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A conceptual framework and


classification of capability areas for
business process maturity
a b a b c d b
Amy Van Looy , Manu De Backer & Geert Poels
a
Faculty of Business Administration and Public Administration
Department of Management and ICT , University College Ghent ,
Ghent , Belgium
b
Faculty of Economics and Business Administration Department
of Management Information Science and Operations Management ,
Ghent University , Ghent , Belgium
c
Faculty of Applied Economics Department of Management
Information Systems , University of Antwerp , Antwerp , Belgium
d
Faculty of Business and Economics Department of Management
Informatics , K.U.Leuven, Leuven , Belgium
Published online: 24 May 2012.

To cite this article: Amy Van Looy , Manu De Backer & Geert Poels (2014) A conceptual framework
and classification of capability areas for business process maturity, Enterprise Information Systems,
8:2, 188-224, DOI: 10.1080/17517575.2012.688222

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Enterprise Information Systems, 2014
Vol. 8, No. 2, 188224, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17517575.2012.688222

A conceptual framework and classication of capability areas for


business process maturity
Amy Van Looya,b*, Manu De Backera,b,c,d and Geert Poelsb
a
Faculty of Business Administration and Public Administration Department of Management and
ICT, University College Ghent, Ghent, Belgium; bFaculty of Economics and Business
Downloaded by [Universiti Teknologi Malaysia] at 07:08 25 September 2014

Administration Department of Management Information Science and Operations Management,


Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium; cFaculty of Applied Economics Department of Management
Information Systems, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium; dFaculty of Business and
Economics Department of Management Informatics, K.U.Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
(Received 28 October 2011; nal version received 22 April 2012)

The article elaborates on business process maturity, which indicates how well
an organisation can perform based on its business processes, i.e. on its way of
working. This topic is of paramount importance for managers who try to excel
in todays competitive world. Hence, business process maturity is an emerging
research eld. However, no consensus exists on the capability areas (or skills)
needed to excel. Moreover, their theoretical foundation and synergies with
other elds are frequently neglected. To overcome this gap, our study presents
a conceptual framework with six main capability areas and 17 sub areas. It
draws on theories regarding the traditional business process lifecycle, which are
supplemented by recognised organisation management theories. The compre-
hensiveness of this framework is validated by mapping 69 business process
maturity models (BPMMs) to the identied capability areas, based on content
analysis. Nonetheless, as a consensus neither exists among the collected
BPMMs, a classication of dierent maturity types is proposed, based on
cluster analysis and discriminant analysis. Consequently, the ndings con-
tribute to the grounding of business process literature. Possible future avenues
are evaluating existing BPMMs, directing new BPMMs or investigating which
combinations of capability areas (i.e. maturity types) contribute more to
performance than others.
Keywords: business process management; maturity; conceptual framework;
capabilities; process improvement; excellence; business process reengineering;
business process transformation

1. Introduction
Business processes are at the heart of each organisation. They describe how
organisations operate and therefore impact how organisations perform. Their
business importance is already shared among many executives (Gartner 2009,
McKinsey 2010). Moreover, organisations are increasingly focussing on their
business processes to excel. This means that they strive for the highest level of
performance. This is mainly due to (1) higher customer expectations in the globalised

*Corresponding author. Email: amy.vanlooy@hogent.be

2013 Taylor & Francis


Enterprise Information Systems 189

market and (2) growing IT possibilities to support business processes (Harrington


