplayed,listingallavailabletutorials.
3. ChooseGeostatistics>CDtogeostatisticsfolder.
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Required Files Tutorial profile
Note:TherearetwoGeostatisticsmenuitemsselecttheoneonthetutorialsmenubar,asshown:

Thisshouldsetyourworkingdirectoryto:
<installationdirectory>/demo_data/tutorials/geostatistics
Thisdirectorycontainsallofthefilesrequiredtoperformthestepsinthistutorial.
Summary
Thefilesyouwillneedfortheremainderofthetutorialshouldnowbepresentinyourworkdirectory.
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Important Concepts Overview
ImportantConcepts
Overview
Inordertoreduceestimationerrors,youshould:
Understandthedomains
Validatetheinputdata
Understandestimationmethodsandparameters
Validatetheoutputmodel
Requirements
Therearenorequirementsforreadingthischapter,butyoumayfindsomeoftheprincipleseasierto
understandifyou:
havesomeunderstandingofbasicstatistics,
knowwhatageostatisticalmodelis,or
havepreviouslyperformedageostatisticalestimation.
UnderstandtheDomains
Itisimportanttorecogniseseparateregionsordomainswithinamodel.Onceyouhaveidentified
thedomains,itisimportanttogroupallsampledatacontainedwithineachdomainintodistinctsubsets.
Afterthat,youcananalyseeachsubsetindividually,andusedatafromeachseparatedomaintomake
estimationswithinthatdomain.
ValidatetheInputData
ThesayingGarbagein=Garbageoutiscertainlytrueingeostatistics.Althoughsamplingtheoryand
laboratoryqualitycontrolpracticesareimportantconceptswhichimpactthequalityofanyestimation
madeusingasetofdatavalues,thesesubjectsareoutsidethescopeofthistutorial.
Assumingthatthequalityofthedataisasgoodasyouregoingtoget,thereareacoupleofpotentially
hazardouscharacteristicsofthedatawhichyoushouldlookfor:bimodalismandoutliers.Youcan
lookforbothofthesefeatureswithahistogram.Adatasetissaidtobeunimodalifthehistogram
showsasinglepeak.Iftherearetwopeaks,thedataissaidtobebimodal.Ifyouusesomeofthe
morecommonestimationtechniquestocreateamodelbasedonabimodaldistribution,itislikelyto
containmoreestimationerrorsthanamodelcreatedfromaunimodaldataset.Additionally,outliers,
orvalueswhicharesignificantlydistantfromthemajorityofthedata,cancauseestimationerrors.
UnderstandEstimationMethodsandParameters
Therearealargenumberofestimationmethods,andalargenumberofparameterswithineach
method.Beforeusingaparticularestimationmethod,youshouldhaveagoodbackgroundinbasic
statistics,aswellasbasicgeostatisticalprinciples.
Usinggeostatisticscanbelikenedtoflyingajetplane.Althoughthereareautopilotmodes,whereyou
justpressafewbuttonsandsomethinghappens,itisimportantthatthepilotunderstandthetheoryof
aerodynamicstounderstandwhatimpactaparticularcontrolhasupontheendresult.
ValidatetheOutputModel
Afinalmethodyoushouldusetocheckthequalityofestimationistotaketimetoexaminetheoutput.
Histogramsofestimatedvalues,contoursofplans,crosssectionsofblockmodels,colourcodedand
rotatedinthreedimensionalspaceareallmethodswhichcanbeusedtoverifytheoutputvalues.
Summary
Geostatisticsisthestudyofhowdatavariesinspace.Itisaninexactsciencewhichisusedtomake
estimationsatlocationswherenodataexists.Itisimportanttorecognisethatvalidationofinputand
Page 11 of 189
Important Concepts Validate the Output Model
outputdataareasimportantasunderstandinggeostatisticaltheoryandtheestimationmethodbeing
used.
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2D Case Study: Grade Control Validate the Output Model
2DCaseStudy:GradeControl
Overview
ThisisasampleprojectwhichpresentsmanygeostatisticalconceptsinacommonworkflowinSurpac.
Therearemanydifferenttypesofdepositsandthetechniquesdemonstratedheremayormaynotbe
relevanttoyou.
Theconceptspresentedhereuseatwodimensionaldatasetrepresentinganareaofgradecontrol.You
shouldgothroughthisbeforemovingontothethreedimensionalcase.
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Domains Overview
Domains
Overview
Oneofthemostimportantaspectsofgeostatisticsistoensurethatanydatasetiscorrectlyclassified
intoasetofhomogenousdomains.Adomainiseithera2Dor3Dregionwithinwhichalldatais
related.Mixingdatafrommorethanonedomainornotclassifyingdataintocorrectdomainscanoften
bethesourceofestimationerrors.
Youwilllearnabout:
Theimpactofdomainsonestimatedvalues
ViewingandUsingDomains
Requirements
Inordertounderstandthisinformation,youshouldknowhowto:
displaySurpacstringfiles.
runaSurpacmacro.
Theimpactofdomainsonestimatedvalues
Imaginethatyouareameteorologist,andyouaregiventhreeairtemperaturesmeasuredatlocationsA,
B,andC,asdisplayedbelow.Basedonthevaluesshown,whatwouldyouguessthetemperatureisat
locationX?WouldyouguessthatthetemperatureatlocationXwasgreaterthan25?

Usingtheinformationabove,youmayhavethefollowingthoughts:
1. SincelocationAisrelativelydistantfromX,thevalueatAmayhavelittleornoinfluenceonthe
estimatedtemperatureatX.
2. SincelocationsBandCareaboutthesamedistancefromX,theywillprobablyhaveequal
influenceontheestimatedtemperature.
3. Giventheprevioustwopoints,thetemperatureatXwouldprobablybetheaverageofthe
temperaturesatBandC:(18+32)/2=25degrees
4. SincetheinfluenceofAhasnotbeenaccountedforatall,andtheestimateisexactly25degrees,
itisdifficulttosaywithcertaintyifthetemperatureatXisabove25degrees.
Page 14 of 189
Domains Viewing and Using Domains
Nowconsiderthefollowing:Imaginethatyouwanttogotoyourfavouritebeach,butonlyifthe
temperatureis25degreesormore.Youhavethreefriendswholivenearthebeachyouwanttogoto,
andyoucallthemupandaskeachonewhatthetemperatureisateachoftheirhomes.Youdrawthe
mapbelow,withthelocationsofeachfriend(A,B,andC)andthetemperaturestheygiveyou.Your
favouritebeachisatlocationX.NotethatthefriendatlocationBliveshighupinthemountains,while
friendsatAandClivenearthebeach.

Usingtheinformationabove,youmayhavethefollowingthoughts:
1. ThedatafromBcanbeignored,becausetemperatureshighupinthemountainsareusuallynot
goodestimatesoftemperaturesonthebeach.
2. AandCareonthebeach,sotheycanbeusedtoguessthetemperatureatX.
3. SinceXisbetweenAandConthemap,thetemperatureatXwillprobablybesomewhere
betweenthetemperatureatAandthetemperatureatC.
4. Therefore,thetemperatureatXwillbesomewherebetween28and32degrees
5. Sincethetemperaturerangeof28to32degreesisgreaterthantheminimumvalueof25degrees,
youwouldprobablydecideYes,Imgoingtothebeach!
Comparethisexamplewiththefirstone.Inbothcases,allofthelocationsandtemperaturesareexactly
thesame.However,inthesecondcase,whenyoutookaccountofthedomainwhichcontainsthedata,
youcameupwithaconsiderablydifferentresult.Thepointisthatseparatingdataintosimilarregions,
ordomains,isaveryimportantpartofmakinganygeostatisticalestimation.
ViewingandUsingDomains
Task:ViewDomains
1. Opengc130.swa.
Thisdatarepresentssomegradecontrolsamples,orezoneoutlines,andablockmodel(constrainedby
twoorezones)onasingleminingbench,orelevationof130.
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Task:Separatedataforeachdomain
Usingtheorezoneoutlinesasdomains,onlythosegradecontrolsampleswhichfallinsideeachorezone
shouldbeusedtoestimateblocksinsidethatorezone.
1. ResetGraphics.
2. Opengc130.str
3. Displayallstringsasmarkers.
4. Opengc_orezones130.str.
Noticethatgc130.strcontainsthesamplesfortheentirebench.

5. ChooseFiletools>Applyboundarystring.
6. Entertheinformationasshown,andthenclickApply.

7. ChooseFiletools>Applyboundarystring.
Page 16 of 189

9. ResetGraphics.
10. Opengc_zone1_130.str.
12. Opengc_zone2_130.str.
14. Opengc_orezones130.str.
Noticethatthesampleswithineachdomainarenowcontainedwithinseparatestringfiles.

Note:Thisprocessappliestotwodimensionsionaldomains.Thereisadifferentprocessforthree
dimensionaldata.
Ifyouhavedifficultywiththisprocess,run2d_01_apply_boundary.tcl.
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Summary
Youshouldnowunderstandtheimportanceofdomains,andhowtoseparatetwodimensionaldatainto
differentdomains.
Menucommands:
Filetools>Stringmaths
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Basic Statistics Overview
BasicStatistics
Overview
Oneoftheimportantpreliminarystepsinperformingageostatisticalevaluationistounderstandthe
statisticalpropertiesofthedata.Twocharacteristicswhichcanpotentiallyreducethequalityofyour
estimationsarebimodalismandoutliers.Ahistogramcanbeusedtoidentifybothofthese.
Youwilllearnabout:
Histograms
BimodalDistributions
CreatingaHistogram
Requirements
Inordertounderstandthisinformation,youshould:
befamiliarwithSurpacstringfiles
knowhowtorunaSurpacmacro
Histograms
Ahistogramisastatisticaltermwhichreferstoagraphoffrequencyvs.value.Ahistogramisthe
graphicalversionofatablewhichshowswhatproportionofcasesfallintoeachofseveralnon
overlappingintervalsofsomevariable.
Forexample,adistributionofgoldgradescouldberepresentedbythefollowingtable:
Gold(g/t) Numberofsamples
(frequency)
0.00.5 0
0.51.0 40
1.01.5 58
1.52.0 82
2.02.5 40
2.53.0 29
3.03.5 18
3.54.0 10
4.04.5 12
4.55.0 5
5.56.0 5
6.06.5 5
6.57.0 5
7.07.5 8
7.58.0 5
Page 19 of 189
Basic Statistics Bimodal Distributions
Thissamedatacanbedisplayedinahistogramasshown:
Themodeisthemostcommonlyoccurringvalueinadataset.Forexample,inthefollowingdataset,
thenumber8isthemode:
13558889
Bimodalmeansthattherearetworelativelymostcommonvalueswhicharenotadjacenttoone
another.Inthefollowingdataset,thenumbers2and8areequallycommon,andthedistributionissaid
tobebimodal:
12223558889
Imaginethatyouarestudyingtheaveragespecificgravity,ordensityofrocksinacoaldeposit.A
histogramofallrocksamplesmightlooklikethis:

Anyhistogramwhichdisplaystwohumps,asintheexampleabove,issaidtobebimodal.Thebimodal
distributionintheexampleabovecanbeexplainedbythefactthatthedatasetiscomprisedofcoal
samplesaswellasinterveningsandstoneandmudstonebands.Thespecificgravityvaluesbetween1
and2arerepresentativeofthecoal,whilespecificgravityvaluesbetween2and3representthe
interveningrock.
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Basic Statistics Creating a Histogram
Oftenthesourceofabimodaldistributioncanbetwodomainsbeingmixedintoasingledataset.In
ordertominimiseestimationerrors,youshouldmakeeveryattempttoseparateanydatasetwhichhas
abimodaldistribution.Intheexampleabove,merelysegregatingthedatabasedonrocktypewould
resultintwoseparatenormaldistributions.
CreatingaHistogram
Task:CreateaHistogramFromStringData
1. ChooseGeostatistics>Basicstatistics.
2. ChooseFile>Loaddatafromstringfiles.
3. Entertheinformationasshown,andthenclickApply:

Thehistogramandcumulativefrequencyaredisplayed:

4. ChooseDisplay>Histogram.
Page 21 of 189
Thehistogramisdisplayed:

5. ChooseFile>Saveas>Imagefile.

Theimage(asabove)issavedinthecurrentworkingdirectory.
7. ChooseStatistics>Report.

Thefilegc_zone1_130stats.notissavedinthecurrentworkingdirectory.Someofthedatainthisreport
isshownhere:
Output Filename: gc_zone1_130stats Statistics Report File Gc Zone1
130.str -----------------------------------------------------------
--- String range All Variable Gold Number of samples 85 Minimum
value 0.010000 Maximum value 43.530000 Ungrouped Data Grouped Data
Mean 6.490118 6.580588 Median 2.650000 2.843333 Geometric Mean
2.222684 2.797515 Variance 86.579051 86.136194 Standard Deviation
9.304786 9.280959 Coefficient of variation 1.433685 1.410354 Moment
1 About Arithmetic Mean 0.000000 0.000000 Moment 2 About Arithmetic
Mean 86.579051 86.136194 Moment 3 About Arithmetic Mean 1808.520391
1808.653160 Moment 4 About Arithmetic Mean 58094.981937
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58081.216880 Skewness 2.244937 2.262438 Kurtosis 7.750201 0.243772

Natural Log Mean 0.798716 1.028732 Log Variance 2.947087 1.816138
0.0 Percentile 0.000000 10.0 Percentile 0.170000 20.0 Percentile
0.470000 30.0 Percentile 1.160000 40.0 Percentile 1.880000 50.0
Percentile (median) 2.650000 60.0 Percentile 4.215000 70.0
Percentile 5.900000 80.0 Percentile 8.650000 90.0 Percentile
22.500000 95.0 Percentile 27.200000 97.5 Percentile 38.815000 99.0
Percentile 42.355000 100.0 Percentile 43.530000
9. ClosetheBasicStatisticsWindow
Note:Ifyouhavedifficultywiththisprocedure:
2. Run2d_02a_basic_statistics_histogram.tcl2d_02b_basic_statistics_logprobability.tcl.
Task:CreateaLogProbabilityPlotFromStringData
Page 23 of 189
ThehistogramandcumulativefrequencyaredisplayedfortheD1valuesingc130.str:

4. ChooseStatistics>Transformations.

Thehistogramandcumulativefrequencyforthetransformeddataaredisplayed:

6. ChooseDisplay>ProbabilityCurve.
Page 24 of 189
Thehistogramandcumulativefrequencyaredisplayed,asshown:

Note:TheLogProbabilitygraphwillbeastraightlineforatruelognormaldistribution.
7. ChooseFile>Saveas>Imagefile.

Theimage(asabove)issavedinthecurrentworkingdirectory.
9. ClosetheBasicStatisticsWindow.
2. Run2d_02b_basic_statistics_logprobability.tcl.
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Summary
Youshouldnowunderstandhowbasicstatisticscanbeusedtoidentifybimodaldistributionsand
outliers,andhowtocreateahistogramofstringfilevalues.
Menucommands:
Geostatistics>Basicstatistics
FromtheStatisticsWindow:
File>Loaddatafromstringfiles
Display>Histogram
Statistics>Report
File>Saveas>Imagefile
Statistics>Transformations
Display>ProbabilityCurve
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Outliers Overview
Outliers
Overview
Outliersaredatavaluesthataremuchhigher(ormuchlower)thanmostdatavaluesinasingledomain.
Foranumberofreasons,youshouldeither"cut"themdown(orup)tosomevalueorremovethem.
Youwilllearnabout:
OutliersandTopcuts
MethodsofDeterminingaTopcutValue
ApplyingaTopcut
Requirements
befamiliarwithSurpacstringfiles.
knowhowtorunaSurpacmacro.
OutliersandTopcuts
Anoutlierisastatisticaltermforavaluewhichissignificantlydifferentthanthemajorityofallother
valuesinthedataset.Forexample,inthefollowingdataset,thenumber236wouldbeconsideredtobe
anoutlier:
1355888236
Outlierscancause"noisy"experimentalvariograms,whicharedifficulttomodel.Additionally,ifusedin
anestimation,outlierscanresultinunrealisticresults.Onetechniqueusedtoreducetheimpactof
outliersistoapplyacutoff,or"topcut"tothem.Intheexampleabove,thevalueof236couldbe
cut,orchangedtoavalueof9:
13558889
Anotheralternativeistoremovetheoutliervalue(s).
MethodsofDeterminingaTopcutValue
Therearemanymethodswhichcanbeusedtodetermineatopcutvalue,whichuseconceptssuchas:
Histogram
Confidenceinterval
Percentile
Experience
Page 27 of 189
Outliers Topcutting Outliers
Histogram
Thepointatwhichthecumulativefrequencycurve"flattensout"canbeusedasthecutoff.Inthecase
belowthecurveappearstobefairlyflatatavalueof25.

Ahistogramcanalsohelpvisuallysubstantiatethechoiceofatopcutvalueobtainedbyothermeans.
Confidenceinterval
Aconfidenceintervalisanestimatedrangeofvalueswhichislikelytoincludeagivenpercentageofthe
datavalues,assumingthatthedataisnormallydistributed.Thecalculationfortheupperlimitofa95%
confidenceinterval(CI)is:
95%CI=mean+(1.96*standarddeviation)
Forexample,ifadatasethas:mean=6.49andstandarddeviation=9.30.
95%CI=6.49+(1.96*9.30)
95%CI=24.718
Forsimplicity,youcouldchoosetousethenearestintegervalueof9asyourcutoff.
Percentile
Apercentileisthatdatavalueatwhichagivenpercentageofallotherdatavaluesfallbelow.Anygiven
percentilevaluecouldbeselectedastheoutliercutoff,suchasthe90th,95th,or99thpercentile.For
example,youcouldchooseoneofthefollowing(fromthepreviousBasicStatisticsreport):
90.0Percentile:22.5
95.0Percentile:27.2
97.5Percentile:38.8
99.0Percentile:42.4
Experience
Topcutvaluesareoftenchosenbasedonknowledgeofadeposit.Forexample,ifpartofanorezonehas
beenmined,informationfromgradecontrolsamplesandreconciliationstudiesmayprovideagoodidea
ofwhatthemaximumminedblockvaluewillbe.Ifthedeposithasnotyetbeenmined,information
fromsimilardepositsmaybeusefulindeterminingtheoutliercutoff.
Page 28 of 189
Outliers Topcutting Outliers
TopcuttingOutliers
Theprocessofdeterminingatopcutisusuallymuchlongerandmoredifficultthanapplyingatopcutin
Surpac.Whatevermethodischosen,valuesinadescriptionfieldinastringfilecanbecutwiththeuseof
STRMATHS.
Task:ApplyingaTopcut
Youwillnowapplyatopcutvalueof25tothegoldvaluesintheD1fieldofthefilegc_zone1_130.str.
ChooseFiletools>Stringmaths.
EntertheinformationasshownandclickApply:

Theexpressionstates:
Ifthevalueofd1isgreaterthan25,
thensetthevalueofd1equalto25,
elseleavethevalueofd1asitis.
Summary
Youshouldnowunderstandhowtoselectandimplementanoutliercutoff.
Menucommands:
Filetools>StringmathsinvokesSTRMATHS.
Page 29 of 189
Anisotropy Overview
Anisotropy
Overview
Animportantaspectofperforminganygeostatisticalevaluationistounderstandhowdatavalueschange
withregardtodirection.Thetermanisotropydealswiththisconcept.
Youwilllearnabout:
1. Isotropyvs.anisotropy.
2. Geostatisticalestimationusingisotropy.
3. Geostatisticalestimationusinganisotropy.
4. Ellipsoidvisualiser.
Requirements
befamiliarwithSurpacstringfiles,andhowtodisplaythem
befamiliarwiththegeometricshapeanddepositionofeconomicgeologicaldeposits
understandtheconceptofacentroidofanindividualblockinablockmodel
Isotropyvs.Anisotropy
Inordertounderstandanisotropy,itishelpfultoknowwhatthetermisotropyrefersto.Hereisa
definitionofeach:
Isotropy:thepropertyofbeingisotropic;havingthesamevaluewhenmeasuredindifferentdirections
Anisotropy:thepropertyofbeinganisotropic;havingadifferentvaluewhenmeasuredindifferent
directions
Page 30 of 189
Anisotropy Isotropy vs. Anisotropy
Whenestimatingvaluesinablockmodel,theamountanddirectionofanisotropycanhaveasignificant
impactontheendresult.Forexample,thethreemodelsshownbelowwerecreatedfromthesamedata
set,butdifferentamountsofanisotropywereused.