2006, vom Brocke and Rosemann 2010).
But how well does an organisation improve its business processes? This brings us to
maturity, which is a measure to indicate how excellent business processes can perform,
i.e. expected performance. Maturity aims at systematically assessing and improving the
capabilities, i.e. skills or competences, of business processes and their organisation
needed to deliver higher performance, i.e. actual performance (Harrington 2006, Van
Looy et al. 2011). de Bruin and Rosemann (2007) distinguish two types of maturity: (1)
maturity of specic business processes and (2) maturity of business process manage-
ment in general, i.e. of all business processes in the organisation.
Since process improvements are not easy to realise, business process maturity
models (BPMMs) have been designed from which organisations gradually benet in
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their journey towards excellence. BPMMs present a sequence of maturity levels and a
step-by-step roadmap with goals and best practices to reach each consecutive maturity
level (Van Looy et al. 2011). However, a BPMM proliferation exists (Sheard 2001,
Paulk 2004), which prompts us to evaluate the dierent BPMM designs. For instance,
models like OMG (2008) have labelled their levels by focussing on business process
optimisation, e.g. initial, managed, standardised, predictable and innovating.
Other BPMMs, like the one of the Rummler-Brache Group (2004), express maturity
levels as advancements in business process management, e.g. BPM initiation, BPM
evolution and BPM mastery. Thirdly, there are BPMMs which rather prefer
emphasising business process integration, e.g. McCormack and Johnsons levels of ad
hoc, dened, linked and integrated (McCormack and Johnson 2001). Although
their primary focus diers, BPMMs take into account similar capability areas. The
latter are collections of related capabilities that need to be assessed and improved in
order to reach business (process) excellence.
BPMMs are frequently criticised for oversimplifying complex issues (Maier et al.
2009). One of the reasons is that theories or comprehensive studies on business
process maturity are still lacking. This particularly counts for the theoretical
foundation of the capability areas and the relationship with performance. However,
many scholars have (mostly empirically) examined the capability areas as critical
success factors to realise business (process) excellence. And many of them have
translated these factors into a BPMM, e.g. Hammer (2007), Harrington (1991),
McCormack and Johnson (2001) and de Bruin and Rosemann (2007). Our study
consolidates their ndings in a conceptual framework.
Particularly, the latter BPMM was designed by means of a sound methodology
using Delphi studies with international BPM experts, validated by case studies. It
comprises six main capability areas (i.e. critical success factors): (1) strategic
alignment, (2) governance, (3) methods, (4) information technology, (5) people and
(6) culture. Each area has ve sub areas. Nowadays, these capability areas are
presented as a framework that consolidates and structures the essential factors that
constitute BPM as a whole (Rosemann and vom Brocke 2010, p. 107). For instance,
they structure the outline of a recent BPM Handbook (vom Brocke and Rosemann
2010). These capability areas rely on studies on critical success factors for BPM and
empirical research to build a maturity model, albeit without relying on underlying
theories. We will address this gap and also compare de Bruin and Rosemanns
framework with our conceptual framework and with other existing BPMMs.
Furthermore, Mathiesen et al. (2011) refer to eorts of professional communities
to standardise the capabilities (or skills) required per practitioners role in a body of
190 A. Van Looy et al.

knowledge. For instance, they dierentiate the activities of a business analyst from a
business process owner. Nevertheless, to the best of our knowledge, no consensus
currently exists on the formal capability areas for mature business processes in the
literature (Smart et al. 2009, vom Brocke and Rosemann 2010) and among
practitioners (Reiter et al. 2010, Doebeli et al. 2011).
Consequently, this article elaborates on the following research questions.

. RQ1. Which capability areas can be assessed and improved by a BPMM in


order to reach business (process) excellence?
! Identication and foundation of the conceptual framework
. RQ2. Which capability areas are actually assessed and improved by existing
BPMMs?
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! Empirical validation of the conceptual framework, based on prior BPMM


eorts
. RQ3. If RQ2 shows that dierent capability areas are actually assessed and
improved, do existing BPMMs measure dierent types of maturity?
! Classication of BPMMs to rene the earlier ndings of de Bruin and
Rosemann (2007)

The purpose is to theoretically identify and empirically validate the capability areas
which allow classifying and evaluating the coverage of existing BPMMs. As our
scope concerns business processes in general, we primarily make sense of and provide
a structure for the wide diversity of BPMMs out there. The resulting list of capability
areas could help improving existing BPMMs, i.e. in terms of developing the actually
uncovered areas, or help developing new BPMMs. We must, however, note that we
do not intend to assist organisations in choosing the BPMM that best ts their
specic organisational needs.
The remainder of the paper is structured as follows. Section 2 explains the
methodology. As this research takes a topdown approach, the main capability areas
(Section 3) are separated from the sub areas (Section 4). Each section is structured
according to a theoretical and empirical part. Afterwards, the classication is
elaborated on (Section 5) and discussed (Section 6). Finally, Section 7 recalls the
most important ndings with avenues for future research.

2. Methodology
Figure 1 shows our research output in the grey box: (1) a list of main capability areas
and sub areas, with (2) a statistical classication.
We refer to a conceptual framework, as the list contains three layers (i.e. main
areas, sub areas and clusters). It is identied by literature and theories that
characterise the direct relationship (i.e. straight line) with business (process)
excellence. On the other hand, BPMMs claim the indirect relationship which starts
from capability areas for measuring maturity, or expected performance, and results
in actual performance (i.e. dotted line). This indirect relationship is inherently
assumed by BPMMs and has been investigated by some studies on particular
BPMMs (McCormack and Johnson 2001, Skrinjar et al. 2008). Hence, existing
BPMMs serve to validate the comprehensiveness of our theoretical capability areas.
If true, the framework provides a well-grounded foundation for BPMMs.
Furthermore, a statistical classication renes the theoretical capability areas by
Enterprise Information Systems 191
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Figure 1. Our conceptual framework and classication of capability areas for business
process maturity.

reecting dierent levels of coverage by existing BPMMs. The relationships with


business (process) performance are, however, not empirically tested within the scope
of this paper.

2.1. Literature study (RQ1)


The conceptual framework was rigorously built by an iterative and topdown
approach. First, three relevant concepts in the business process literature were
dened: (1) business process (BP), (2) business process management (BPM) and (3)
business process orientation (BPO). We used clear and accepted denitions to derive
the capability areas that are related to these concepts. The BP, BPM and BPO
concepts were already used in the context of BPMMs (McCormack and Johnson
2001, Harrington 2006, de Bruin and Rosemann 2007). Moreover, they are umbrella
terms in contemporary business process literature. For instance, the radical business
process reengineering and the incremental total quality management are two possible
improvement approaches within BPM. Hence, we built on the business process
fundamentals, instead of being biased by the lacking consensus on capability areas
and the manifold BPMMs.
Afterwards, this high-level perspective was rened in sub areas. Besides relying
on the broader literature on business processes, we used validated theories to
underpin the ndings. Since BPMMs aim to improve business processes throughout
their lifecycle, we relied on established theories regarding the traditional business
process lifecycle. We must note that this lifecycle diers from a one-o project
lifecycle, e.g. Prince2 (OGC 2010) or the Rational Unied Process (McGovern et al.
2004), in which project stages are dened to realise a particular process change
(Stemberger and Jaklic 2007). We also looked for recognised organisation
management theories in the eld of (1) performance and change management,
192 A. Van Looy et al.

(2) human resource management and (3) strategic management. This link is
appropriate, since most organisational changes also involve business processes
(Baumol 2010). Moreover, BPMMs aim to gradually increase business (process)
performance (Jeston and Nelis 2006).

2.2. Sampling (RQ2 and RQ3)


The resulting capability areas and sub areas were empirically validated by mapping
them to a sample of existing BPMMs. To fully acknowledge prior BPMM eorts, we
compare the theoretically found areas that a BPMM can address with the
empirically found areas that BPMMs actually address. Particularly, our purpose is
to theoretically ground the capability areas in BPMMs.
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Data were collected during the second quarter of 2010. We initially searched for
articles in academic databases (i.e. SCI-Expanded, SSCI, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-
SSH and BPM Journal) and non-academic search engines (i.e. Google, Google
Scholar) by using the combined keywords of process and maturity. Then, we
traced the references in the identied articles to get access to other relevant sources.
Given the proliferation of BPMMs (Sheard 2001), the research scope was set to
generic business processes. Also supply chains and collaboration processes were
included to examine cross-organisational value chains.
In total, 69 BPMMs were collected, listed in Appendix 1: (1) 37 BPMMs for
generic business processes (13 academic and 24 non-academic), (2) 24 BPMMs for
supply chains (9 academic and 15 non-academic) and (3) 8 BPMMs for process
collaboration (6 academic and 2 non-academic). By including non-academic
BPMMs, our sample is larger than most comparative studies on BPMMs
(Rosemann and vom Brocke 2010). Furthermore, by including dierent process
types (i.e. generic, supply chains and collaboration), our sample suggests versatility
which facilitates transferability of our ndings to other process types, e.g. software
processes.

2.3. Content analysis and descriptive statistics (RQ2)


The documents of the collected BPMMs were repeatedly analysed over time,
beginning in the third quarter of 2010 until the second quarter of 2011. The rst
author was the main coder. In case of any confusion, the other authors were
exhaustively consulted to obtain a reliable coding and investigator triangulation.
This type of content analysis is called positivist (not interpretivist) text analysis by
Lacity and Janson (1994), because researchers are assumed to be outsiders, who
interpret texts from semantics without personal biases or experiences.