NoAnisotropy 2:1Anisotropy
(Isotropic) Azimuth45

2:1Anisotropy 5:1Anisotropy
Azimuth135 Azimuth135
Task:DisplayBlockModelscreatedwithAnisotropy
1. Run2d_04_anisotropy.tcl
2. Clickingraphicsaftereachmodelisdisplayed.
IfyouusetheMacroplaybackbutton,youcanseeallvaluesontheformsbytickingSlowmotion
playback:

Ingeostatisticalterms,isotropy,oranisotropicconditionissaidtoexistwhentherateofchangeofdata
valuesisthesameinalldirections.Atrueisotropicconditioninthreedimensionsisrareformosttypes
ofdata.However,anisotropicconditionintwodimensionsismorecommon.Forexample,therateof
changeofaluminavaluesinalargehorizontalbauxitedepositbeneathrelativelyflattopographymaybe
isotropicintheXYplane.
Conversely,anisotropy,orananisotropicconditionissaidtoexistwhentherateofchangeofdatavalues
isdifferentindifferentdirections.Thisisprobablythemostcommoncase.Forexample,anepithermal
Page 31 of 189
Anisotropy Geostatistical Estimation Using Isotropy
goldveinmayhavedifferentratesofchangeineachofanythreemutuallyperpendiculardirections:
alongstrike,downdip,andperpendiculartothedipplane.
Theremainderofthischapterwilldealwiththeuseofisotropyandanisotropyinperforming
geostatisticalestimations.Tounderstandhowyoudeterminewhetheradatasetisisotropicor
anisotropic,andhowtocalculatethedirectionandamountofanisotropy,youwillneedtostudythe
chaptersonvariogramsandvariogrammaps.
GeostatisticalEstimationUsingIsotropy
Ingeostatisticalestimation(inversedistanceweighting,ordinarykriging,indicatorkriging,etc.),oneor
morepoints,usuallyrepresentingsamplelocations,areusedtoestimateavalueatalocationwhere
therearenosamples.Forexample,intheimagebelow,thesamplelocationsarerepresentedbytwo
pointsinaSurpacstringfile.Inthisstringfile,D1containsthesamplevalues(D1=10foronepoint,and
D1=20fortheotherpoint).Thelocationtobeestimatedisthecentreposition,or"centroid"ofa1x1x1
blockofmaterial.
Inthisexample,youwillassumethatalldataisintheXYplane(i.e.,thesamplepointsandtheblock
centroidallhavethesameZvalue).Youwillalsoassumethatyouareestimatingavalueattheblock
centroid(atcoordinates0N,0E),andthatonlythetwosamplesshownaregoingtobeusedforthe
estimation.Notethatbothsamplesarethesamedistance(3metres)fromtheblockcentroid.Ifyou
assumethatthematerialsurroundingtheblockandsamplesishomogenous(allthesame),youcan
assumethatthereisno"directionalcontinuity"withinthedata,andthetwosampleswillcontribute
equallytotheestimation.Anotherwayofstatingthisisthatthe"weight"appliedtobothsampleswillbe
equal.
Inthiscase,wherethereareonlytwosamplesbeingusedtoestimatethevaluefortheblock,the
"weight"foreachsamplewillbe0.5.Thecalculationoftheblockvaluewillbe:
(samplevalue1*weight1)+(samplevalue2*weight2)=blockvalue
(10*0.5)+(20*0.5)=15
Throughoutthistutorial,youwillassumethatthesumoftheweightsmustequal1.Inotherwords,
weight1+weight2=0.5+0.5=1.0
Whenyouassumethatthereisnodirectionalcontinuitywithinthedata,yousaythatyouhavean
"isotropic"condition.Intheexamplebelow,againassumingthatalldataisintheXYplane,anysample
whoselocationisonthecircleshownbelowwillbegiventhesameweightasanyothersampleonthat
circleduringtheestimationofthevalueoftheblockcentroid.Intwodimensions,whentheshape
definingthelineofequalweightsisacircle,youaresaidtobeperformingan"isotropic"estimation.
Page 32 of 189
Anisotropy Geostatistical Estimation Using Isotropy
Thismeansthatyouareassumingthatthedirectionfromthepointbeingestimatedtothesampleisnot
important,andthatonlythedistancefromthesampletotheblockcentroidisimportant.
Intheexampleabove,sinceallsamplelocationsarethesamedistancefromtheblockcentroid,all
sampleswillbegivenequalweight.Thecalculationoftheblockvaluewillbe:
(5*0.25)+(10*0.25)+(20*0.25)+(35*0.25)=17.5
Asmentionedbefore,thesumofalltheweightsmustbeequalto1.0:
0.25+0.25+0.25+0.25=1.0
Inthreedimensions,duringisotropicestimation,anysamplesfallingonthesurfaceofthesamesphere
willbegivenequalweight.
Intheexampleabove,allsamplelocationsareonthesurfaceofthesamesphere,andarethusthesame
distancefromtheblockcentroid.Inthisthreedimensionalexampleofanisotropiccondition,allsamples
willbegivenequalweight.Thecalculationoftheblockvaluewillbe:
(10*0.333)+(20*0.333)+(40*0.333)=23.333
Again,thesumofalltheweightsis1.0(assumingthat1/3+1/3+1/3expressedasdecimalsequals1):
0.333+0.333+0.333=0.999=1.0
InSurpac,whenyouareperforminganestimation,youwillbepromptedtofillinvaluesdefiningthe
orientationofthe"majoraxis"andthe"anisotropyratios".Youwillcoverthesetopicslater.Fornow,if
youwishtoperformanestimationassumingthatthedataisisotropic,usethefollowingvalues:
Page 33 of 189
Anisotropy Geostatistical Estimation Using Anisotropy
BEARINGOFMAJORAXIS:0(oranyvaluefrom0to360)
PLUNGEOFMAJORAXIS:0(oranyvaluefrom90to90)
DIPOFSEMIMAJORAXIS:0(oranyvaluefrom90to90)
MAJOR/SEMIMAJORANISOTROPYRATIO:1
MAJOR/MINORANISOTROPYRATIO:1
Toviewanexampleofanisotropicsphere:
1. Openisotropic_ellipsoid1.str.
2. DisplaytheD1valuesforstring1
Theisotropicellipsoidisdisplayed,withallaxeslabelled:

Theconceptsofmajoraxis,semimajoraxisandminoraxiswillbecoveredlater.Fornow,just
understandthatthelengthsofalloftheseaxesarethesameforanisotropicellipsoid.
GeostatisticalEstimationUsingAnisotropy
Aspreviouslystated,ananisotropicconditionissaidtoexistwhentherateofchangeofdatavaluesis
differentindifferentdirections.Thisisthecasefornearlyalldatasetswhichrepresentsamplestaken
fromtheearth.Anisotropicconditionscanresultfromgeologicalconditions,suchasfracturing,
depositionmethod,etc..Forexample,inplanview,thecorrelation,orsimilarity,ofsamplestakenalong
strikeinagoldbearingquartzveinmaybebetterthanthecorrelationofsamplestakenacrossstrike.Ina
sedimentarydeposit,suchasaflatlyingcoalseam,samplesmaybebettercorrelatedwithinthe
horizontalplanethanverticallythroughtheseam.Whenadatasethasanisotropy,thedirectionfrom
thepointbeingestimatedtoasamplelocationisimportant.
Page 34 of 189
Howmuchanisotropyispresentisalsoimportant.Thedeterminationofthemagnitudeofanisotropyfor
adatasetmaybedonequalitativelyorquantitatively(byintuitionorbynumericalcalculation).For
example,afterbecomingfamiliarwithasilverdepositconsistingofaverticalveintrendingeasttowest
(strike:90degrees,dip:90degrees)ageologistmaysaythat"there'sabout3timesmorecontinuity
alongstrike(horizontally)thanacrossstrike(horizontally)".Asroughandunsubstantiatedastatementas
thismayseem,manytimesthistypeofqualitativejudgementisactuallyusedingeostatistical
estimation.Inthiscase,youwouldsaythatthereisa"3to1anisotropyratio"inthehorizontalplane.
Thisiscommonlywrittenas"a3:1anisotropyratio".Thedirectionofmaximumcontinuityisreferredto
asthe"majoraxis".Inthesilverveinexample,themajoraxiscouldbedefinedasabearingofeither90
or270degreestheyareboththesameingeostatisticalterms.Intwodimensions,youcanrepresenta
3:1anisotropyratiowithamajoraxisbearing90degreeswithanellipse,suchasshownbelow:
Whenyouwanttouseanisotropyduringanestimation,thedirectionfromthelocationbeingestimated
tothesampleisimportant.Inthisexample,youwillassumethatthepointbeingestimatedisthe
centroidoftheblock,andthatonlytwosamples,asshownabove,aretobeusedtoestimateavaluefor
theblock.
Eventhoughthesamplewhosevalueis10is1metrefromtheblockcentroid,andthesamplewhose
valueis20is3metresfromtheblockcentroid,thetwosampleswouldbegiventhesameweightinthis
case.Thisisbecause"anisotropicdistances"areusedinthecalculationoftheweights,andnotactual
distances.Recallthatyouhaveindicatedthatthereisa3:1anisotropyratioandthebearingofthemajor
axisis90degrees.Samplesorientedduenorthorsouthoftheblock,suchasthesamplewhosevalueis
10,willhavetheiranisotropicdistancescalculatedastheactualdistance(1,inthiscase)multipliedby
theanisotropyratio(3,inthiscase).Thus,theanisotropicdistancecalculatedforthesamplewhose
valueis10willbe:
ActualDistancexAnisotropyRatio=AnisotropicDistance
1x3=3
Thiscalculationisdisplayedinthefollowingtableforbothsamples:
Sample Sample Actual Anisotropy Anisotropic Weight
Value Bearing Distance Factor Distance
10 0 1 3 3 0.5
20 90 3 1 3 0.5
Sincetheanisotropicdistancesarethesame,theweightsforthepointswillbethesame.Thecalculation
oftheblockvaluewillbe:
(10*0.5)+(20*0.5)=15
Page 35 of 189
Ifthesamplewhosevalueis10ismovedtoapositionatY=3,X=0,andyouagainusea3:1anisotropy
ratiowiththebearingofthemajoraxisat90degrees(or270degrees),asshownbelow,theweights
assignedtobothsampleswillchange.
Theanisotropicdistanceofthesamplewhosevalueis10willnowbe9:ActualDistance(3)XAnisotropy
Ratio(3)=AnisotropicDistance(9).Thiscalculationisdisplayedinthefollowingtableforbothsamples.
Sample Sample Actual Anisotropy Anisotropic Weight
Value Bearing Distance Factor Distance
10 0 3 3 9 0.25
20 90 3 1 3 0.75
Theweightsofthesampleswillnowbechangedtoreflectthenewanisotropicdistances.Thecalculation
oftheblockvaluewillnowbe:
(10*0.25)+(20*0.75)=17.5
Notethatthecalculationoftheweightshereisonlyapproximatetodemonstratetheeffectsof
anisotropy.Inactualpractice,thegeostatisticalmethodyoudecidetousewillimpactthevaluesofthe
weights.
Assumingthatourgeologisthasanotheropinionthat"thereisabout2timesmorecontinuity
horizontallyalongstrikethanvertically(upanddown)withintheplaneofthevein",youwouldsaythat
thereisa"2:1anisotropyratio"intheverticalYZplane.Intwodimensions,anellipserepresentstheline
whereweightsareequal.Inthreedimensions,thisshapeiscalledan"ellipsoid".Sonowyouhavea3:1
anisotropyratiointhehorizontalXYplane,anda2:1anisotropyratiointheverticalYZplane.You
distinguishbetweentheseratiosbydefiningthreeaxesfortheellipsoid:
Majoraxis
Semimajoraxis
Minoraxis
Page 36 of 189
Bydefinition,themajoraxisisthelongest,thesemimajoraxisisthesecondlongest,andtheminoraxis
istheshortest.Also,allthreeaxesaremutuallyperpendiculartooneanother.
Theratiobetweenthelengthofthemajoraxisandthelengthofthesemimajoraxisisdefinedasthe
MAJOR/SEMIMAJORANISOTROPYRATIO.Theratiobetweenthelengthofthemajoraxisandthelength
oftheminoraxisisdefinedastheMAJOR/MINORANISOTROPYRATIO.
Whenyouperformanestimation,andwanttousethreedimensionalanisotropy,anysamplesfallingon
thesurfaceofthesameellipsoidwillbegivenequalweight.Intheexamplebelow,allsamplelocations
areonthesurfaceofthesameellipsoid,andso,areallconsideredtobethesameanisotropicdistance
fromtheblockcentroid:
Withtheaxesorientedasabove,aswellasamajor/semimajoranisotropyratioof2,andamajor/minor
anisotropyratioof3,thecalculationoftheweightsforthedataasshownwillbe:
Axis Sample Sample Sample Actual Anisotropy Anisotropic Weight
Value Bearing Dip Distance Factor Distance
Major 5 90 0 3 1 3 0.333
Semi 10 180 0 1.5 2 3 0.333
Major
Minor 25 0 90 1 3 3 0.333
Sincetheanisotropicdistancesarethesame,theweightsforthepointswillbethesame.Thecalculation
oftheblockvaluewillbe:
(5*0.333)+(10*0.333)+(25*0.333)=13.3333
0.333+0.333+0.333=0.999=1.0
Page 37 of 189
Anisotropy Ellipsoid Visualiser
Ifthedistancefromtheblockcentroidtoeachsampleisnowthesame,theweightswillchange.For
example,intheviewbelow,thedistancefromeachsampletotheblockcentroidisnow3,butyouare
stillusingthesameanisotropyellipsoid:
Thecalculationoftheweightswillbeasfollows:
Axis Sample Sample Sample Actual Anisotropy Anisotropic Weight
Value Bearing Dip Distance Factor Distance
Major 5 90 0 3 1 3 0.5
Semi 10 180 0 3 2 6 0.333
Major
Minor 25 0 90 3 3 9 0.1666
Thecalculationoftheblockvaluewillbe:
(5*0.5)+(10*0.333)+(25*0.1666)=7.75
0.5+0.333+0.1666=0.999=1.0
EllipsoidVisualiser
Usingourpreviousexamplewhereyouhaveamajor/minoranisotropyratioof3,andamajor/semi
majoranisotropyratioof2,youwouldgetanellipsoid,butyouneedtoestablishtheorientationofthe
ellipsoid.InSurpac,thiscanbeaccomplishedinseveraldifferentways,includingtheSurpacmethod.
TheexampleswhichfollowusetheSurpacmethod,whichencompassesthefollowingthreeterms:
Term Min Max Description
Bearingofmajoraxis 0 360 azimuthofmajoraxisinXYplane
Plungeofmajoraxis 90 90 dipaboveorbelowhorizontalplane
Dipofsemimajor 90 90 rotationofsemimajoraxisaroundmajor
axis axis
Theellipsoidvisualiserisatoolwhichcanassistyoutounderstandtheorientationoftheanisotropy
ellipsoid.Youwillnowuseittocreateseveralanisotropyellipsoids,andsavethemasSurpacstringfiles.
Task:DisplayAnisotropyusingtheEllipsoidvisualiser
1. ChooseGeostatistics>Ellipsoidvisualiser.
Page 38 of 189
Theellipsoidvisualiserisdisplayed:

Foreachexamplebelow:
1. Enterthevaluesofbearing,plunge,anddip.
2. Clickanddragtheimageoftheellipsoidtorotateit.
Example#1:
Thisellipsoidcouldbeusedtoestimategoldvalueswithinaverticalveinthathasstrike:90degreesand
dip:90degrees.
Bearingofmajoraxis 90
Plungeofmajoraxis 0
Dipofsemimajoraxis 90
Major/semimajoranisotropyratio 2
Major/minoranisotropyratio 3
Page 39 of 189
3DView LookingdownonXYplane
major/minoranisotropyratio:
3

LookingnorthatXZplane LookingwestatYZplane
major/semimajoranisotropy dipofsemimajoraxis:90
ratio:2

Example#2:
Thisellipsoidcouldbeusedtoestimatevalueswithinahorizontalcoalseamorotherdatafromflatlying
sedimentaryrocks,wherecontinuitywithintheseamisthesameintheXYplane(major/semimajor
anisotropyratio:1),butthecontinuityissignificantlylessintheverticaldirection.
Plungeofmajoraxis 0
major/semimajoranisotropy
ratio:1
Page 40 of 189

dipofsemimajoraxis:0 major/minoranisotropy
ratio:5

Example#3:
Thisellipsoidcouldbeusedtoestimatevaluesfromakimberliticdiatreme,ordiamondbearing"pipe"
typeorebody,whichplungestothesouthatadipof60degreesbelowthehorizontal.
Plungeofmajoraxis 60
major/semimajoranisotropy
ratio:3

Page 41 of 189

LookingnorthatXZ LookingwestatYZplane
plane
major/minoranisotropy
dipofsemimajoraxis: ratio:3
0
Page 42 of 189
Example#4:
Thisellipsoidcouldbeusedtoestimatevaluesfromanepithermalvein,withstrikeof50degreesanddip
tothesoutheastof60degreesbelowthehorizontal,wherecontinuitywithintheveinisthesameinall
directions(major/semimajoranisotropyratio:1).
Plungeofmajoraxis 0