2.4. Classication by multivariate statistics (RQ3)


If descriptive statistics show that BPMMs do not necessarily address all theoretical
capability areas, a cluster tendency is demonstrated, which makes formal
classication worthwhile (Jain et al. 1999). Classication is frequently conducted
by combining cluster analysis (i.e. unsupervised or exploratory classication) with
discriminant analysis (i.e. supervised or conrmatory classication) (Punj and
Stewart 1983, Romesburg 1984). First, cluster analysis produces a BPMM
classication based on the distance or similarity between the theoretical capability
Enterprise Information Systems 193

areas. Next, discriminant analysis uses the same capability areas, i.e. independent
variables, to predict cluster membership as obtained from the cluster analysis, i.e.
dependent variable. Discriminant functions are calculated to predict which BPMMs
belong to the previously found clusters. The resulting percentage of correct
predictions is used as a validity measure for the BPMM classication.
Additionally, validity is assured by (1) choosing a meaningful and statistically
correct cluster solution after considering all algorithmic clustering methods available
in SPSS (version 18) and (2) guaranteeing stable results on both the complete and
split dataset.
Finally, all assumptions regarding the underlying data distribution are satised
to properly conduct both cluster analysis and discriminant analysis (Klecka 1980).
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3. Main capability areas in the conceptual framework (RQ1, RQ2)


3.1. Theoretical identication of main capability areas
In previous research (Van Looy et al. 2011), we derived six main capability areas
from recognised denitions for BP, BPM and BPO. This section shows that two
areas are attributed to BP (i.e. modelling and deployment), four to BPM (i.e. BP
plus optimisation and management) and six to BPO (i.e. BPM plus culture and
structure).
Most denitions for a business process refer to a transformation of inputs to
outputs (Zairi 1997, Palmberg 2009). For instance, a process is a series of
interconnected activities that takes input, adds value to it, and produces output. Its how
organizations work their day-to-day routines. Your organizations processes dene how
it operates (Harrington 2006, p. xxii). This transformational view originates from
manufacturing and is less clear in service delivery. Hence, other denitions exist
which emphasise a coordination of activities (Gillot 2008). Despite these dierent
emphases, business process denitions implicitly focus on business process modelling
and deployment. The latter means running processes in real life and is particularly
underlined in Harringtons denition (2006) by the verbs work and operate.
However, it implicitly requires modelling or predening business processes in textual
or graphical descriptions to determine what the inputs, activities and outputs can be
at run-time (Weske 2007). The implicit assumptions of BP denitions are made
explicit by BPM denitions.
BPM involves continuously managing and improving business processes, guided
by process owners. Depending on their background, authors underline more the IT
benets (Smith and Fingar 2002) or the management aspects (Lee and Dale 1998).
Gillot (2008) and Gulledge Jr. and Sommer (2002) summarise four foci in BPM
denitions: (1) modelling, (2) deployment, (3) optimisation, or improving business
processes based on real metrics and (4) the management of business processes, each
with a process owner and a cross-functional team. For instance, Weske (2007)
denes BPM as concepts, methods, and techniques to support the (1) design, (4)
administration, (2) conguration, enactment, and (3) analysis of business processes (p.
5). BPM thus diers from BP by optimising and managing one, more or all business
processes. In other words, BPM includes BP, but BP does not necessarily include
BPM. A business process can run without optimisation or management eorts,
albeit not in its most excellent way, but it always needs some (in)formal modelling.
Consequently, the four foci are selected as main capability areas, of which the rst
two are attributed to BP and all four are attributed to BPM.
194 A. Van Looy et al.

Some authors go beyond these four BPM areas by also referring to organisation
management. Particularly, by adopting two additional foci: (5) a process-oriented
culture, e.g. with rewards linked to the performance of business processes instead of
departments and (6) a process-oriented structure, e.g. with a horizontal or matrix
chart instead of vertical departments. For instance, McCormack and Johnson (2001)
dene BPO as an organisation that emphasises process, a process oriented way of
thinking, customers, and outcomes as opposed to hierarchies (p. 185). Although the
distinction between BPM and BPO is not always explicitly made, e.g. in de Bruin and
Rosemann (2007), it allows separately examining the dierent nuances. Conse-
quently, culture and structure are adopted as BPO-specic main capability areas,
besides the four BPM areas.
In summary, all six main capability areas must be assessed and improved in order
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to fully reach business process maturity (Van Looy et al. 2011). Section 4.1. further
elaborates on the sub areas within each main area. Meanwhile, we briey describe
the capability areas as follows.