Page 43 of 189
Example#4(continued):
Lookinghorizontallyalongstrike:az50degrees, Lookingdowndip:azimuth140degrees,dip60
dip0
notemajoraxisisalongstrike,semimajoris
Notedipofsemimajoraxisis60degrees downdip
major/semimajoranisotropyratio:1 major/minoranisotropyratio:3

Summary
Youshouldnowunderstandthefollowingterms:
Isotropy
Anisotropy
Anisotropicellipsoid
Majoraxis
Semimajoraxis
Minoraxis
Major/Semimajoranisotropyratio
Major/Minoranisotropyratio
Anisotropicdistance
Sampleweight
Also,youshouldunderstandhowanisotropyratiosandorientationoftheanisotropyellipsoidimpacts
thecalculationofanisotropicdistances,andthereforetheweightusedforsamplesinestimatingavalue
atablockcentroid.
Understandingandvisualisingananisotropyellipsoidandhowitimpactsuponanestimationisnosimple
task.Itmaytakesometime,moreresearch,and/orexperiencewithseveraldatasetstograspthe
conceptspresentedhere.
Menucommands:
Geostatistics>Ellipsoidvisualiser
Page 44 of 189
Variogram Concepts Overview
VariogramConcepts
Overview
Animportantaspectofperforminganygeostatisticalevaluationistounderstandhowdatavalueschange
overdistanceanddirection.Avariogramisagraphicaltoolwhichcanbeusedtodescribethese
concepts.
Youwilllearnabout:
1. Basicvariogramconcepts
2. Variogramcalculation
3. Theimpactofmodifyingthelagdistance
4. Omnidirectionalvariograms
5. Directionalvariograms
Requirements
understandbasicstatisticalconceptssuchasmeanandvariance.
BasicVariogramConcepts
Avariogramisagraphthatcomparesdifferencesbetweensamplesagainstdistance:
Page 45 of 189
Variogram Concepts BasicVariogram Concepts
Nugget
Ifyousplitasinglesample,andsendittotwodifferentlabs,veryoftenyouwillgettwodifferentvalues.
Thus,atasampleseparationdistanceofzero,thereissomedifference.Thisdifferenceiscalledthe
nugget,alsoabbreviatedasc(0).Thenuggetvalueisnotedasadifferenceatasampleseparation
distanceofzero:

Thetermnuggetcomesfromasituationthatoftenoccursincoarsegolddepositswhereasampleis
split,andonehalfcontainsagoldnugget,whiletheotherhalfdoesnotcontainanygold.Although
differencesbetweensamplesplitsisoftenresponsibleforthis,humanerrorcanalsobeafactor.
Errorsoccurinsampling,inthelab,andduringdataentry.Anyorallofthesecancontributetothe
nugget.Althoughtheseareasarebeyondthescopeofthistutorial,youshouldbeawareofthem,and
theirimpactonthenuggetandsubsequentgeostatisticalevaluations.
Sill
Ifyoucomparetwosamplessomedistanceapart,youwouldexpectthedifferencetobegreaterthan
sampleswhichareclosertogether.Theportionofthegraphofthevariogramwhichrisesupandtothe
rightofthenuggetpointrepresentsthissituation.
Atsomepoint,thedifferencebetweenthesamplescannotgetanygreater.Forexample,themaximum
samplevalueminustheminimumsamplevaluegivesusthegreatestdifferencebetweensamples.On
thevariogram,thismaximumdifferenceisdisplayedastheflatportionofthegraph.
Twovaluesdescribethepointatwhichthevariogramreachesitsmaximumvaluethesillandthe
range.

Thesill(sometimesabbreviatedastheletterC),asshownabove,isthedifferencebetweenthe
maximumdifferenceandthenugget.Thetermnuggettosillratioisusedtodescribewhatpercentage
ofthetotalsillthenuggetcomprises,andiscalculatedas:
Page 46 of 189
Variogram Concepts Variogram Calculation
nuggettosillratio=nugget/(nugget+sill)
Range
Thedistanceatwhichthesillisattainedisreferredtoastherange:

Therange(sometimesabbreviatedastheletterA)representsthemaximumdistancewhichsample
pairscanbesaidtohavesomerelationshiptotheirseparationdistance.Beyondtherange,thereisno
relationship.
VariogramCalculation
Tocalculateavariogram,adatasetisgroupedintopairs,whichareseparatedbyagivendistance,or
lag.Then,thenthefollowingcalculationisperformedonallsamplesineachbin:
sumof(differencebetweensamplevalues)2
gamma(h)=2xnumberofpairs
Todemonstratethis,youwillusethedatabelow.Assumethatthevaluesrepresentsamplestakenat1
metreintervalsalonganorthsouthline:
3
3
4
6
7
5
5
3
TocreatethevariogramgraphofDistancevs.Difference,youfirstdecideuponalagdistance,orlag
interval.Youthengroupthedataintosamplepairswhichfallintoeachlaginterval.Forthefirstlag
intervalof1,yougetthedatapairsof33,34,46,etcThedifferencebetweenthetwovaluesis
squared,andthesumofallsquareddistancesiscalculated:
Lag=1
Pair PairValues Difference Squareddifference
1 33 0 0
2 34 1 1
3 46 2 4
Page 47 of 189
Lag=1
4 67 1 1
5 75 2 4
6 55 0 0
7 53 2 4
sum: 14
gamma(h)=sumofsquareddifferences/2xnumberofpairs=14/2x7=1.0
Next,allsamplesseparatedbylagdistancesof2arepairedoff,andthecalculationisperformedagain:
Lag=2
1 34 1 1
2 36 3 9
3 47 3 9
4 65 1 1
5 75 2 4
6 53 2 4
sum: 28
Theresultsoflagdistancesof3,4,and5arebelow:
Lag=3
1 36 3 9
2 37 4 16
3 45 1 1
4 65 1 1
5 73 4 16
sum: 43
Lag=4
1 37 4 16
2 35 2 4
3 45 1 1
4 63 3 9
sum: 30
Lag=5
Page 48 of 189
Lag=5
1 35 2 4
2 35 2 4
3 43 1 1
sum: 9
Alloftheresultsandlagdistancesarethencompiled:
Lag gamma(h)
(distance) (difference)
1 1
2 2.3
3 4.3
4 3.8
5 1.5
Agraphoftheresultslookslikethis:

ExperimentalVariogram
Page 49 of 189
Variogram Concepts The Impact of Modifying the Lag Distance
Thisgraphofcalculatedgamma(h)valuesversuslagdistanceisreferredtoasanexperimental
variogram.Thisisusedtocalculatethevariogramdisplayedinthepreviousversionavariogram
model.Thevariogrammodelcanbedescribedbyamathematicalequation,andissubjecttothe
interpretationofthepersonwhoisanalysingthedata.Avariogrammodel,asshownintheprevious
section,startsatanugget,increasesbythesillatapointdefinedbytherange,thencontinuesinfinitely
totherightatthetotalsillvalue.Avariogrammodelhasbeenfittotheexperimentalvariogrambelow:

VariogramModelfittedtoExperimentalVariogram
Inthisexample,allrelevantparametersofthemodelwouldberecorded:
Nugget:0.2
Sill:4.0
Range:3.0
Nugget/Sillratio=0.2/(0.2+4.0)=0.05
TheImpactofModifyingtheLagDistance
Althoughthepreviousexamplegeneratedawellformedexperimentalvariogram,oftenitisnecessaryto
modifythelagdistancetoobtainsuchagoodlookingvariogram.Inthepreviousexample,alaginterval
of1wasused.ThetermLag=1actuallymeantallsamplepairswhoseseparationdistanceisbetween
0.001and1;Lag=2meantallsamplepairswhoseseparationdistanceisbetween1.001and2;
Lag=3meantallsamplepairswhoseseparationdistanceisbetween2.001and3.
Todemonstratetheimpactofthevaluechosenforthelag,youwillrecalculatethevariograminthe
previousexample,butusingalagintervalof2.Youwillcalculatethreelagbins:
Lag=2samplepairswhoseseparationdistanceisbetween0and2
Lag=4samplepairswhoseseparationdistanceisbetween2.001and4.
Lag=6samplepairswhoseseparationdistanceisbetween4.001and6.
Page 50 of 189
Hereagainisthedata,representingsamplestakenat1metreintervalsalonganorthsouthline:
3
3
4
6
7
5
5
3
Forthe02lagbin,younowgetthedatapairsbelow:
Lag=2
1 33 0 0
2 34 1 1
3 34 1 1
4 36 3 9
5 46 2 4
6 47 3 9
7 67 1 1
8 65 1 1
9 75 2 4
10 75 2 4
11 55 0 0
12 53 2 4
13 53 2 4
sum: 42
Forthe24lagbin,younowgetthedatapairsbelow:
Lag=4
1 36 3 9
2 37 4 16
3 37 4 16
4 35 2 4
5 45 1 1
6 45 1 1
7 65 1 1
8 63 3 9
Page 51 of 189
9 73 4 16
sum: 73
Lag=6
1 35 2 4
2 35 2 4
3 35 2 4
4 43 1 1
5 33 0 0
sum: 13
Alloftheresultsandlagdistancesarethencompiledandgraphed:
Lag gamma(h)
(distance) (difference)
2 1.6
4 4.1
6 1.3

ExperimentalVariogramswithlagsof1(solid)and2(dashed)
Page 52 of 189
Variogram Concepts Omnidirectional Variograms
OmnidirectionalVariograms
Thevariograminthepreviousexercisewasanexampleofadirectionalvariogram.Allsamplesused
werealignednorthsouth.Anothertypeofvariogramisknownasanomnidirectionalvariogram.In
thistype,thepairsareselectedbasedonlyontheirseparationdistance,andnotontheorientationof
thepairs.
Theexamplebelowdemonstrateshowsamplepairswouldbeselectedforadataset.Allsamplesareon
a1x1grid,andlagvaluesof1,2,and3areused.Themannerwhichthesoftwaredeterminespairsis
this:
1. Movetothefirstpoint.
2. Determinewhichotherpointsinthedatasetarewithinthefirstlagtolerancedistancefromthis
point,andaddthesepairstothefirstlagbin(Lag=1).
3. Determinewhichpointsnotselectedarewithinthesecondlagtolerancedistancefromthispoint,
andaddthemtothesecondlagbin(Lag=2).
4. Repeatuntilallpointshavebeenputintoalagbin.
5. Movetothenextpoint.
6. Removethepreviouspointfromconsideration.
7. RepeatstepsBtoFuntilallpointshavebeenconsidered.
Inanomnidirectionalvariogram,theorientationofthesamplepairsisirrelevant.Forexample,sample
pair12isorientedeastwest,samplepair14isorientednorthsouth,andyetbothpairsareusedfor
theLag=1bin.

Lagselectioncircles
Samplepairsselectedforeachlaginanomnidirectionalvariogram
Lag=1 Lag=2 Lag=3
12 13 16
14 15 34
23 24
25 26
36 35
45 46
56
Note:Theexamplehereistwodimensional.Inthreedimensions,thesearchfromeachpointtakesthe
shapeofasphere.
Page 53 of 189
Variogram Concepts Directional Variograms
DirectionalVariograms
Adirectionalvariogramisoneinwhichallsamplepairsareorientedinaparticulardirection.Inthefirst
example,allsampleswerealignednorthsouth.Therewasnootherpossibleorientationforthesample
pairstotake,sotheonlyvariogrampossiblewasadirectionalvariogram.
However,inmostdatasets,thereareamultitudeofdatapairorientations.Inadirectionalvariogram,
thesoftwareselectsonlythosedatapairswhichareorientedinaparticularmanner,plusorminussome
angulartolerance.InSurpac,thisangulartoleranceisknownasthespread.
Theexamplebelowdemonstrateshowsamplepairswouldbeselectedforadataset,usinganortheast
southwestorientationof45degrees,plusorminusaspreadtoleranceof22.5degreeseithersideofthat
direction.Thus,ifasamplepairisorientedbetween22.5and67.5degrees(or202.5and247.5degrees),
itwillbeincludedinthecalculation.
Allsamplesareona1x1grid,andlagvaluesof1,2,and3areused.Themannerinwhichthesoftware
determinespairsisshownbelow:
a.Movetothefirstpoint.
2. Determinewhichotherpointsinthedatasetarewithinthefirstlagtolerancedistancefromthis
pointANDwithintheangulartolerances,andaddthesepairstothefirstlagbin(Lag=1).
3. Determinewhichpointsnotyetselectedarewithinthesecondlagtolerancedistancefromthis
pointANDwithintheangulartolerances,andaddthemtothesecondlagbin(Lag=2).
4. Movetothenextpoint.
5. Removethepreviouspointfromconsideration.
6. RepeatstepsBtoFuntilallpointshavebeenconsidered.
Inadirectionalvariogram,theorientationofthesamplepairsisimportant.Forexample,samplepairs1
2and14arebothwithinthefirstlagtolerance,butneitherarewithintheangulartoleranceof45
degreesplusorminus22.5degrees.Infact,thereareonlythreedatapairsintheentiredatasetwhich
haveanorientationthatiswithinthedefinedlimits.Thesearethedatapairs:24,34,and35.

Lagselectioncircleswithdirectionaltolerancesearch
Samplepairsselectedforeachlagforadirectionalvariogram(orientation45+/22.5)
Lag=1 Lag=2 Lag=3
24 34
35
Asyoucansee,usingdirectionalvariogramsreducesthenumberofsamplepairs.Asthetoleranceangle
decreases,sodoesthenumberofpairs.Ifatoleranceangleistoosmall,thequalityoftheexperimental
variogrammaybereducedtothepointthatamodelcannotbefittedwithanyconfidence.Ifthe
toleranceangleistoolarge,theconceptofadirectionalvariogramcouldbequestioned.
Page 54 of 189
Variogram Concepts Directional Variograms
Notethattheexamplehereistwodimensional.Inthreedimensions,thesearchfromeachpointtakes
theshapeofacone.Additionally,Surpachastheoptiontorestricttheradiusoftheconetoamaximum
viatheuseofaspreadlimit.Thishastheeffectofturningthesearchconeintoacylinderwiththe
radiusofthespreadlimit.
Page 55 of 189
Calculating an Experimental Variogram Overview
CalculatinganExperimentalVariogram
Overview
Anexperimentalvariogramiscalculatedfrompairsofdatapointswhichcanbelimitedtothosewhich
arealignedinaspecificorientation(directional),orwithoutlimitingthemtoadirection
(omnidirectional).Theexperimentalvariogramisusedasthebasisforcreatingavariogrammodel.In
ordertocreateavariogrammodel,theexperimentalvariogrammustappearrelativelysmooth.
Adjustingthelagdistancecanhelptocreateasmoothvariogram.Ifthedatacontainsoutliers,orasmall
numberofdatapoints,theexperimentalvariogramcanappearjagged,or"noisy".Itoftentakesseveral
iterationsandcombinationsofparameterstocreateexperimentalvariogramswhichareacceptablefor
modelling.
Youwilllearnabout:
Calculatingomnidirectionalanddirectionalvariograms
Changingthedisplay
Savingavariogram
Requirements
understandbasicvariogramconcepts,suchasnugget,sill,andlag.
understandthedifferencebetweenomnidirectionalanddirectionalvariograms
Task:Createandviewexperimentalvariograms
ThisexampledemonstrateshowtocalculateomnidirectionalanddirectionalvariogramsfromtheD1
fieldofthefilegc_zone1_cut130.str.
1. ChooseGeostatistics>Variogrammodelling.
Page 56 of 189
Calculating an Experimental Variogram Requirements
OntheBasictab,entertheinformationasshown:

Note:Tocalculateanomnidirectionalvariogram,settheSpreadto90.
Page 57 of 189
OntheAdvancedtab,entertheinformationasshown,andthenclickApply:

Theomnidirectionalvariogramwillappearonthefirstoffourtabs:

2. Clickeachtabtodisplaythevariogramforthatorientation.
3. ChooseDisplay>Setaxislimits.
Page 58 of 189

5. ChooseDisplay>Display/Hidelagintervals.
Thelagintervalswillappear:

6. Rightclickanywhereonthevariogramwindow,andthenselectTileWindows.
Page 59 of 189
Allvariogramswillappeartiled:

7. Changethelagby:
clickinganddraggingthelagslider.
clickingthelagincrement/decrementarrowsoneithersideofthelagslider.
pressingtherightarroworleftarrowkeysonthekeyboard.
Noticethatthevariogramshapeandthelagintervalswillchange:

Note:Changingthelagisoneofthemostcommonwaystoattempttogeta"goodlooking"
variogram.
8. ChooseVariogram>Experimentalvariogramlag.

10. ChooseDisplay>Display/Hidelagintervalstoremovethelagintervals.
Page 60 of 189
11. Rightclickanywhereonanyvariogramchart,andselectTabWindows.

12. Selectthetablabelled0>0(90).
Theomnidirectionalvariogramisdisplayed.

13. SelectDisplay>Allorientationschart
Page 61 of 189
Calculating an Experimental Variogram Types of Experimental Variograms
Allexperimentalvariogramsaredisplayedtogether.

14. ChooseFile>Save>Experimentalvariogram.

16. ChooseFile>Closetoexitthevariogrammodellingwindow.
Ifyouhadanydifficultyperformingthesefunctions,run2d_05a_experimental_variogram.tcl.
TypesofExperimentalVariograms
Onceanexperimentalvariogramhasbeencalculated,itcanbetransformedbyseveraldifferent
methods.
Task:Changethevariogramtype
1. Openomni.evg.
2. ChooseVariogram>Type.
3. SelectLogarithmic,andthenclickApply.
Note:Notonlydoestheshapeofthevariogramchange,butthegamma(h)valuesarealsomodified.
Ifthevarianceofthedatawasdisplayed,itisnowremoved.
5. SelectGeneralRelativeandthenclickApply.
Note:Althoughtheshapeinthiscaseisidenticaltothenormalvariogram,butthegamma(h)values
aredifferent.Theyhavebeendividedbythevalueofthevarianceofthedataset.
7. SelectPairwiseRelativeandthenclickApply.
Page 62 of 189
Calculating an Experimental Variogram Types of Experimental Variograms
Notethattheshapeinthiscaseisdifferenttothenormalandgeneralrelative,andthegamma(h)values
aredifferentagain.