(1) Modelling comprises methods and IT for the design and analysis of business
processes.
(2) Deployment comprises methods and IT for the implementation and
enactment of business processes, as well as their measurement and control
during enactment.
(3) Optimisation comprises methods and IT for the evaluation and improve-
ment of business processes after enactment. Improvements vary from
incremental (e.g. total quality management) to radical (e.g. reengineering).
(4) Management comprises the daily management of business processes,
including the required roles and responsibilities with corresponding skills
and training. It also involves linking process goals to the organisational
strategy and the relationships with customers, suppliers and other
stakeholders.
(5) Culture comprises values that favour business processes and their
translation in attitudes and behaviours. It requires appraisals and rewards
that consider process results and top management commitment.
(6) Structure comprises a shift in the organisation chart to visualise horizontal
business processes and specic governance bodies to coordinate the
management of all business processes within an organisation.

3.2. Empirical validation of main capability areas


In order to obtain empirical validation, Appendix 2 shows that the actual capability
areas of 69 BPMMs were mapped to their theoretical equivalents. In line with
Section 3.1. the vertical lines separate the BP-, BPM- and BPO-specic capability
areas. We must note that no other capability areas, additional to the six identied
main areas, were present in the sample. Instead, it turned out that actual BPMMs do
not necessarily cover all main capability areas. This particularly counts for
modelling, culture and structure, which are respectively covered by 56, 57 and
30 BPMMs (out of 69 models). The other areas are mostly present, i.e. 68 BPMMs
for deployment and optimisation and 67 for management. Nevertheless, most
models cover exactly four (17.4%), exactly ve (37.7%) or exactly all six (37.7%)
main areas. Descriptive statistics also showed that some BPMMs are limited to BPM
Enterprise Information Systems 195

capability areas, whereas most models cover at least one BPO-specic capability
area, i.e. culture or structure. This proposes a dichotomy between BPM maturity
and BPO maturity.
Furthermore, we noticed that the assessment items in BPMMs (i.e. questions to
assess or measure capability areas) literally refer to one, more or all business
processes within the involved organisation(s) or value chain (Appendix 2). The
models for a single business process are less numerous (N 9). More often, BPMMs
are used in a business domain with multiple (sub) processes (N 36). For instance,
supply chains have business processes for buying, producing, selling and planning
products and services. This nding conrms the idea of a large cross-departmental or
cross-organisational business process, or horizontal value chain, with sub processes
in each department. Also frequent are BPMMs involving all business processes
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(N 26), which rather take a management perspective instead of focusing on


particular business processes.
Hence, the empirical ndings rene earlier ndings (de Bruin and Rosemann
2007) by suggesting the existence of six maturity types: BPM maturity for one, more
or all business processes and BPO maturity for one, more or all business processes.
Few BPMMs oer multiple maturity types of which practitioners can choose
according to the organisational needs, for instance for both a single business process
and all business processes in Champlin (2008) and Hammer (2007). The ndings also
indicate that the concept of BP maturity itself has not been designed, since no model
only addresses the modelling and deployment areas. However, our dataset is
restricted to BPMMs for generic business processes, supply chains and process
collaboration, as explained in the methodology section. Consequently, BP maturity
may exist for BPMMs regarding specic business process types, such as
manufacturing workows, but this possibility is not further investigated.

4. Capability sub areas in the conceptual framework (RQ1, RQ2)


4.1. Theoretical identication of capability sub areas
The six main capability areas are now specied in 17 sub areas by relying on the
business process and organisation management literature. We build on recognised
theories that give evidence to the found sub areas, particularly (1) business process
lifecycle theories and (2) organisation management theories regarding organisational
change management, strategic management and human resources management. The
rst three main capability areas are primarily addressed by the business process
lifecycle theories, whereas the other three are supported by organisation manage-
ment theories.
Figure 2 visualises that the rst four main capability areas represent the
characteristics of a specic business process. On the other hand, the nal two main
capability areas represent the characteristics of organisations. Hence, these
characteristics impact their whole portfolio of business processes. Subsequently,
each sub area is detailed by relying on the corresponding theories.