Logarithmicvariogram
Inthistypeofavariogram,logarithmsoftherawdataareusedtocalculatetheexperimentalvariogram.
Anynegativeorzerorawdatavaluesarefirstsettosmallpositivevaluesbeforealogarithmic
transformationisapplied.Ifthedistributionofyourdataislogarithmic,ornearlogarithmic,anda
reasonablefitcannotbeobtainedfromanormalvariogram,alogarithmicvariogramcanpotentiallygive
ausablevaluewhichcanbeusedfortherangeofanormalvariogram.
Iflocalvalueswithinthepopulationareaffectedbythelocalvariance,aconditioncalledaproportional
effectissaidtoexist.Relativevariogramscanbemoreusefulthannormalvariogramsifa
proportionaleffectexists.
GeneralRelativevariogram
Inthistypeofavariogram,eachgamma(h)isdividedbythesquaredmeanofallsamplesusedto
estimatethatgamma(h).
PairwiseRelativevariogram
Inthistypeofvariogram,thesquareddifferenceofeachsamplepairisdividedbythesquareofthe
meanofeachsamplepair.Asforthelogarithmicvariogram,unitsalongtheY(gamma(h))axishaveno
meaningbuttherelativevariogramsmayservetoidentifyrangesandstructures
Note:Theapplicationofthesetypesofvariogramsisanadvancedtopic.Ifyouwishtoobtainmore
informationonthese,youshouldobtaininstructionfromaqualifiedgeostatisticalconsultant.
Page 63 of 189
Calculating an Experimental Variogram Summary
Ifyouhadanydifficultyperformingthesefunctions,run2d_05b_variogram_types.tcl.
Summary
Youshouldnowunderstandhowtocreateomnidirectionalanddirectionalexperimentalvariograms,and
howtomodifytheviewofthevariograms.
Menucommands:
Geostatistics>VariogrammodellingopenstheVariogramModellingWindow.
FromtheVariogramModellingWindow:
Variogram>Newstringfilevariogramcalculatesoneormorevariograms
Display>SetaxislimitssetstheXandYvaluesofthevariogramgrapharea
Display>Lagintervalstogglesthelagintervalsonandoff
Variogram>Experimentalvariogramlagsetsthelagexactly
Variogram>Modelcreatesanewmodeland/orallowsediting(click&dragthebluedots)
File>Save>Experimentalvariogramandmodelcreates*.EVGand*.VGMfiles
Page 64 of 189
Modelling a Variogram Overview
ModellingaVariogram
Overview
ThereareanumberoftoolstohelpyoumodelavariograminSurpac.
Youwilllearnabout:
Creatingabestfitvariogrammodel
Savingvariogramdata
Modifyingthelag
Typesofexperimentalvariograms
Typesofvariogrammodels
Multiplestructures
Variogrammodellingtips
Requirements
understandbasicvariogramconcepts,suchasnugget,sill,andlag,andmultiplestructures.
Task:Openanexperimentalvariogramandmodel
1. Openomni.evgfromthenavigatorinthemainSurpacWindow.
2. Practiceusingthelagsliderattheupperrightportionofthevariogramwindow.
Recallthatthemaximum,minimum,andincrementalvaluesweresetontheAdvancedtab,andthatthe
rightandleftarrowkeysonyourkeyboardwillincrementanddecrementthelagby0.1

3. ChooseVariogram>Model.
Page 65 of 189
Modelling a Variogram Requirements
Themodelisdisplayed:

Note:Themodeldisplayedisabestfitmodeltotheexperimentalvariogramdata.
4. Clickanddrageitherofthe"variogramstructures"(lightbluedots)tochangetheshapeofthe
model.
5. ChooseDisplay>Display/Hidenumberofpairs.
Note:Experimentaldatapointswithrelativelylownumberofpairscanbeignored.
6. ChooseVariogram>Addstructure.
7. Clickanddragthe"variogramstructures"tofitthedataasshown:

Noticethatthevariogramparametersareupdatedasyoumovethestructures.
8. ChooseVariogram>Report.
Page 66 of 189
Modelling a Variogram Types of Variogram models

Variogramreport
Note:Thesumofthenuggetandallsillvaluesequalsthetotalsill.
Thefileomni.notiscreatedinthecurrentworkingdirectory.
10. ChooseFile>Save>Variogrammodel.

12. ChooseFile>Closetoclosethevariogrammodellingwindow.
Ifyouhavedifficultywiththisprocess,run2d_06a_variogram_modelling.tcl.
TypesofVariogrammodels
1. Openomni.evg.
2. Openomni.vgm

5. ChooseVariogram>Variogrammodeltype>Exponential.
6. ChooseVariogram>Variogrammodeltype>Gaussian.
7. ChooseVariogram>Deletestructure.
8. ChooseVariogram>Variogrammodeltype>HoleEffect.
9. Clickanddragthestructuresasshownbelow.
Page 67 of 189
Modelling a Variogram Variogram modelling tips
SphericalModel ExponentialModel
GaussianModel HoleEffectModel
10. ChooseFile>Close.
Ifyouhavedifficultywiththisprocess,run2d_06b_variogram_model_types.tcl.
Variogrammodellingtips
Modellingavariogramisnotanexactscience.However,hereareafewtips:
Trytomodelthetrend.Onewaytoseethetrendofthedataistocreateavariogrammodel
(theredline),thendragthelagsliderbackandforth.Themodelshouldfitthedatareasonably
wellforafewdifferentlags.
Considerthegeologyofthedomain.Doesthemodelyoucomeupwithlookreasonableforyour
data?Isthenuggeteffecthighorlow?Istherangeaboutwhatyouexpected?Ifnot,perhaps
youshouldreconsiderthedatadomains.
SearchtheInternet.Therearemanyonlineresourceswithexplanationsofvariograms,variogram
calculations,andresultsofparticulardatasets.
Page 68 of 189
Modelling a Variogram Variogram modelling tips
Askaconsultant.Althoughtheyaregenerallynotfree,geostatisticalconsultantsareperhapsthe
bestsourceofgeostatisticaladvice.
Summary
Youshouldnowunderstandhowtocreate,view,andmodifyvariogrammodels.
Menucommands:
Geostatistics>VariogrammodellingopenstheVariogramModellingWindow.
FromtheVariogramModellingWindow:
File>Open>Variogram
Variogram>Variogrammodeltype>Exponential
Variogram>Variogrammodeltype>Gaussian
Variogram>Deletestructure
Variogram>Variogrammodeltype>HoleEffect
Page 69 of 189
Variogram Maps Overview
VariogramMaps
Overview
Animportantaspectofperforminganygeostatisticalevaluationistounderstandtheanisotropyofthe
data,orwhichdirectionhasthelongestcontinuity,andhowdatavalueschangewithregardtothat
direction,aswellasthetwomutuallyperpendiculardirections.
AvariogrammapisatoolwithinSurpacwhichallowsyoutovisualiseanisotropyinaplane,andcalculate
anisotropyellipsoidparametersforuseinestimation.
Youwilllearnabout:
Primaryvariogrammap.
Secondaryvariogrammap.
Calculationofanisotropyellipsoidparameters.
Requirements
knowhowtocalculateandmodelavariograminSurpac.
understandtheconceptofananisotropyellipsoid.
understandtheparameterswhichdefineananisotropyellipsoid.
PrimaryVariogramMap
Task:Createahorizontalvariogrammap
1. ChooseGeostatistics>VariogrammodellingtoopentheVariogramModellingwindow.
2. ChooseVariogrammap>Newvariogrammap.
3. EntertheinformationasshownontheBasictab.
Page 70 of 189
Variogram Maps Primary Variogram Map

Thenumberofvariogramsselectedwilldeterminetheangularincrement.Inourexample,16
variogramswillresultina22.5degreeangularincrement(360/16=22.5).Ifthenumberofvariograms
wassetto36,youwouldgeta10degreeincrement(360/36=10).
Thespreadandspreadlimitparametersarethesameasinnormalvariogrammodelling.
Therelationshipbetweentheangularincrementandthespreadangleshouldbeconsidered.
Tosome,itmayseemunreasonabletodefineaspreadtoleranceanythinggreaterthanhalfofthe
angularincrement.Forthisdataset,becauseofthesmallnumberofpairs,ifa7.5degreespreadwere
used(halfofthe15degreeangularincrementbetweenadjacentvariograms),thenumberofdatapairs
wouldbesosmallthatveryfew,ifanyreasonablevariogramswouldresult.Aspreadof30degreesis
usedforthisdatasettoensurethatsufficientsamplesareincluded.
Giventhataspreadof30degreesisused,onecouldarguethatthenumberofvariogramsshouldbe
reducedtominimisetheoverlapoftheconesforadjacentvariograms.Althoughthisisaplausible
argumentintheory,thepracticalityofusingavariogrammaptovisuallydetermineanisotropyinaplane
oftenrulesoutreducingtheangularincrement.
Itisuptoyouandthedatasetyouareworkingwithastohowyouwanttogoaboutachievingbothof
thesegoalssimultaneously.Thisisyetanotherexampleofhowgeostatisticsisaninexactscience.
Experiencewithadatasetwillusuallyletyouknowwhatcombinationofparametersisacceptable.
Inthebottompanel,thelag,maximumdistance,andvariogramreportparametersarespecified,exactly
astheyareinvariogrammodelling.Oneitemtoconsiderthemaximumdistancewillbetheradiusof
thevariogrammap.Youmayfindthatyouwillneedtotryafewvariationsofthisvaluetogetonethatis
adequate.
Page 71 of 189
4. ClicktheAdvancedtab,entertheinformationasshown,andclickApply.

Thevariogrammap,aswellasthevariogramforthefirstorientationisdisplayed.
5. Rightclickanywhereonthevariogram,andselectTileWindows.

Page 72 of 189
13. Entertheinformationasshown,andclickApply.

Allvariogramsaredisplayed:

Task:Determine2Danisotropy
Ina2Dcase,boththemajorandsemimajoraxeswilllieintheplaneoftheprimaryvariogrammap.The
orientationofthemajoraxisischosenasthevariogramwhichhasthelongestrangeforagivensillvalue.
1. Usethelagslidertoalertyoutoareasofhighandlowvarianceonthevariogrammap.Inother
words,movethelagsliderbackandforth,andwatchthecoloursonthevariogrammapchange.
Youwillmostlikelyseethatthroughoutarangeoflagvalues,therewillbeareasonthevariogram
mapwhichwillbeconsistentlyhigh,andotherswhichwillbeconsistentlylow.Usingtheexample
givenabove,theorientationof45degreesconsistentlydisplayscoloursrepresentinglowvariance.
2. Onceyouhaveanideaofwhatmayappeartobetheorientationofthelongestrange,usethelag
slidertoimprovethequalityoftheexperimentalvariogramforthatdirection.Intheprevious
image,alagdistanceof4.3resultedinagoodvariogramforthe45degreeorientation.
3. Onceyouhaveanacceptableexperimentalvariogram,createavariogrammodelforthat
orientation.
4. ChooseVariogram>Model.
Page 73 of 189
5. Clickanddragthemodeltofittheexperimentalvariogramforthatdirection.Asshownbelow,fit
amodeltothe45degreeorientation:

6. Checkthatvariogrammodelforallotherorientations.Themajoraxisshouldbethatvariogram
whichhasthelowestvarianceforthelongestdistance.Inthiscase,thevariogramatthe
orientationof22.5degreesactuallyhasalongerrange.
7. Ifanotherorientationappearstohavealongerrangeandalowervariance,modifythemodelto
fitthatexperimentalvariogram.Modifyingthelagdistanceforthatorientationmayhelpyouget
abetterfit.Modifythevariogramfortheorientationof22.5,asshown:

8. Repeattheprevioustwostepsuntilyouaresatisfiedthatyouhavetheorientationofthemajor
axis.
Page 74 of 189
9. Afteryouhavedefinedamajoraxis,askyourselfandotherswhoarefamiliarwiththegeologyif
theorientationappearscorrect.Inthiscase,theorientationof22.5isagoodmatchwiththe
orientationoftheorezoneasshownbelow.

Fortheorezone#1,thebearingofthemajoraxisis22.5.Savethevariogram.
10. ChooseFile>Save>Experimentalvariogramandmodel

Asyoucansee,notonlyisthesubjectofvariogrammodellinganonscientificprocess,butthe
orientationofthemajoraxisisalsoopentointerpretationanddebate.
Thesemimajoraxisisinthesameplane,andisperpendiculartothemajoraxis.Thus,thebearingofthe
semimajoraxisforthisdatasetis22.5+90=112.5.
Theanisotropyratioistherangeofthemajoraxis/rangeofthesemimajoraxisforaconstantsillvalue.
Therangeofthemajoraxisisdisplayedas15.1intheupperrightcornerofthevariogrammodelling
window.
Todeterminetherangeofthesemimajoraxisforavariogramwithonlyonestructureissimple:just
changetherangetofitthevariogramforthesemimajoraxisthewhilekeepingthesillthesame.
12. ChooseVariogram>Model
Page 75 of 189
13. Clickanddragthevariogramsothatitfitstheexperimentalvariogramforbearing112.5:

Notethatthesillofthevariogramisexactlythesame,buttherangeisnow6.1.
Thus,theanisotropyratioforzone1is:15.1/6.1=2.48
Thisisadmittedlynotthewaythatthesoftwarewasintendedtobeused,butisthequickestmeansof
determiningtwodimensionalanisotropy.
Summary
Youshouldnowunderstand:
howtocalculateaprimaryvariogrammap
howtodetermine2Danisotropyusingaprimaryvariogrammap
Page 76 of 189
Inverse Distance Estimation Overview
InverseDistanceEstimation
Overview
Animportantendproductofageostatisticalevaluationisamodel,orasetofpointsinspacewhich
containestimatedvalues.Oneofthemethodsforestimatingvaluesatpointsinamodelisknownas
inversedistanceestimation.
Youwilllearnabout:
Isotropicvsanisotropicinversedistanceestimation.
Stepstoperforminginversedistanceestimation.
Theimpactofpoweroninversedistanceestimation.
Howtoimplementanisotropyparametersfromaprimaryvariogrammap.
Requirements
knowhowtodisplaymenubars
Page 77 of 189
Inverse Distance Estimation Isotropic vs Anisotropic Inverse Distance Estimation
IsotropicvsAnisotropicInverseDistanceEstimation
Whenusinginversedistanceweightingtoestimatevaluesinablockmodel,theamountanddirectionof
anisotropycanhaveasignificantimpactontheendresult.Forexample,thefourmodelsshownbelow
werecreatedfromthesamedataset,butdifferentamountsandorientationsofanisotropywereused.

NoAnisotropy 2:1Anisotropy
(Isotropic) Azimuth45

2:1Anisotropy 5:1Anisotropy
Azimuth135 Azimuth135
Task:PerformInverseDistanceEstimationusingIsotropy
1. Open4points1.str,anddisplaythedataasshown:

2. DisplaytheBlockModelmenubar.

Page 78 of 189
Note:AllmenucommandsbelowhererefertotheBlockModelmenubar.
3. Openthemodel20x20x1.mdl.
4. ChooseDisplay>Clearmodelcolours.
5. ChooseDisplay>Displayblockmodel.

Themodelanddataaredisplayedasshown:

7. ChooseEstimation>Inversedistance.
Page 79 of 189
8. Entertheinformationasshown,andthenclickApplyoneachform.
Page 80 of 189
Note:TheparametersAnisotropicdisttonearestsample,Averageanisotropicdisttosamples,and
Numberofsamplesareoptional.

Note:Bysettingbothanisotropyratiosto1,anisotropicestimationwillbeperformed.

9. ChooseDisplay>Colourmodelbyattribute.
Page 81 of 189
10. OntheBlockColoursform,selectisotropicastheattributetocolorby,clickScan,entervaluesfor
Rangeforcolourselectionof30,70,5andthenclickRefresh.
11. ClickApply.

Blocksarecolouredbasedontheinversedistancesquaredestimate.

12. ChooseBlockModel>Close,andthenclickYes.

1. Runthemacro2d_04_anisotropy.tcltoseetheseblocksdisplayed.
2. UsetheMacroplaybackbutton,andselectSlowmotionplaybacktodisplayeachform.
Page 82 of 189
Task:ViewtheEffectofIncreasingInverseDistancePower
3. Entertheinformationoneachformasinthepreviousexample,exceptforthelastform:Enteran
InverseDistancePowerof3,andthenclickApply.

4. Displaythemodelcolouredbytheisotropicattribute,asbefore.
5. Repeatsteps2,3,and4usinginversedistancepowersof4and10.

Powerof2 Powerof3

Powerof4 Powerof10
Page 83 of 189

1. Runthemacro2d_08a_id_power.tcltoseetheseblocksdisplayed.

Task:PerformInverseDistanceEstimationonGradeControlData
1. Opengc_zone1_cut130.str.
2. Displayasmarkers.
3. Opengc130.mdl.
4. Opengc_orezone1.con.
5. Hideblockmodelfaces.
Thedataandmodelaredisplayed,asshown:

Page 84 of 189
Page 85 of 189
Note:TheAnisotropicdistance,Averageanisotropicdistance,andNumberofsamplesfieldsare
optional.

Note:Themajoraxisandanisotropyratiosfromtheprimaryvariogrammapexerciseareusedhere.
Themajor/minorratiomustbeequaltoorgreaterthanthemajor/semimajorratio,evenfor2D
estimation.
Page 86 of 189
Note:Inordertorestricttheblocksadomainof"Zone1",theConstraininterpolation?boxmustbe
selected.

9. OntheBlockColoursform,selectgold_id2astheattributetocolorby,clickScan,entervaluesfor
10. ClickApply.

11. DisplaythelegendontheLegendtab.
Page 87 of 189

12. ChooseAttribute>Viewattributesforoneblock.
13. Clickanyblock.
Thevalueestimatedfortheblockisdisplayed.

14. ClickApply.
Page 88 of 189
15. ChooseBlockModel>Close.,andthenclickYes.

Note:Ifyouhavedifficultywiththisprocedure,run2d_08b_inverse_distance.tcl.
Summary
Youshouldunderstandhowanisotropyratiosandorientationoftheanisotropyellipsoidimpactsthe
weightusedforsamplesinestimatingavalueatablockcentroid.Also,youshouldnowbeawareofthe
impactofpoweroninversedistanceestimation.
Understandinghoweachofthemanyparametersassociatedwithanindividualestimationmethodisno
simpletask.Itusuallywilltakesometime,moreresearch,and/orexperiencewithseveraldatasetsto
grasptheconceptspresentedhere.
Page 89 of 189
Ordinary Kriging Overview
OrdinaryKriging
Overview
ordinarykriging.Themainadvantageofordinarykrigingisthatitusesavariograminitsestimation,
whereinversedistanceestimationdoesnot.
Youwilllearnabout:
Theimpactofthenuggeteffect.
Theimpactoftherange.
Theimpactofblockdescretisation.
Requirements
Inordertounderstandthisinformation,youshouldunderstandthefollowingconcepts:
Surpacstringfiles
Surpacblockmodels
isotropyandanisotropy
anisotropyellipsoid
theparameterswhichdefineananisotropyellipsoid
Page 90 of 189
Ordinary Kriging Impact of the Nugget
ImpactoftheNugget
Whenusingordinarykrigingtoestimatevaluesinablockmodel,therelativepercentageofthenugget
canhaveasignificantimpactontheendresult.Forexample,thefourmodelsshownbelowwere
createdfromthesamedataset,butdifferentnuggeteffectswereused.

zeronugget 25%nugget

50%nugget 100%nugget
Task:PerformOrdinaryKrigingEstimationusingaZeroNugget
1. Open4points1.str,anddisplaythedataasshown:
Page 91 of 189
2. DisplaytheBlockModelmenubar.

Note:AllmenucommandsbelowhererefertotheBlockModelmenubar.
4. ChooseDisplay>Clearmodelcolours.
5. ChooseDisplay>Displayblockmodel.

Themodelanddataaredisplayedasshown:

10. ChooseEstimation>Ordinarykriging.
Page 92 of 189

Note:TheparametersAnisotropicdisttonearestsample,Averageanisotropicdisttosamples,
Numberofsamples,andKrigingvarianceareoptional.
Page 93 of 189

Note:Bysettingbothanisotropyratiosto1,anisotropicestimationwillbeperformed.
Page 94 of 189
Note:The"nugget"effectistheratioofthenugget/(totalofallsilldata).Inthiscase,0/1=0
nugget.
12. ClickApplyonthetwofollowingformstooverwritethe*.NOTfileandthe*.MDLfile.
14. OntheBlockColoursform,selectok_zero_nuggetastheattributetocolorby,clickScan,enter
valuesforRangeforcolourselectionof30,70,5andthenclickRefresh.
15. ClickApply.

Themodel,asestimatedbyordinarykrigingusingazeronuggeteffectisdisplayed:

12. ChooseBlockModel>Close.
Page 95 of 189
Ordinary Kriging Impact of the Range
13. SelectSaveandexit,andthenclickApply.

1. Runthemacro2d_09a_ordinary_kriging_nugget.tcl.
ImpactoftheRange
Whenusingordinarykrigingtoestimatevaluesinablockmodel,therangeofthevariogramrelativeto
samplespacingcanhaveasignificantimpactontheendresult.
Task:ViewtheImpactoftheRange
3. Entertheinformationoneachformasinthepreviousexample,exceptforthelastform:Entera
rangeof20,andthenclickApply.

4. Displaythemodelcolouredbytheok_zero_nuggetattribute,asbefore.
Page 96 of 189
Ordinary Kriging Impact of Descretisation
5. Repeatsteps2,3,and4usinginverserangesof10,5,and2.5.

Range=20 Range=10
(2xsamplespacing) (1xsamplespacing)

Range=5 Range=2.5
(0.5xsamplespacing) (0.25xsamplespacing)
1. Runthemacro2d_09b_ordinary_kriging_range.tcl.
ImpactofDescretisation
Whenusingordinarykrigingtoestimatevaluesinablockmodel,thenumberofdescretisationpointscan
haveasignificantimpactontheendresult.Krigingvarianceisinverselyproportionaltothequalityofthe
estimate:highkrigingvariance=lowquality,and:lowkrigingvariance=higherquality.
Task:ViewtheImpactofDescretisation
Page 97 of 189
3. Entertheinformationoneachformasinthepreviousexample,exceptforthelastform:Enter
descretisationofX:3Y:3Z:3,andthenclickApply.
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4. Displaythemodelcolouredbythekrig_varattribute,asshown:
5. Repeatsteps2,3,and4usingdescretisationof1x1x1,2x2x1and2x2x2.

1x1x1 2x2x1

2x2x2 3x3x3
1. Runthemacro2d_09c_descretisation.tcl.
Task:PerformOrdinaryKrigingEstimationonGradeControlData
1. Opengc_zone1_cut130.str.
2. Displayasmarkers.
3. Opengc130.mdl.
4. Opengc_orezone1.con.
5. Hideblockmodelfaces.
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Page 100 of 189

Note:TheparametersAnisotropicdisttonearestsample,Averageanisotropicdisttosamples,
Numberofsamples,andKrigingvarianceareoptional.
Page 101 of 189

Note:Themajoraxisandanisotropyratiosfromtheprimaryvariogrammapexerciseareusedhere.
Themajor/minorratiomustbeequaltoorgreaterthanthemajor/semimajorratio,evenfor2D
estimation.

Note:Inordertorestricttheblocksadomainof"Zone1",theConstraininterpolation?boxmustbe
selected.

9. OntheBlockColoursform,selectgold_okastheattributetocolorby,clickScan,entervaluesfor
Page 102 of 189

10. ClickApply.


12. ChooseAttribute>Viewattributesforoneblock.
13. Clickanyblock.
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Thevalueestimatedfortheblockisdisplayed.Anyotherattributespreviouslyestimatedwillalsobe
displayed.

14. ClickApply.

Note:Ifyouhavedifficultywiththisprocedure,run2d_09d_ordinary_kriging.tcl.
Summary
Youshouldunderstandhownugget,range,anddescretisationpointsimpacttheoutcomeofanordinary
krigingestimation.
Understandinghoweachofthemanyparametersassociatedwithanindividualestimationmethodisno
simpletask.Itusuallywilltakesometime,moreresearch,and/orexperiencewithseveraldatasetsto
grasptheconceptspresentedhere.
Page 104 of 189

Model Validation Overview
ModelValidation
Overview
Animportantstepinageostatisticalevaluationistovalidatethemodelafterithasbeencreated.
Youwilllearnabout:
Comparingcrosssectionaldatawithmodelvalues
Gradetonnagecurvesfromblockmodelreports
Basicstatisticsofmodelvalues
Trendanalysis
Requirements
Surpacstringfiles
Surpacblockmodels
anisotropyellipsoid
ordinarykriging
ComparingRawDatatoEstimatedValues
Onemethodofvalidatingamodelistoviewcrosssectionsofitcomparedtootherdata.
1. Runthemacro2d_10a_validation_section.tcl.

Basically,youwanttoensurethatthevaluesinthemodelappeartobecorrect.Thisdoesappeartobe
thecase:blocksentirelywithinthemodelhaveapartialpercentvalueof1.00andblockspartiallywithin
themodelhaveapartialpercentagevaluebetween0and1.00.
GradeTonnageCurves
Anothermeansofvalidatingamodelistoreporttonnesandgradeandconstructagradetonnagecurve.
1. Runthemacro2d_10b_grade_tonnage.tcl.
Page 105 of 189

Model Validation Grade-Tonnage Curves
Thismacrowillperformblockmodelreportingtocreatea*.CSVfilecontaininggradeandtonnes.Apre
defined*.XLSfileisdisplayedattheendwithagraphofthegradetonnagecurve.
2. ClickApplyoneachoftheformsdisplayed:
Page 106 of 189

Model Validation Basic Statistics of Model Values

Thefilegc_130_grade_tonnage.CSViscreated.
Opengc_130_grade_tonnage.XLShasbeenpreparedwithagraphoftheoutputdata:
BasicStatisticsofModelValues
Basicstatisticsoftheblockmodelvaluesisyetanotherwaytovalidatetheoutputfromthemodel.
1. Runthemacro2d_10c_model_stats.tcl.
Thismacrowilldisplaybasicstatisticsonthreeblockmodelparameters.
Page 107 of 189

2. Ensuretheinformationasshown,andthenclickApply.

Youwillseeahistogramofthedatadisplayedasshown.

Summary
Youshouldunderstandhowtovalidateamodelafterithasbeencreated,usingthefollowing
techniques:
1. Comparingcrosssectionaldatawithmodelvalues
2. Gradetonnagecurvesfromblockmodelreports
3. Basicstatisticsofmodelvalues
4. Trendanalysis
Page 108 of 189

Indicator Kriging Overview
IndicatorKriging
Overview
IndicatorKrigingisanadvancedgeostatisticaltechniquewhichisusefulwhencreatingamodelfroma
datasetthathasamixedpopulationthatcannotbephysicallyseparatedintodifferentdomains.
Youwilllearnabout:
IndicatorKrigingconcepts.
CalculatingIKvariogrammaps.
PerformingIndicatorKriging.
Requirements
befamiliarwithSurpacstringfilesandblockmodels.
knowhowtocreateandusevariogrammaps.
understandtheconceptsofanisotropyandordinarykriging.
IKConcepts
InordertoperformIK,youfirstdecideonaseriesofcutoffs.Thereareseveralwaystochoosethe
cutoffs,andidentifythenumberofcutoffs.
Ifyouknowaheadoftimewhatvalueswillbeusedforreporting,youcanusethem.Alternatively,you
maychoosetousethedecilesofthedata.Inpractice,10cutoffsisnotuncommon.
Onceyouhaveestablishedthecutoffs,youwilltransformeachdatapointtoa1ora0foreachcutoff.
Next,youusethetransformedthedataasinputtovariogrammaps,todetermineanisotropyellipsoid
parametersforeachcutoff.
Thenyoucreateablockmodel,andusetheanisotropyellipsoidparameterstoperformindicatorkriging.
ThisproducesaCumulativeFrequencyFunction(CFF)foreachblock.
YoucanusetheCFFtodetermineoverallblockvalueorpercentoftheblockaboveorbelowagiven
cutoff
Finally,youcanreportthetonnesandgrade.
Task:DisplayIKcalculations
1. Openik_demo.stranddisplaytheD1values.

Noticethatthefilecontainsfourpoints,withD1valuesof0,2,4,and9.Thesewillbetransformedto1
or0foreachofthecutoffvaluesof1,3,5,and10.
1. ChooseFiletools>Stringmaths.
Page 109 of 189

Indicator Kriging IK Concepts

Theoutputfileik_transform.strcontains:

Ifyouhaddifficulty,run2d_11a_ik_transform.tcl
Task:ViewIKcalculations.
Theblockmodelik_1x1x1isaoneblockmodelwhichexistsatthecenterofthedatacontainedwithin
ik_transform.str.
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Run2d_11b_ik_block_calculationstoseeIKblockvaluecalculations.
Blockmodelattribute ValueorCalculation
cutoff1 1.0
cutoff2 3.0
cutoff3 5.0
cutoff4 10.0
average01 (0+cutoff1)/2=(0+1)/2=0.5
average12 (cutoff1+cutoff2)/2=(1+3)/2=2.0
percent_below_cutoff1 0.25
percent01 percent_below_cutoff10=0.250=0.25
percent12 percent_below_cutoff2percent_below_cutoff1=0.500.25=0.25
percent01*average01+percent12*average12+percent23*average23+percent34*average34=
ik_block_estimate 0.25*0.5+0.25*2.0+0.25*4.0+0.25*7.5=
0.125+0.5+1.0+1.625=
3.50
Task:TransformGradeControldataforIKVariogramMaps
1. Opengc_zone1_cut130.stranddisplaytheD1values.

Noticethatthefilecontainsfourpoints,withD1valuesbetween0and25.Thesemustbetransformed
toindicatorvaluesbeforeusingavariogrammap.
1. ChooseFiletools>Stringmaths.
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TheD2,D3,D4,andD5fieldsnowcontaintheindicatortransforms(1or0)foreachofthecutoffvalues
of1,2,5,and10.Itisagoodideatodocumentthisinformationforfuturereference.
3. Opengc_ik_transform130.stranddisplaytheD2values.

Ifyouhaddifficultywiththesesteps,run2d_11c_ik_transform_gc.tcl.
Task:Calculateanisotropyparametersforeachcutoff
Page 112 of 189

2. EntertheinformationasshownandthenclickApply.

3. Usethevariogrammaptoidentifythemajoraxis,asshownbelow.

4. ChooseFile>Save>Experimentalvariogramanddata
Page 113 of 189


6. Modifythevariogramtobestfitthesemimajoraxis(keepthenuggetandsillthesame),andnote
therange:

7. Calculatetheanisotropyratio,astherangeofthemajoraxisdividedbytherangeofthesemi
majoraxis:
major/semimajoranisotropyratio=75/18=4.2
8. Repeatthesestepsforeachindicator,anddocumentthem,asshown:
Cutoff Variogram Bearing Major/SemiMajor
AnisotropyRatio
1 cutoff1.vgm 22.5 4.2
10 cutoff4.vgm 22.5 5.8
Task:PerformIndicatorKriging
1. ChooseIndicatorKriging>Indicatorkrigingattribute().
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Page 115 of 189

Page 116 of 189

Page 117 of 189


ChooseAttributes>Viewattributesforoneblock.
Selectablock,andaformwilldisplay:

TheCumulativeFrequencyFunction(CFF)valueshavebeenestimated.Newattributeshavebeen
createdtostoretheCFFvalues,andarenamed_ikc#IKattribute#cutoff.Intheimageabove,thevalueof
0.14fortheattribute_ikc#gold#5.0000indicatesthat14%oftheblockisestimatedtofallbelowthe
valueof5.0.
Ifyouhaddifficultywiththesesteps,run2d_11e_ik_cff.tcl
Task:CalculateBlockvalues
1. ChooseIndicatorKriging>Blockvalueestimates
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Page 119 of 189


3. ChooseAttributesViewattributesforoneblock
Page 120 of 189

4. Selectablock,andaformwilldisplay:

Theblockvalueshavebeencalculated.Twonewattributeshavebeencreatedforeachcutoff:
_ikb#IKattribute#cutoff_fracthefractionoftheblockabovethecutoff
_ikb#IKattribute#cutoff_valuetheaveragegradeoftheblockabovethatcutoff.
Inaddition,twootherattributesarecreated:
_ikb#IKattribute#0.0000_fracthiswillalwaysbe1.00=100%oftheblock
_ikb#IKattribute#0.0000_valuetheaveragegradeoftheentireblock.
Intheimageabove,thevalueof13.45fortheattribute_ikb#gold#0.0000indicatesthattheaverage
gradeoftheentireblockis13.45.
5. ClickApply.
7. OntheBlockColoursform,selectgold_okastheattributetocolorby,clickScan,entervaluesfor
Page 121 of 189

8. ClickApply.


Task:ReportTonnesandGradeforanIKmodel
ChooseBlockmodel>Report.
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Entertheinformationasshown,andthenclickApply.
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Summary
Page 125 of 189

Conditional Simulation Overview
ConditionalSimulation
Overview
ConditionalSimulationisanadvancedgeostatisticaltechnique.Itisusefulforassessingriskassociated
withanestimate.Otherestimationmethods,suchasinversedistanceweightingandordinarykriging
haveatendencyto"smooth"datavalues.Ingeneral,thestandarddeviationandcoefficientofvariation
oftheblockvaluesestimatedwiththesetechniqueswillbelessthanthedatasetwhichwasusedto
performtheestimate.Thehistogramoftheestimatedblockswillhaveahigherminimumvalueanda
lowermaximumvaluethanthehistogramofthedata.
Conditionalsimulationtheoryisbasedonanattempttocreateasetofblockestimateswhichis
conditionedtosimulatethehistogramandotherbasicstatisticalparametersoftheinputdata.
Youwilllearnabout:
Normalscorestransformation.
ConditionalSimulationestimation.
Requirements
befamiliarwithSurpacstringfilesandblockmodels.
knowhowtocreateandusevariogrammaps.
understandtheconceptsofanisotropyandkriging.
NormalScoresTransformation
Conditionalsimulationrequiresthemaximumsillofthevariogramtobe1.0.Thisisachievablebyfirst
performinganormalscorestransformationofthedata.
Task:PerformaNormalScoresTransformation
1. Opengc_zone1_130.stranddisplaytheD1values.

2. ChooseBlockmodel>Estimation>GSLIB>Normalscoretransformation(nscore).
Page 126 of 189

Conditional Simulation Normal Scores Transformation
Page 127 of 189

4. Opengc_zone1_nscore_130.stranddisplaytheD3values.

NoticethattheD1valuesintheoutputfilearethesameastheinputdata,andtheD3fieldcontainsthe
normalscoretransformeddata.
Page 128 of 189

8. ChooseDisplay>Histogram.
9. ChooseDisplay>NormalDistribution.

Noticethatthehistogramofthenormalscorestransformeddataisveryclosetoanormaldistribution.
10. ChooseStatistics>Report.
Page 129 of 189


10. ChooseFile>Close.
Ifyouhaddifficultywiththesesteps,run2d_12a_nscore.tcl
Task:Calculateanisotropyparametersfornormalscoretransformeddata
2. ChooseVariogramMap>Newvariogrammap.
3. EntertheinformationasshownandthenclickApply.
Page 130 of 189

4. Usethevariogrammaptoidentifythemajoraxis,asshownbelow.

5. ChooseFile>Save>Experimentalvariogramanddata

7. Modifythevariogramtofitittothevariogramforthesemimajoraxis(keepthenuggetandsill
thesame),andnotetherange:

Page 131 of 189
8. Youmustdocumentthefollowinginformationforuseintheconditionalsimulationfunction
(SGSIM):
SGSIMParameter Description Value
Angle1 Bearingofmajoraxis 22.5
Nugget Nuggetofmajoraxisvariogram 0.45
Cc Sillofmajoraxisvariogram 0.55
hMax rangeofmajoraxisvariogram 37
hMin rangeofsemimajoraxisvariogram 10
Vert rangeofminoraxisvariogram 10(=hMin)
Task:PerformConditionalSimulationusingSGSIM
1. Run2d_12c_create_sim_model.tcltocreate(orrecreate)themodelgc_130simulation.mdland
constraintssim_orezone1.conandsim_orezone2.con.
2. Opengc_130simulation.mdl.
3. Addtheconstraintsim_orezone1.con.
4. Displaythemodel.