4.1.1. Theories on the traditional business process lifecycle


The rst business process lifecycles were presented by the classical quality thinkers:
Shewhart (1986) and Deming (1994). During the 1920s1930s, Shewhart interpreted
production processes as a cycle of specication (i.e. modelling), production
196 A. Van Looy et al.
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Figure 2. An overview of the capability sub areas per main capability area.

(i.e. deployment) and inspection (i.e. optimisation) (Shewhart 1986). During the
1950s, Deming generalised Shewharts cycle to business processes in his PDCA circle
(Deming 1994): (1) plan (i.e. design and analysis), (2) do (i.e. enactment and
measurement), (3) check (i.e. evaluation) and (4) act (i.e. improvement).
Nowadays, many variants exist which do not fundamentally dier (Harrington
1991, Smith and Fingar 2002, zur Muehlen and Ho 2006, Netjes et al. 2006, Weske
2007, Kannengiesser 2008). Translated to our research, they all agree on the three
most basic capability areas: modelling, deployment and optimisation.

4.1.1.1. Main capability area 1: modelling. First, the modelling capability area
relates to methods and IT regarding the rst phase(s) of the business process
lifecycle.

. Business process design deals with the identication and representation of a


business process model. Designers start from an initial set of the business
process purpose, performance targets (or KPIs, Key Performance Indicators),
required behaviours and deliverables (zur Muehlen and Ho 2006, Weske 2007,
Kannengiesser 2008). Based on this set, business processes are modelled in a
textual and/or graphical representation. Netjes et al. (2006) explain that
business process modelling species (1) the process structure, i.e. the
relationship between inputs, activities, outputs, business rules and data, (2)
the resource structure, i.e. who (e.g. role) or what (e.g. departments, IT)
Enterprise Information Systems 197

executes the activities, (3) the allocation logic, i.e. how activities are assigned to
resources and (4) the interfaces between business processes and between
business processes and external partners.
. Business process analysis refers to the validation, simulation and verication of
a (re)designed business process model. Business stakeholders must validate
that these models conform the business reality. Simulations must test the
models in real-world settings. A third method veries whether graphical
models are compliant with the used notation language (Netjes et al. 2006,
Weske 2007).

4.1.1.2. Main capability area 2: deployment. Second, the deployment capability


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area includes methods and IT regarding the intermediate phase(s) of the business
process lifecycle.

. Business process implementation and enactment implies both the preparation


and actual running of business processes. During implementation, the high-
level business process models are translated into deployable models by adding
operational details. The operational systems are selected, congured, tested
and released. These systems include human process participants, who follow
the dened procedures, and/or process-aware information systems, such as a
BPM suite or a workow system (zur Muehlen and Ho 2006, Weske 2007,
Kannengiesser 2008). Business process enactment starts when business
processes are actually executed by following the implemented procedures
and software systems. Each time the business process runs in real life, a process
instance is created (Kannengiesser 2008). Although implementation and
enactment cover distinct lifecycle phases, they are intertwined regarding the
aspects that need to be matured: all enactment changes are prepared by related
implementation changes.
. Business process measurement and control means gathering log les and real-
time monitoring (Weske 2007). During business process enactment, the
performance of business process instances must be measured by recording
activities in log les (zur Muehlen and Ho 2006). It allows real-time monitoring
(during enactment) and process optimisation (after enactment). The log les of
active process instances are used to (1) maintain conformance with the business
process models by correcting deviations and (2) to provide information on the
current status of active instances, e.g. to customers (Netjes et al. 2006,
Weske 2007). The use of log les after enactment belongs to the next capability
area.

4.1.1.3. Main capability area 3: optimisation. Third, the optimisation capability


area contains methods and IT regarding the nal phase(s) of the business process
lifecycle.