5. ChooseBlockmodel>Estimation>GSLIB>SequentialGaussiansimulation(sgsim/postsim).
Page 132 of 189

Page 133 of 189

Page 134 of 189

Page 135 of 189

7. ChooseAttributes>Viewattributesforoneblock.
8. Selectablock,andaformwilldisplay:

Threenewattributeshavebeencreatedtostoreeachofthesimulationrealizations,usingthename
specifiedontheFilestab(OutputEstimation).Inthisexample,thename"realization"wasused.In
addition,ablockvalueestimate(Etypeestimate)hasbeencalculatedandisstoredintheattribute
block_estimateinthisexample.TheattributemustexistpriortorunningSGSIM.TheEtypeestimateis
simplytheaverageofallrealizations.
9. ClickApply.
10. ChooseBlockmodel>Save.
11. ChooseBlockmodel>Close.
Ifyouhaddifficultywiththesesteps,run2d_12d_conditional_simulation.tcl,or
2d_12d_conditional_simulation_v52.tclinv5.2.
Task:DisplayConditionalSimulationresults.
1. Opengc_simulation_completed.mdl.
2. Addtheconstraintsim_orezone1.con.
3. Displaythemodel.
5. OntheBlockColoursform,selectrealization1astheattributetocolorby,clickScan,entervalues
forRangeforcolourselectionof0,15;999andthenclickRefresh.
Page 136 of 189

6. ClickApply.


8. Repeatthedisplayforrealization2,realization3,andblock_estimate.
realization1 realization2 realization3 block_estimate
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realization1 realization2 realization3 block_estimate
Task:ReportTonnesandGradeforaConditionalSimulationModel
1. Opengc_simulation_completed.mdl.
2. ChooseBlockmodel>Report.
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Page 139 of 189

4. Repeattheblockmodelreportforeachrealization.(Thiscanbedonewithamacro.)
5. Whenyouarefinished,combinetheCSVreportsintooneXLSfile
6. OpenSGSIM_grade_tonnage.xlsasanexample.
Ifyouhaddifficultywiththesesteps,run2d_12f_simulation_report.tcl.
Summary
howtotransformdatausingNormalScores
howtodeterminevariographyparametersforSGSIM
howtoperformconditionalsimulationusingSGSIM
Page 140 of 189

3D Case Study: Ore Reserve Normal Scores Transformation
3DCaseStudy:OreReserve
Overview
ThisisasampleprojectwhichpresentsmanygeostatisticalconceptsinacommonworkflowinSurpac.
Therearemanydifferenttypesofdepositsandthetechniquesdemonstratedheremayormaynotbe
relevanttoyou.
Theconceptspresentedhereuseathreedimensionaldatasetrepresentinganareaofgradecontrol.You
shouldhavegonethroughthetwodimensionalcaseinordertounderstandalloftheconceptshere.
Page 141 of 189

Domains Overview
Domains
Overview
Task:ViewDomain
1. Openall_composites2.str.
2. ChooseDisplay>Hideeverything.
3. ChooseDisplay>Point>Markers.

5. ChooseDisplay>3Dgrid.
Page 142 of 189

Domains
7. Clickanddragingraphics,andyouwillseetherotateddataasshown.

Thepointsinthisstringfilerepresent2metredownholecompositesofallgoldvaluesforalldrillholes.
TheD1fieldcontainsthecompositedvalueforgold,andhavebeenusedtoclassifythepointsinto
differentstrings:
String D1
1 <1.000
2 11.999
3 22.999
4 33.999
5 44.999
6 55.999
7 >=6.000
7. Withall_composites2.strstilldisplayedonthescreen,openore_solid1.dtm.

Thissolidrepresentsasingledomain.Onlycompositeswhichfallinsidethisdomainshouldbeusedto
estimateblocksinsidethedomain.
Page 143 of 189

Create Composites
CreateComposites
Task:ExtractingDatawithaDomaininSurpac
Thedomainore_solid1.dtmrepresentsanorezoneknownastheQV1zone.Youwillnowgothrough
theprocessofextractingcompositesonlyinsidetheQV1domain.
1. Runthemacro01_create_downhole_composites.tcl.
2. Afterreadingthetextbelowonthefirstform,clickApply.
Ageostatisticalanalysisofdatainadrillholedatabasegenerallystartswithcompositinga
samplevaluewithinagivengeologicalzone.
Inthisexample,youwillbecreating2metredownholecompositeswithintheQV1
geologicalcode.
ThefunctionCOMPOSITEDOWNHOLEisinvokedusingDatabase>Composite>Downhole.
Notethatacompositelengthof2metreshasbeenselected.Theselectionofacompositelengthis
important,butisbeyondthescopeofthistutorial.Youmaywanttoconsidertheopinionofa
geostatisticalconsultanttodeterminetheoptimalcompositelengthforyourdataset.
3. Afterviewingtheformbelow,clickApply.
Page 144 of 189

Create Composites
Onthenextform,noticethatthecharacterfieldrockhasbeensetupinthegeologytable,whichisan
intervaltable.ThetextQV1hasbeeninsertedintothefieldrockforeveryintervalofadrillholewhich
isinsideore_solid1.dtm.
4. Afterviewingtheform,clickApply.

5. Afterreadingthetextonthenextform,clickApply.
2metredownholecompositeshavebeencreatedwithintheQV1rocktype,andarestored
intheD1fieldingold_comp2.str.
String1containscompositeswhere50%to100%ofthe2mlengthcontainedagoldvalue.
String2containscompositeswherelessthan50%ofthe2mlengthcontainedagoldvalue.
Eitherorbothofthesestringsmaybeusedforfurthergeostatisticalanalysis.Inthis
example,youwillusebothstrings.
Youwillseeaneastwestsectionofthedatabaseandthecompositeswhichwerecreated.

Summary
Page 145 of 189

Create Composites
Youshouldnowunderstandtheimpactwhichdomainshaveupongeostatisticalestimations,andhowto
useSurpactoextractdatawithinadomain.
Menucommands:
Database>Composite>Downholeperformsdownholecompositing.
Page 146 of 189

Basic Statistics Overview
BasicStatistics
Overview
Oneoftheimportantpreliminarystepsinperformingageostatisticalevaluationistounderstandthe
statisticalpropertiesofthedata.Twocharacteristicswhichcanpotentiallyreducethequalityofyour
estimationsarebimodalismandoutliers.Ahistogramcanbeusedtoidentifybothofthese.
Youwilllearnabout:
Histograms
CreatingaHistogram
Requirements
DisplayingHistograms
1. Runthemacro02_basic_statistics.tcl.
Basicstatisticsshouldbeperformedbeforevariogrammodellingforacoupleofreasons:
1.Theshapeofthehistogramcanbeusedtodetermineifadistributionisbimodal(hastwo
humps).
Ifthehistogramshowsabimodaldistribution,thedatashouldbeanalysedgraphicallytosee
ifitcanbephysicallysegregatedintotwoseparatezones.Ifso,eachzoneshouldbe
modelledseparately.
2.Thequalityofexperimentalvariogramsandsubsequentblockmodelestimationsare
sensitivetooutliers(relativelylargevalues).
Outliervaluesshouldbecutorremovedpriortovariogrammodellingorblockmodel
estimation.Thevalueusedtocutorremoveoutlierscanbecalculatedfrominformationin
thebasicstatisticsreport.
TheBasicStatisticswindowisopenedbyselectingGeostatistics>Basicstatistics.
Page 147 of 189

Basic Statistics Displaying Histograms
Next,File>Loaddatafromstringfilesisselected,andtheformbelowisdisplayed.

3. Afterreviewingtheform,clickApply.
Next,ahistogramandalinerepresentingthecumulativefrequencyisdisplayed.Thecumulative
frequencyisanaccumulationofthevaluesofallprevioushistogrambins.
Afterthis,ReportwasselectedfromtheStatisticsmenu.Thisformpromptsyoutoenterthenameofan
outputreport,thereportformat,andarangeofpercentileswhichwillbewrittentothereport.
4. Whenyouhavecompletedviewingtheform,clickApply.

Basicstatisticshistogramandreport
5. Afterreadingthetextdisplayedonthenextform,clickApply.
Asyoucanseefromthehistogram,thisdistributionisnotbimodal.
Thebasicstatisticsreportwillbedisplayednext.
Notethevaluesofthemean,standarddeviation,andpercentiles.
Page 148 of 189

Basic Statistics Displaying Histograms
Theoutputreportraw_gold.notisdisplayed.Thisreportcontainsseveraloutputstatistics,includingthe
specifiedpercentiles.Youwillrefertothisreportinthenextsection.
Output Filename: raw_gold
Statistics Report
File Gold Comp2.str
------------------------------------------------------------
String range 1,2
Variable Gold
Number of samples 335
Minimum value 0.730000
Maximum value 63.490000
Ungrouped Data Grouped Data
Mean 3.828476 3.847910
Median 2.120000 2.314677
Geometric Mean 2.533744 2.536632
Variance 46.672186 46.898784
Standard Deviation 6.831704 6.848269
Coefficient of variation 1.784445 1.779737
Moment 1 About Arithmetic Mean 0.000000 0.000000
Skewness 5.867044 5.846340
Kurtosis 41.483189 0.853696
Natural Log Mean 0.929698 0.930837
Log Variance 0.500146 0.512079
25.0 Percentile 1.657500
50.0 Percentile (median) 2.120000
Trimean 2.298838
Biweight 2.234705
MAD 0.704705
Alpha -0.729756
Sichel-t 5.93897e+010
Normal Histogram Tabulation
Gold
Class From Class To Count Mean Freq % Cum Count Cum Mean Cum Freq % Dec Count Dec Mean Dec Freq %
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.730000 1.730000 95 1.350476 0.284 95 1.350476 28.3582 335 3.828476 100.0000
1.730000 2.730000 124 2.148179 0.370 219 1.802143 65.3731 240 4.809350 71.6418
2.730000 3.730000 48 3.166762 0.143 267 2.047468 79.7015 116 7.654051 34.6269
3.730000 4.730000 24 4.194958 0.072 291 2.224581 86.8657 68 10.821549 20.2985
4.730000 5.730000 14 5.094464 0.042 305 2.356313 91.0448 44 14.436052 13.1343
5.730000 6.730000 6 6.167500 0.018 311 2.429841 92.8358 30 18.795460 8.9552
6.730000 7.730000 7 7.198400 0.021 318 2.534809 94.9254 24 21.952450 7.1642
10.730000 11.730000 2 11.095000 0.006 320 2.588310 95.5224 17 28.027647 5.0746
12.730000 13.730000 3 13.040000 0.009 323 2.685385 96.4179 15 30.285333 4.4776
13.730000 14.730000 2 14.252500 0.006 325 2.756567 97.0149 12 34.596667 3.5821
17.730000 18.730000 1 18.435000 0.003 326 2.804660 97.3134 10 38.665500 2.9851
24.730000 25.730000 1 25.390000 0.003 327 2.873729 97.6119 9 40.913333 2.6866
29.730000 30.730000 1 30.355000 0.003 328 2.957513 97.9104 8 42.853750 2.3881
30.730000 31.730000 1 30.750000 0.003 329 3.041989 98.2090 7 44.639286 2.0896
35.730000 36.730000 2 36.060000 0.006 331 3.241493 98.8060 6 46.954167 1.7910
39.730000 40.730000 1 40.225000 0.003 332 3.352889 99.1045 4 52.401250 1.1940
47.730000 48.730000 1 48.000000 0.003 333 3.486965 99.4030 3 56.460000 0.8955
57.730000 58.730000 1 57.890000 0.003 334 3.649848 99.7015 2 60.690000 0.5970
62.730000 63.730000 1 63.490000 0.003 335 3.828476 100.0000 1 63.490000 0.2985
Summary
outliers.
Menucommands:
Geostatistics>BasicstatisticsopenstheStatisticsWindow.
File>Loaddatafromstringfilescreatesahistogram
Statistics>Reportcreatesareport
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Outliers Overview
Outliers
Overview
Outliersaredatavaluesoutsidetherangeofmostofthedatawithinonedomain.Ifleftinthedataset,
outlierscancauseproblemswithvariograms,andcanreducethequalityofestimations.
Youwilllearnabout:
1. Outliers.
2. Howtoremoveoutliers.
3. Selectionofacutoffvalue.
Requirements
Outliers
Anoutlierisastatisticaltermforadatavaluewhichisrelativelydistantfromthemajorityofallother
valuesinthedataset.Forexample,inthefollowingdataset,thenumber236wouldbeconsideredtobe
anoutlier:
1355888236
Outlierscancauseproblemswiththecalculationofvariograms.Additionally,ifusedinanestimation,
outlierscanresultinunrealisticresults.Onetechniqueusedtoreducetheimpactofoutliersistoapplya
cutofftothem.Intheexampleabove,thevalueof236couldbecut,orchangedtoavalueof9:
13558889
Anotheralternativeistoremovetheoutliervalue(s).
RemovingOutliers
Lookingbacktothehistogramofgold_comp2.str,aswellastheoutputreport,youcanseethatthe
majorityofthedataisgroupedbetweenvaluesof0and10gramspertonne.Also,youcanseethat
thereareseveraloutliervaluesabove10gramspertonne.
1. Runthemacro03_cut_outliers.tcl.
2. Afterreadingtheimagebelowonthefirstform,clickApply.
Variogramsandsubsequentblockmodelestimationsaresensitivetooutliers(relativelylarge
values).Onemethodofdealingwiththesedataaretoreduce,or'cut'themtosomelesser
value.Thevalueusedtocutoutlierscanbedeterminedbyoneofseveralmethods,
including:
1.Theupperlimitofagivenconfidenceinterval
2.Agivenpercentile
3.Anarbitrarilychosenvalue
Inthisexample,youwillusethevaluewhichdefinestheupperlimitofa95%confidence
interval
Aconfidenceintervalisanestimatedrangeofvalueswhichislikelytoincludeagiven
percentageofthedatavalues.Sinceaconfidenceintervalisbasedonthedataalone,itis
usefulwherethereislittleornoknowledgeofthedeposit.Thecalculationfortheupper
limitofa95%confidenceinterval(CI)is:
95%CI=mean+(1.96*standarddeviation)
Page 150 of 189

Outliers Removing Outliers
Forthisdataset,mean=3.828andstandarddeviation=6.831
95%CI=3.828+(1.96*6.831)
95%CI=17.217
Forsimplicity,youwillusethenearestintegervalueof17tocuttheoutlierdata.
Asstatedabove,othermethodscanbeusedtoselecttheoutliercutoff,suchasapercentile,
oranarbitrarilychosenvalue.
Apercentileisthatdatavalueatwhichagivenpercentageofallotherdatavaluesfallbelow.
Anygivenpercentilevaluecouldbeselectedastheoutliercutoff,suchasthe90th,95th,or
99thpercentile.Recallthefollowingpercentilevaluesweregiveninthebasicstatistics
report:
90thPercentile:5.120
Anarbitrarilychosenvaluebasedonknowledgeofthedepositandsamplingmethodsmay
alsobeused.Forexample,ifpartofanorezonehasbeenmined,informationfromgrade
controlsamplesandreconciliationstudiesmayprovideagoodideaofwhatthemaximum
minedblockvaluewillbe.Ifthedeposithasnotyetbeenmined,informationfromsimilar
depositsmaybeusefulindeterminingtheoutliercutoff.
Whatevermethodischosen,valuesinadescriptionfieldinastringfilecanbecutwiththe
useofSTRMATHS.
STRMATHSisinvokedbyselectingFiletools>Stringmaths.
Thisformpromptsyoutoenterthenameoftheinputandoutputfiles,aswellasanexpression.Priorto
viewingthisform,themacrohasopenedgold_comp2.strandsaveditasgold_cut17.str.
TheD1fieldwillreceivetheresultoftheexpression:
iif(d1>17,17,d1)
Thisexpressioncanberewordedas:
Iftheinitialvalueofd1isgreaterthan17,
thensetthevalueofd1equalto17,
elseleavethevalueofd1asitwasinitially.

Page 151 of 189
Usingstringmathstocutoutliers
InordertovalidatetheoutputfromSTRMATHS,youwillanalysethedataintheBasicStatisticswindow.
Again,thisisinvokedbyselectingGeostatistics>Basicstatistics.
Next,themacrowillchooseFile>Loaddatafromstringfiles,andtheformbelowisdisplayed.Notice
thatgold_cut17.stristhefilebeinganalysed.

Next,ahistogramandalinerepresentingthecumulativefrequencyisdisplayed.Noticethatthe
maximumdatavalueisnow17.
Afterthis,Statistics>Reportwasselected.Thisformpromptsyoutoenterthenameofanoutput
report,thereportformat,andarangeofpercentileswhichwillbewrittentothereport.

Percentilerangedefinition
6. Afterreadingtheimagebelowonthenextform,clickApply.
TheD1fieldinthefilegold_cut17.strcontainstheD1valuesfromgold_comp2.str.
Asdisplayedbythishistogram,youcanseethatthemaximumvalueis17.000.
TheD1fieldingold_cut17.strwillnowbeusedforallsubsequentvariographyanalysis,as
wellasblockmodelestimation.
Page 152 of 189

Theoutputreportgold_cut17.notcontainsseveraloutputstatistics,includingthespecifiedpercentiles.
Thisfileiscreatedinthedirectory,butnotdisplayedbythemacro.Youmayopenitifyouwishand
verifythatthemaximumvalueis17.
Output Filename: raw_gold
Output Filename: gold_cut17

Statistics Report
File Gold Cut17.str
------------------------------------------------------------
String range 1,2
Variable Gold
Number of samples 335

Minimum value 0.730000
Maximum value 17.000000
Ungrouped Data Grouped Data

Mean 3.181744 3.206119
Median 2.120000 2.314677
Geometric Mean 2.476903 2.480648
Variance 9.813599 10.088982
Standard Deviation 3.132666 3.176316
Coefficient of variation 0.984575 0.990704

Skewness 3.199827 3.188547

Kurtosis 13.487150 1.003851
Natural Log Mean 0.907009 0.908520

Log Variance 0.392231 0.405546

50.0 Percentile (median) 2.120000
Trimean 2.298838
Biweight 2.234705
MAD 0.704705
Alpha -0.729756
Sichel-t 2996.728204
Normal Histogram Tabulation
Gold
Class From Class To Count Mean Freq % Cum Count Cum Mean Cum Freq % Dec Count Dec Mean Dec Freq %
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0.730000 1.730000 95 1.350476 0.284 95 1.350476 28.3582 335 3.181744 100.0000
1.730000 2.730000 124 2.148179 0.370 219 1.802143 65.3731 240 3.906621 71.6418
2.730000 3.730000 48 3.166762 0.143 267 2.047468 79.7015 116 5.786335 34.6269
3.730000 4.730000 24 4.194958 0.072 291 2.224581 86.8657 68 7.635446 20.2985
4.730000 5.730000 14 5.094464 0.042 305 2.356313 91.0448 44 9.512075 13.1343
5.730000 6.730000 6 6.167500 0.018 311 2.429841 92.8358 30 11.573627 8.9552
6.730000 7.730000 7 7.198400 0.021 318 2.534809 94.9254 24 12.925158 7.1642
10.730000 11.730000 2 11.095000 0.006 320 2.588310 95.5224 17 15.283235 5.0746
12.730000 13.730000 3 13.040000 0.009 323 2.685385 96.4179 15 15.841667 4.4776
13.730000 14.730000 2 14.252500 0.006 325 2.756567 97.0149 12 16.542083 3.5821
16.730000 17.730000 10 17.000000 0.030 335 3.181744 100.0000 10 17.000000 2.9851
Summary
outliers,andalsohowtoselectandimplementanoutliercutoff.
Menucommands:
Geostatistics>BasicstatisticsopenstheStatisticsWindow.
File>Loaddatafromstringfilescreatesahistogram
Statistics>Reportcreatesareport
Filetools>StringmathsinvokesSTRMATHS.
Page 153 of 189

Variogram Maps Overview
VariogramMaps
Overview
Animportantaspectofperforminganygeostatisticalevaluationistounderstandtheanisotropyofthe
data,orwhichdirectionhasthelongestcontinuity,andhowdatavalueschangewithregardtothat
direction,aswellasthetwomutuallyperpendiculardirections.
AvariogrammapisatoolwithinSurpacwhichallowsyoutovisualiseanisotropyinaplane.Additionally,
variogrammapscanbeusedtodefinetheanisotropyellipsoid.Theseconceptsareexplainedthrough
thefollowing:
1. Primaryvariogrammap.
2. Secondaryvariogrammap.
3. Calculationofanisotropyellipsoidparameters.
Requirements
Task:ViewVariogramMapDipPlane
1. Runthemacro05_data_geometry.tcl.
Priortoperformingageostatisticalestimationofblockmodelblocks,itisimportantto
determineifthereisanorientationofthedatawherethereismorecontinuitythanany
otherorientation.

Ifthereisnoparticularorientationofgreatestcontinuity,anisotropicconditionissaidto
exist.If,however,thereisanorientationthathasgreatercontinuitythanallothers,an
anisotropicconditionissaidtoexist.

Thedeterminationofisotropyoranisotropyisperformedbycomparingtherangesof
variogramsinavarietyoforientations.

Avariogrammapisatoolwhichcanbeusedtodeterminethepresenceofanisotropyfora
givenplane.Theselectionoftheorientationofthisplanecanbedeterminedbythe
geometryofthethreedimensionalzonecontainingthedatapoints.Inthisexample,the
dataarecontainedinaveintypeorezone,whichcanberepresentedasaplane.Thisplane
willbeusedasthefirst,orprimaryvariogrammap.
3. Afterreadingthetextbelowonthesecondform,clickApply.
Geologiststypicallydefinetheorientationofaplanarfeature,suchasaveintypeorezone
withtheterms'strike'and'dip'.Thesetermstypicallycontainnonnumericinformation,
Page 154 of 189

Variogram Maps Requirements
suchas:'Strike:North15degreesEast,Dip:40degreestotheNorthwest'.
Thefollowingnumericvaluesarerequiredtodefineaplaneforavariogrammap:
Dip(90to+90)andDipdirection(0to359)
Forexample,aplanedefinedas'StrikingN15E,Dipping40degreestotheNW'couldbe
definedinSurpacaseither:
Dip:40Dipdirection:285orDip:+40Dipdirection:105
Asolidmodeloftheorezone,colouredbyZ,andtwotriangles,representingthetwo
methodsofdefiningtheplanesabovewillbedisplayed.
ThevaluesofDip:+40Dipdirection:105willbeusedinthisexample.
Thedataisdisplayedingraphicsasshown:

Definitionofaplanetobeusedforavariogrammap
Task:CalcuatethePrimaryVariogramMap
1. Runmacro06_primary_variogram_map.tcl.
Youwillsee:
Avariogrammapdisplayedinthreedimensions.
Aformdisplayed
Page 155 of 189

Afterreadingthetextbelowontheform,movetheformtothesidesothatyoucanseetheimagein
graphics.
Note:DoNOTclickApplyyet.
Avariogrammapisasetofexperimentalvariograms,calculatedatregularangular
increments,colouredbygamma(h)values.

ThereferencemanualpageforvariogrammapsisSSI_REFMAN:/default/stats/map.htm,and
hasbeenincludedinthistutorialandopenedbythismacro.Pleaserefertoitforadetailed
explanationofvariogrammaps.

Forthepurposeofthisdemonstration,itisimportanttounderstandacoupleofbasic
concepts.

Therearetwovariogrammaps:

1)Theprimaryvariogrammapwillcontainthemajoraxis.
2)Thesecondaryvariogrammapisperpendiculartothemajoraxis,andcontainsthesemi
majorandminoraxes.

Theprimaryvariogrammap,withDip:+40Dipdirection:105hasbeendisplayedbythis
macrointhemaingraphicswindow.

Theorientationofthemajoraxisinthiscasehasbeenselectedasa'pitch'or'rakeangle'of
15degreesfromthehorizontalstrikeofthevariogrammapplane.

Thisdirectionwasselectedbasedonaninterpretationthattherangeofthevariogramatthis
orientationwaslongerthantherangeofanyothervariogramonthisplane.

Manyaspectsofgeostatisticsarenotanexactscience.Theinterpretationofvariogramdata,
andtheselectionoftheorientationofthedirectionofmaximumcontinuityisdonehereto
demonstratethegeostatisticalfunctionalityavailable.

Afterthisform,thevariogrammodellingformwillbepresented.OnceyouAPPLYthatform,
itwilltakeafewminutestocalculatethevariogrammap.Whileitisprocessing,youmay
clickonthiswindowtoreviewthedata,orreadthereferencemanualpage..
Youwillseethefinalproductyouwillbecreating,aprimaryvariogrammap,ingraphics.
Page 156 of 189


Primaryvariogrammapin3D
Bydefinition,theprimaryvariogrammapwillcontainthemajoraxisoftheanisotropyellipsoid.The
semimajoraxismayormaynotliewithintheplaneoftheprimaryvariogrammap.
2. Onceyouhaveviewedtheprimaryvariogrammap,movetheformbackintoviewandclickApply.
3. ChooseGeostatistics>VariogrammodellingtoopentheVARIOGRAMMODELLINGwindow.
Theformbelowisdisplayed.

VariogrammapBasictab
Inthetoppanel,stringfileinformation(Location,ID,stringrange,etc.)isdefinedusingthesame
parametersasinvariogramcalculation.
Inthemiddlepanel,theplanecontainingtheprimaryvariogrammapisdefined.Notethathereyouare
using:
Dip:+40
Dipdirection:105
Page 157 of 189

Note:Aswasmentionedpreviously,thissameplanecouldbedefinedusingadipof40andadip
directionof285.
Thenumberofvariogramsselectedwilldeterminetheangularincrement.Inourexample,24
variogramswillresultina15degreeangularincrement(360/24=15).Ifthenumberofvariogramswas
setto36,youwouldgeta10degreeincrement(360/36=10).
Thespreadandspreadlimitparametersarethesameasinnormalvariogrammodelling.
Therelationshipbetweentheangularincrementandthespreadangleshouldbeconsidered.
Tosome,itmayseemunreasonabletodefineaspreadtoleranceanythinggreaterthanhalfofthe
angularincrement.Forthisdataset,becauseofthesmallnumberofpairs,ifa7.5degreespreadwere
used(halfofthe15degreeangularincrementbetweenadjacentvariograms),thenumberofdatapairs
wouldbesosmallthatveryfew,ifanyreasonablevariogramswouldresult.Aspreadof30degreesis
usedforthisdatasettoensurethatsufficientsamplesareincluded.
Giventhataspreadof30degreesisused,onecouldarguethatthenumberofvariogramsshouldbe
reducedtominimisetheoverlapoftheconesforadjacentvariograms.Althoughthisisaplausible
argumentintheory,thepracticalityofusingavariogrammaptovisuallydetermineanisotropyinaplane
oftenrulesoutreducingtheangularincrement.
Itisuptoyouandthedatasetyouareworkingwithastohowyouwanttogoaboutachievingbothof
thesegoalssimultaneously.Thisisyetanotherexampleofhowgeostatisticsisaninexactscience.
Experiencewithadatasetwillusuallyletyouknowwhatcombinationofparametersisacceptable.
Inthebottompanel,thelag,maximumdistance,andvariogramreportparametersarespecified,exactly
astheyareinvariogrammodelling.Oneitemtoconsiderthemaximumdistancewillbetheradiusof
thevariogrammap.Youmayfindthatyouwillneedtotryafewvariationsofthisvaluetogetonethatis
adequate.
5. ClicktheAdvancedtab.
Youwillseethatthefieldshereareidenticaltothoseontheadvancedtabofthevariogramcalculation
form.

VariogrammapAdvancedtab
Page 158 of 189

6. Afteryouhavecompletedviewingthis,clickApply.
7. Afterreadingthetextbelowonthesecondform,clickApply.
DONOTMODIFYANYWINDOWSORDATADISPLAYED.

Thenextmacro,_07_secondary_variogram_map.tcl,mustberunafterthis,anddependson
thevariogrammodellingwindowpresentedasitisdonotclosethevariogrammodelling
windowormakeanymodificationstothedatadisplayed.

Theprimaryvariogrammap,withDip:+40Dipdirection:105isnowdisplayed.
Additionally,thevariogrammaphasbeensavedasthefileprimary_variogram_map1.dtm,
andisdisplayedinthemaingraphicswindow.Ithasbeencolouredbygamma(h)values,
whicharestoredintheD1field.Youmaywanttoreviewandrotatethedatatherebefore
proceedingwiththenextmacro.

Thevariogrammapcurrentlydisplayedappearstobe'incomplete',orhas'missing'data.
Thereisactuallynothingwrongthe'missing'partsofthevariogrammaparesimplywhere
nodatapairsexistatthatdistanceandorientation.

Theorientationofthemajoraxishasbeenselectedasa'pitch'or'rakeangle'of15degrees
fromthehorizontalstrikeofthevariogrammapplane.

Thisdirectionwasselectedbasedonaninterpretationthattherangeofthevariogramatthis
orientationwaslongerthantherangeofanyothervariogramonthisplane.Aspreviously
stated,interpretationsofgeostatisticaldataareperformedhereonlytodemonstratethe
functionalityofthesoftware.Alternateinterpretationsmaybedeemedmoreappropriate.

ThefunctionFileSaveExperimentalvariogram(SAVEEXPVG)hasbeenusedtosavethe
filemajor_axis.evg.Itispossibletoreviewtheexperimentalvariogramdatabyopeningthis
file.

Additionally,ThefunctionFileSaveVariogrammodel(SAVEVGMODEL)hasbeenusedto
savethefilemajor_axis.vgm.Whentheexperimentalvariogramdataisdisplayed,itis
possibletoreviewthevariogrammodelbyopeningthisfile.
Youwillseethevariogrammap,aswellasthevariogramfortheorientationdisplayedonthevariogram
map.
Page 159 of 189

8. Clickthetabtodisplaytheorientationasshown:

Variogrammap
Thepurposeoftheprimaryvariogrammapistodeterminetheorientationofthemajoraxis.As
describedpreviously,bydefinition,themajoraxislieswithintheprimaryvariogrammap.Theexample
givenhereisbaseduponthepremisethatyou,asageologistknowthattheorientationofthemajoraxis
willliesomewhereinthisdippingplaneforthisdataset.Forahorizontalseamdeposit,theorientation
oftheprimaryvariogrammapwouldbehorizontal.
Theideaistoselectthevariogramorientationwhichhasthelongestrangeforagivensillvalue.Thelag
sliderandtheNextdirectionfunctionscanhelpyou,asdescribedhere:
givenabove,notethattheorientationof15degreesabovethehorizontal(ontheleft)will
consistentlydisplaycoloursonthelowendofthevariancevalues,asrepresentedbythelegendto
theright.
2. Onceyouhaveanideaofwhatmayappeartobetheorientationofthelongestrange,usethe
Nextdirectionfunctiontorotatetheblacklineonthevariogrammaptothatdirection.
3. Nowusethelagslidertoimprovethequalityoftheexperimentalvariogramforthatdirection.
4. Onceyouhaveanacceptablevariogram,createavariogrammodelforthatorientation.
5. UsetheNextdirection(and/orPreviousdirection)functiontorotatethroughalloftheother
orientations.Themajoraxisshouldbethatvariogramwhichhasthelowestvarianceforthe
longestdistance.
Page 160 of 189
6. Ifanotherorientationappearstohavealongerrangeandalowervariance,modifythemodelto
fitthatexperimentalvariogram.Modifyingthelagdistanceforthatorientationmayhelpyouget
abetterfit.
axis.
8. Afteryouhaveascertainedamajoraxis,askyourselfandotherswhoarefamiliarwiththegeology
iftheorientationappearscorrect.
Asyoucansee,notonlyisthesubjectofvariogrammodellinganonscientificprocess,butthe
orientationofthemajoraxisisalsoopentointerpretationanddebate.
Onceyouhavedeterminedtheorientationofthemajoraxis,youmustinformthesoftwareofyour
selection.
12. ChooseVariogrammap>Selectdirectionofmaximumcontinuity.
13. Inthevariogrammapviewport,clickanddragtheredlinetoyourselectedorientation,then
release.
Aformwilldisplay,indicatingtherelativeorientationofyourselection,asavaluebetween0and180.
Youwillprobablyneedtochangethisvaluetofityourdesiredorientation.
Noticethatthisisafreerotation,andyouarenotforcedtoselectapreciseorientationofanyofthe
variogramdirections.Thiscanbeusefulifyouhavefoundtwoadjacentorientationswhichareequally
validyoucansetthedirectionofmaximumcontinuitytomidwaybetweenthesetwodirections.

Directionofmaximumcontinuity
14. ClickApplytoenterthevalue.
Task:CalculatetheSecondaryVariogramMap
1. Runthemacro07_secondary_variogram_map.tcl.
Asecondaryvariogrammapwillnowbecreated.

Theselecteddirectionofmaximumcontinuityinthesecondaryvariogrammapisthesemi
majoraxis.

Theminoraxiswilllieintheplaneofthesecondaryvariogrammap,perpendiculartothe
semimajoraxis.Theorientationoftheminoraxisisautomaticallycalculatedbasedonthe
orientationofthesemimajoraxisnouserinputisrequired.

ADTMofthesecondaryvariogrammaphasbeendisplayedingraphics.Clickonthemain
windowtoreviewthisdata.Notethatthesemimajoraxis,inthiscase,isnotcontainedin
theplaneoftheprimaryvariogrammap,althoughitcouldhavebeen.

Page 161 of 189

OnceyouApplythisform,itwilltakeafewminutestocalculatethesecondaryvariogram
map.Whileitisprocessing,youcanreviewthesecondaryvariogrammapinthemain
windoworreadthereferencemanualpageonvariogrammaps.
Thesecondaryvariogrammap,andtheselectedorientationsofallaxes,aredisplayedingraphics:

PrimaryandSecondaryvariogrammaps
3. Afterreadingthetextbelowonthenextform,clickApply.
DONOTMODIFYANYWINDOWSORDATADISPLAYED.

Thenextmacro,_08_anisotropy_ellipsoid.tcl,mustberunafterthis,anddependsonthe
variogrammodellingwindowpresentedasitisdonotclosethevariogrammodelling
windowormakeanymodificationstothedatadisplayed.

Thesecondaryvariogrammaphasbeencalculated,andadirectionofmaximumcontinuity
hasbeenidentified.Thisorientationisthesemimajoraxis.

Theminoraxisisalsointheplaneofthesecondaryvariogrammap,andisperpendicularto
thesemimajoraxis.Theorientationoftheminoraxisisautomaticallycalculatedbasedon
theorientationofthesemimajoraxisnouserinputisrequired.

Thesecondaryvariogrammaphasbeencreatedperpendiculartotheprimaryvariogrammap
(Dip:+40Dipdirection:105)andperpendiculartothemajoraxis.Thesecondaryvariogram
maphastheorientationof:
Page 162 of 189


Dip:80.42Dipdirection:26.5
whichisthesameas:
Dip:80.42Dipdirection:206.5

Additionally,thevariogrammaphasbeensavedasthefile
secondary_variogram_map1.DTM,andisdisplayedinthemaingraphicswindow.Ithasbeen
colouredbygamma(h)values,whicharestoredintheD1field.Youmaywanttoreviewand
rotatethedatatherebeforeproceedingwiththenextmacro.Again,'missing'datainany
variogrammapisaresultoflackofdatapairsatcertaindistancesandorientations.

Inthiscase,thesemimajoraxishasbeenselectedatanorientationslightlydifferenttothe
dipoftheprimaryvariogrammap.Iftheorientationofthesemimajoraxiswassignificantly
differentthantheprimaryvariogrammap,itmaybeworthrecalculatingtheprimary
variogrammapatanorientationwhichencompassesboththemajorandsemimajoraxesas
determinedhere.
Noticethatthesamestepsusedtoselectthedirectionofmaximumcontinuityfortheprimaryvariogram
maphavebeenusedtoselectthedirectionofmaximumcontinuityforthesecondaryvariogrammap.
4. Clickthetabtodisplaytheorientationasshown:
Page 163 of 189

Variogram Maps Anisotropy Ellipsoid Parameters
AnisotropyEllipsoidParameters
Task:Calculateellipsoidparameterswithamacro
1. Runthemacro08_anisotropy_ellipsoid.tcl.
Ifthecontinuityofthedataisthesameinalldirections,an'isotropic'conditionissaidto
exist.Inotherwords,themajor,semimajor,andminoraxeswouldallhavethesame
continuity.However,inthisdemonstration,an'anisotropic'conditionexists,asthereis
variablecontinuity.

Asmentionedpreviously,themajoraxisistheorientationwhichrepresentsthegreatest
continuity.Bydefinition,thesemimajoraxisisthesecondlargestmeasureofcontinuity,
andtheminoraxisisthesmallest.Forblockmodelestimation,itisnecessarytoknowthe
strengthofthemajoraxisascomparedtothestrengthoftheothertwoaxes.The
orientationofthethreeaxes,aswellasthestrengthofthecontinuityrelativetotheother
axesisdescribedbyan'anisotropyellipsoid'.

Thestrengthofthecontinuityalongthemajoraxisiscomparedtothecontinuityofthesemi
majorandminoraxesbythefollowingtwoterms:

Themajortosemimajoranisotropyratioandthemajortominoranisotropyratio.These
ratiosarecalculatedbycomparingthelengthoftherangesofthevariogramsalongeachaxis.

Todeterminetheseratios,
1)Thefunction'Extractvariogramsalongaxes'isperformed,andtheexperimentalvariogram
dataandthevariogrammodelforthemajoraxisisdisplayed.
2)The'Nextvariogram'functionisperformed,andtheexperimentalvariogramdataforthe
semimajoraxisispresented
3)Therangeofthevariogramisgraphicallymodifiedtomatchthedataforthesemimajor
axis(thenuggetandsillvaluesofthevariogrammodelareheldconstant).Thelagdistance
maybemodifiedtoimprovethequalityofthevariogram.
4)Themajortosemimajoranisotropyratioiscalculatedas:
Thelengthoftherangeofthevariogrammodelforthemajoraxis/Thelengthoftherange
ofthevariogrammodelforthesemimajoraxis
5)The'Nextvariogram'functionisperformedagain,andtheexperimentalvariogramdatafor
theminoraxisispresented.
6)Asinstep3,therangeofthevariogramisgraphicallymodifiedtomatchthedataforthe
minoraxis(thenuggetandsillvaluesofthevariogrammodelareheldconstant).Thelag
distancemaybemodifiedtoimprovethequalityofthevariogram.
7)Themajortominoranisotropyratioiscalculatedas:
ofthevariogrammodelfortheminoraxis

Thetwoanisotropyratiosarecalculatedanddisplayedintheupperrightviewport.
Page 164 of 189

The'Extractvariogramsalongaxes'(VGSHOWAXESVARIOGRAMS)functionhasbeen
performed,andtheexperimentalvariogramdataforthemajoraxisisdisplayed.FileOpen
Variogrammodel(RECALLVGMODEL)hasbeenusedtodisplaythemajoraxisvariogram
model.

The'Nextvariogram'(VGNEXT)functionwillbeperformed,andtheexperimentalvariogram
dataforthesemimajoraxiswillbepresented,alongwiththemajoraxisvariogrammodel.

Afterthis,themacrowillmodifytherangeofthevariogram(normallythisisdonegraphically
bytheuser)tomatchthedataforthesemimajoraxis(thenuggetandsillvaluesofthe
variogrammodelforthemajoraxisareheldconstant).

Oncethisisdone,themajortosemimajoranisotropyratiowillbecalculatedas:


Thisanisotropyratiowillbedisplayedintheupperrightviewport.
Thesecondaryvariogrammap,andtheselectedorientationsofallaxesaredisplayed.
5. Afterreadingthetextbelowontheform,clickApply.
Therangeofthevariogramhasbeenmodifiedtomatchthedataforthesemimajoraxis.
Notethatthenuggetandsillvaluesofthevariogrammodelareheldconstant.

Therangesofthevariogrammodelsforthemajorandsemimajoraxesareusedtocalculate
themajortosemimajoranisotropyratio:


Inthisexample,thelengthoftherangesofthevariogrammodelsare:
Majoraxis:168
Semimajoraxis:99

Therefore,themajortosemimajoranisotropyratiois:168/99=1.7

Page 165 of 189

Thisanisotropyratioisdisplayedintheupperrightviewport.

Followingthis,the'Nextvariogram'(VGNEXT)functionwillbeperformed,andthe
experimentalvariogramdatafortheminoraxiswillbepresented,alongwiththecurrent
variogrammodel.Themajor/minoranisotropyratiowillbecalculatedinthesamemanner.
6. Whenthenextformisdisplayed,clickanddragitoutofthewaysothatyoucanviewthe
variogrammodelledfortheminoraxis.
7. Afterreadingthetextbelowontheform,clickApply.
The'Nextvariogram'functionhasbeenperformed,andtheexperimentalvariogramdatafor
theminoraxishasbeenpresented,alongwiththesemimajoraxisvariogrammodel.Thelag
distancehasbeenchangedtoimprovethequalityofthevariogram.

Therangeofthevariogramhasbeenmodifiedtomatchthedatafortheminoraxis.Note
thattherequirementofmaintainingthesamenuggetandsillvaluesofthevariogrammodel
doesnotallowaverygoodfitofthevariograminthiscase.Datasuchasthispresentsa
challengeforinterpretation.

Therangesofthevariogrammodelsforthemajorandminoraxesareusedtocalculatethe
majortominoranisotropyratio:

ofthevariogrammodelfortheminoraxis

Inthisexample,thelengthoftherangesofthevariogrammodelsare:
Majoraxis:168
Minoraxis:33
Therefore,themajortominoranisotropyratiois:168/33=5.1

Thisanisotropyratioisdisplayedintheupperrightviewport.

Thenextstepistodeterminetheorientationoftheanisotropyellipsoid,intermsofSurpac's
rotationconvention.

Thefunction'Createanisotropyellipsoidreport'willbeusedtodothis.

Nowthatyouhaveobtainedalloftheinformationbelow,youarereadytoproceedwith
blockmodelestimation:

Page 166 of 189

Anisotropyellipsoidorientation(Surpacconvention):
Bearing:206.6
Plunge:9.6
Dip:45

Majoraxisvariogramparameters:
Co(nugget):4.4
C(sill):5.4
A(range):168.0

Majortosemimajoranisotropyratio:1.7
Majortominoranisotropyratio:5.1
9. Youwillseetheellipsoiddisplayedingraphics:

Task:Calculateellipsoidparametersmanually
TheVariogrammapchartinginv6.1doesnotallowdisplayofallofthenecessaryimagesviaamacro.
1. ChooseVariogrammap>Secondaryvariogrammap.
2. ChooseVariogrammap>Extractvariogramsalongaxes.
3. ChooseFile>Open>Variogrammodel.
Page 167 of 189


Thevariogrammodelisdisplayed.

1. Clickthesemimajortab.
2. ChooseVariogrammap>Changeanisotropy.
3. Clickanddragthevariogramstructuretotheleft,untilthemodelmatchestheexperimental
variogram,asshown:

Noticethemajor/semimajoranisotropyratiochangesasyoumovethemodel.
1. Clicktheminortab.
Page 168 of 189

3. Clickanddragthevariogramstructuretotheleft,untilthemodelmatchestheexperimental
variogram,asshown:

Noticethemajor/semimajoranisotropyratiochangesasyoumovethemodel.
1. ChooseVariogramMap>Anisotropyellipsoidreport.

1. Ifthefileexists,aformwillbedisplayed.ClickYes.

1. ChooseVariogramMap>Ellipsoidvisualiser.
Page 169 of 189

2. Entertheinformationasshown,andthenclickSaveNow.

1. Openellipsoid123.stringraphics.
Page 170 of 189

Variogram Maps Steps for Using Variogram Maps to Create Anisotropy Ellipsoid
Parameters
Itshouldresemblethepreviousellipsoidcreatedbythemacro,asshown:

1. ChooseFile>ClosetoclosetheVariogrammodellingwindow.
StepsforUsingVariogramMapstoCreateAnisotropyEllipsoidParameters
Insummary,herearethecompletesetofstepstoobtainalloftheanisotropyellipsoidparameters:
UsethePrimaryVariogramMaptodefinethemajoraxis
1. ChooseGeostatistics>Variogrammodellingtoopenthevariogramwindow.
3. EnterthevariogrammapparametersandclickApply.
givenabove,notethattheorientationof15degreesabovethehorizontal(ontheleft)will
consistentlydisplaycoloursonthelowendofthevariancevalues,asrepresentedbythelegendto
theright.Youwillnoticethatverysmalllagvaluesareusuallynotuseful.
5. Onceyouhaveanideaofwhatmayappeartobetheorientationofthelongestrange,selectthe
variogramtabthatrepresentsthatorientation.
6. Usethelagslidertoimprovethequalityoftheexperimentalvariogramforthatdirection.
7. Createavariogrammodelforthatorientation.
8. Lookatthemodelonallotherorientations.Themajoraxisshouldbethatvariogramwhichhas
thelowestvarianceforthelongestdistance.
9. Ifanotherorientationappearstohavealongerrangeandalowervariancethanyourcurrent
model,modifythemodeltofitthatexperimentalvariogram.
axis.ChooseFile>Save>Variogrammodeltosavea*.VGMforthisorientation,whichisthe
majoraxis.Thisisanoptionalstep,butcanbehelpfulinafuturestep.
12. Clickanddragtheredlineonthevariogrammapuntilitisalignedwiththeorientationofthe
majoraxis.
13. ChooseVariogrammap>SaveDTM.Thisisanoptionalstep,butmayhelpyoutodisplaythe
orientationoftheprimaryvariogrammapinthreedimensionsingraphics.
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Parameters
UsetheSecondaryVariogramMaptodefinethesemimajoraxis
1. ChooseVariogrammap>SecondaryVariogrammap.Thedirectionofmaximumcontinuity(the
redline)willdisplayastheintersectionoftheprimaryandsecondaryvariogrammaps.The
orientationofthislineshouldberelativelyclosetowhatwillbecomethesemimajoraxis.
2. Selectavariogramtorotatetheblacklineonthevariogrammaptothatdirection.
3. Nowusethelagslidertoimprovethequalityoftheexperimentalvariogramforthatdirection.
4. Createavariogrammodelforthisorientation,whichwillbecomethesemimajoraxis.Fromthe
Displaymenu,youmaywishtoselectDisplay/Hidevariancetoshowthedatavariance(often
usedasthetotalsill).
5. Lookatthemodelonallotherorientations.Thesemimajoraxisshouldbethatvariogramwhich
hasthelowestvarianceforthelongestdistance.
6. Ifanotherorientationappearstohavealongerrangeandalowervariancethanyourcurrent
model,modifythemodeltofitthatexperimentalvariogram.
7. Repeattheprevioustwostepsuntilyouaresatisfiedthatyouhavetheorientationofthesemi
majoraxis.
9. Clickanddragtheredlineonthevariogrammapuntilitisalignedwiththeorientationof
maximumcontinuity.
10. ChooseVariogrammap>SaveDTM.Thisisanoptionalstep,butmayhelpyoutodisplaythe
orientationofthesecondaryvariogrammapinthreedimensionsingraphics.
Createandviewanisotropyellipsoidparameters
1. ChooseVariogrammap>Extractvariogramsalongaxes.
2. ChooseFile>Open>Variogrammodeltodisplaythevariogrammodelforthemajoraxis.Ifyou
didnotpreviouslysaveavariogrammodel,createavariogramtofitthemajoraxis.
3. Ensurethatthevariogramforthesemimajoraxisiseitherthesameas,ortotheleftofthe
variogrammodelforthemajoraxis.Youmayneedtousethelagslidertoimprovethequalityof
thevariogram.Bydefinition,therangeofthemajoraxismustbeequaltoorlongerthanthe
rangeofthesemimajoraxisforagivensill.
4. Ifthevariogramrepresentingthesemimajoraxisistotherightofthemodelforthemajoraxis,
thenyouneedtostartagain.Thecurrentsemimajoraxisisnowamorelikelycandidateforthe
orientationofthemajoraxis.
5. Ensurethatthevariogramfortheminoraxisiseitherthesameas,ortotheleftofthevariogram
modelforthesemimajoraxis.Youmayneedtousethelagslidertoimprovethequalityofthe
variogram.Bydefinition,therangeofthesemimajoraxismustbeequaltoorlongerthanthe
rangeoftheminoraxisforagivensill.
6. Ifthevariogramrepresentingtheminoraxisistotherightofthemodelforthesemimajoraxis,
thenyouneedtogobacktothesecondaryvariogrammap.Thecurrentminoraxisisnowamore
likelycandidatefortheorientationofthesemimajoraxis.

Note:Itisoftendifficultorimpossibletointerprettheexperimentalvariogramfortheminor
direction.Ifyoucannotgetavisuallyacceptableminorvariogram,butyoudohavegoodquality
variogramsforthemajorandsemimajoraxes,youmaychoosetocontinue,anddeterminethe
ratiofortheminoraxisbasedonotherfactors,suchasgeometry.
7. Viewthesemimajoraxis.Modifythelagifrequiredtoimprovethequalityoftheexperimental
variogram.
9. Clickanddragthesill/rangemarkertotheleftuntilthevariogrammodelmatchesthe
experimentalvariogramforthesemimajoraxis.
Note:Youwillnotbeabletomodifyeitherthenuggetorthesillonlytherangeischangedto
calculatetheanisotropyratio.
10. Viewtheminoraxis.Modifythelagifrequiredtoimprovethequalityoftheexperimental
variogram.
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Parameters
12. Clickanddragthesill/rangemarkertotheleftuntilthevariogrammodelmatchesthe
experimentalvariogramfortheminoraxis.
Note:Itisoftendifficultorimpossibletointerprettheexperimentalvariogramfortheminor
direction.Ifyoucannotgetavisuallyacceptableminorvariogram,butyoudohavegoodquality
variogramsforthemajorandsemimajoraxes,youmaychoosemodifytherangeuntiltheratio
fortheminoraxisisequaltosomevalueyouhavechosenbasedonotherfactors,suchas
geometry.
13. ChooseVariogrammap>Createanisotropyellipsoidreport.Thisreportwillcontainvaluesfor
theorientationoftheanisotropyellipsoid,aswellasthemajor/semimajorandmajor/minor
anisotropyratios.
14. ChooseVariogrammap>Ellipsoidvisualiser.Youcanvieworsavetheellipsoid.
15. ChooseFile>Closetoexitthevariogrammodellingwindow.
Summary
Youshouldnowunderstandthefollowingterms:
Variogrammap
Primaryvariogrammap
Secondaryvariogrammap
Youshouldalsoknowhowtocreateandusevariogrammapstodeterminetheparameterswhichdefine
ananisotropyellipsoidwithSurpac.
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Ordinary Kriging Overview
OrdinaryKriging
Overview
ordinarykriging.
Requirements
Surpacmenubars
Surpacstringfiles
Surpacblockmodels
anisotropyellipsoid
theparameterswhichdefineananisotropyellipsoid
Task:PerformOrdinaryKrigingEstimationona3DBlockModel
1. Run_10_ordinary_kriging.tcl.(thisrunsthemenucommandBlockmodel>Estimation>
Ordinarykriging.)
2. Readtheinformationpresentedonthefirstform,andthenclickApply.
Ordinarykrigingwillnowbeperformedtoestimatevaluesusingananisotropicsearch.Six
formswillbepresented.

Thefirstformisusedtoenterthenameoftheattribute(anisotropic_kriged_gold)toreceive
theestimatedvalue.

Thesecondformallowsyoutooptionallynameneworexistingattributestoreceivevalues
for:
anisotropicdistancefromtheblockcentroidtothenearestdatapoint
averageanisotropicdistancefromtheblockcentroidtoalldatapointsusedinthe
estimationoftheblock
numberofsamplesusedintheestimationoftheblock
blockkrigingvariance
(Theseattributeswillnotbeusedinthisexample.)

Thethirdformiswherethestringfile,stringnumber(s)anddescriptionfieldcontainingthe
dataisentered.
Inthiscase,wewillusetheD1valuesfromstrings1and2ofgold_cut17.str

Thevaluesfromtheanisotropyellipsoidreportareenteredonthefourthform.

Thefifthformallowsyoutoopenavariogramparameterfile(major_axis.vgm).
Doingthisinsertsthevariogramvaluesofnugget,sill,andrangeintotheform.

Thesixthformdisplaystheconstraintwhichisusedtolimittheblockswhichreceive
estimatedvalues.

ReviewtheinformationpresentedoneachformandpressAPPLY.Donotmodifyanyvalues.
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Ordinary Kriging Requirements
3. ClickApplyoneachofthefollowingforms:
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Themodelisdisplayed.

4. Readtheinformationpresentedonthefirstform,andthenclickApply.
Ordinarykrigingwillnowbeperformedtoestimatevaluesusinganisotropicsearch.
Thisisdoneonthefourthform,wheretheanisotropyratiosarebothsetto1:
major/semimajor=1
major/minor=1
Notethatonthefifthform,thevariogrammodelisthesameasbefore.
ReviewtheinformationpresentedoneachformandpressAPPLY.Donotmodifyanyvalues.
5. ClickApplyoneachofthefollowingforms:
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Themodelisdisplayedasshown:

6. ChooseBlockmodel>Save.
7. ChooseBlockmodel>Close
Summary
Youshouldunderstandtheformsandparametersinvolvedinperformingordinarykrigingfora3Dmodel
inSurpac.Understandinghoweachofthemanyparametersassociatedwithanindividualestimation
methodisnosimpletask.Itusuallywilltakesometime,moreresearch,and/orexperiencewithseveral
datasetstograsptheconceptspresentedhere.
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Model Validation Overview
ModelValidation
Overview
Animportantstepinageostatisticalevaluationistovalidatethemodelafterithasbeencreated.There
areseveralmeansofperformingthis:
4. Trendanalysis
Requirements
Surpacmenubars
Surpacstringfiles
Surpacblockmodels
anisotropyellipsoid
ordinarykriging
ComparingCrosssectionalDatawithaModel
Onemethodofvalidatingamodelistoviewcrosssectionsofitcomparedtootherdata.
1. Runthemacro_15a_display_partial_percent.tcl.
Thismacrowilldisplayacrosssectionofa3Dsolid,andthecalculatedpartialpercentageofblocksinside
thesolid:

Basically,youwanttoensurethatthevaluesinthemodelappeartobecorrect.Thisdoesappeartobe
thecase:blocksentirelywithinthemodelhaveapartialpercentvalueof1.00andblockspartiallywithin
themodelhaveapartialpercentagevaluebetween0and1.00.
2. Runthemacro_15b_display_blocks&composites.tcl.
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Thismacrowilldisplayacrosssectionofa3Dsolid,rawandcompositeddrillholedata,aswellaskriged
valuesofblocksinsidethesolid:

Again,youwanttocheckthatblockvaluesandmodelvaluesappeartobecorrect.
GradeTonnageCurves
Anothermeansofvalidatingamodelistoreporttonnesandgradeandconstructagradetonnagecurve.
1. Runthemacro_16a_bm_report.tcl.
Thismacrowillperformblockmodelreportingtocreatea*.CSVfilecontaininggradeandtonnes.Apre
defined*.XLSfileisdisplayedattheendwithagraphofthegradetonnagecurve.
2. ClickApplyoneachoftheformsdisplayed:
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Thefilegrade_tonnage.xlshasbeenpreparedwithagraphoftheoutputdata:
BasicStatisticsofModelValues
1. Runthemacro_12_bm_basic_stats.tcl.
Thismacrowilldisplaybasicstatisticsonthreeblockmodelparameters.
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Model Validation Trend Analysis
2. Ensuretheinformationasshown,andthenclickApply.

Youwillseeahistogramofthedatadisplayedasshown.

ChooseFile>Close.
TrendAnalysis
1. Runthemacro_16b_export_centroids.tcl.
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2. ClickApplyonanyforms:
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Whenthedatahasbeenexported,youwillseethedataingraphics:

3. Runthemacro_16c_bm_vs_composites.tcl.
ThismacroperformsthefunctionGeostatistics>Trendanalysis.Noticethattherearetwotabsonthe
formwhichisdisplayed.
Themaintabcontainsthenamesofthefile(s)tobeanalysed:
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TheCoordinateConstraintstaballowsyoutospecifyarangeofcoordinatevalues.

Inthiscase,youwanttocomparethedownholecompositevaluesagainsttheblockcentroidsforarange
ofnorthings.
4. ClickApplyontheformwhenyouhavereviewedit.
Thepreviouslypreparedfilebm_vs_composites.xlscontainsthedataandagraph:

Trendanalysiscanbeusedtoidentifyregionswhereblockmodelestimationsmaybedifferenttothe
compositeddata.
Summary
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Youshouldunderstandhowtovalidateamodelafterithasbeencreated,usingthefollowing
techniques:
4. Trendanalysis
Page 189 of 189

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v61 Geostatistics Tutorial

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Copyright2007GemcomSoftwareInternationalInc.(Gemcom).

58081.216880 Skewness 2.244937 2.262438 Kurtosis 7.750201 0.243772

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realization1 realization2 realization3 block_estimate

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Output Filename: gold_cut17

Number of samples 335

Ungrouped Data Grouped Data

Moment 1 About Arithmetic Mean 0.000000 0.000000

Skewness 3.199827 3.188547

Natural Log Mean 0.907009 0.908520

25.0 Percentile 1.657500

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