. Business process evaluation uses enactment information to quantify the


performance of nished business process instances, specied during business
process modelling, and the operational environment, specied during business
process deployment. Two frequently used evaluation techniques are business
198 A. Van Looy et al.

activity monitoring and process mining (zur Muehlen and Ho 2006, Weske
2007).
. Business process improvement implies both making business processes conform
to their models and optimising the models through redesign. Depending on the
evaluation, business process optimisation varies from larger, radical projects,
such as business process reengineering (BPR) (Hammer and Champy 2003), to
smaller, incremental changes (Harrington 1991). Many optimisation techniques
originate from the classical quality thinkers and Total Quality Management,
such as Shewharts Statistical Process Control (Shewhart 1986). Individual
techniques are frequently combined in a larger improvement methodology,
such as the theory of constraints, Lean and Six Sigma (Nave 2002).
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Business process optimisation gives input for a new lifecycle to redesign business
processes, based on the diagnosed improvements and collected data for simulations
(Netjes et al. 2006, Kannengiesser 2008).

4.1.2. Theories on organisation management


To our knowledge, most business process lifecycle theories are restricted to the
phases above. A limited number mention some management aspects (zur Muehlen
and Ho 2006, Weske 2007). Nevertheless, they do not cope with all success factors
critical to mature business processes. vom Brocke and Sinnl (2011) explain that,
starting from BPR in the 1990s, the business process literature initially focused on
technical IT-related aspects of business processes and their design via technology. (. . .)
Researchers have only in recent years more broadly considered BPM to be an
integrated approach that moves beyond purely an IT focus (pp. 358359).
Hence, the three nal main capability areas are concretised by relying on the
broader business process literature. Eleven additional sub areas were found by
following a twofold approach: (1) in the literature regarding four business process
evolutions, i.e. business process reengineering (Davenport 1993, Hammer and
Champy 2003), business process improvement (Harrington 1991), X-engineering
(Champy 2002) and business process management (Smith and Fingar 2002) and (2)
in review articles on business processes that dier from maturity theories (Lee and
Dale 1998, Palmberg 2009, Kohlbacher 2010). These additional elements are also
frequently mentioned in the general business process literature (Armistead and
Machin 1997, Gulledge Jr and Sommer 2002, Silvestro and Westley 2002, Jeston and
Nelis 2006, Gillot 2008, Neubauer 2009, Smart et al. 2009, Rosemann 2010, Scheer
and Brabander 2010, Trkman 2010).
Moreover, the sub areas are underpinned by organisation management theories
regarding: (1) performance and change management (Waterman et al. 1980, Burke
and Litwin 1992), (2) human resource management (Boswell et al. 2006) and (3)
strategic management (Kaplan and Norton 2001). Before digging into the details of
the sub areas, the relationship between business processes and business (process)
excellence is explained by these organisation management theories.
The organisational performance and change theory of Waterman et al. (1980)
claims that the organisations ability to change depends on the organisation strategy,
structure, systems (or business processes), style, skills, sta and superordinate goals
(or culture). Burke and Litwin (1992) have formalised this claim in a causal model in
which the external environment aects the organisational mission and strategy,
Enterprise Information Systems 199

leadership (or style) and culture. In turn, they aect the organisational structure,
systems, management practices, individual tasks and skills, work unit climate and
individual values. A combination of these factors will result in motivation and
performance. With regard to the main capability areas, modelling, deployment
and optimisation are clearly included as systems. However, all other aspects of the
7-S model (Waterman et al. 1980) and the Burke-Litwin model (Burke and Litwin
1992) aect the capability areas of management, culture and structure.
The relationship between business processes and business (process) excellence is
further explained by theories on strategic management. Business processes are means
to achieve strategic, tactical and operational objectives (Jeston and Nelis 2006). For
instance, Kaplan and Norton (2001) present the strategy as a translation of the
vision, which in turn is a translation of the core values and mission. Their balanced
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scorecard (BSC) systematically derives KPIs regarding four perspectives: (1) the
nancial situation, (2) the customers, (3) the internal business processes and (4)
learning and growth. Variants of the BSC exist, which add other stakeholders
(Atkinson et al. 1997, OMG 2010). For instance, the business motivation model of
OMG (2010) distinguishes (1) the ends (i.e. vision and KPIs), (2) the means (i.e.
mission, strategic and tactic activities, business rules and policies), (3) the inuencers
(i.e. internal, such as values, or external, such as stakeholders or regulation) and (4)
their assessment (e.g. a SWOT analysis). With regard to the main capability areas,
the translation of the organisational strategy into the strategy of a specic business
process is classied within the management capability area. It concerns an eort per
business process, instead of the whole organisation and its portfolio of business
processes.
Finally, Atkinson et al. (1997) dene the KPIs derived from the strategy as
primary objectives. Also secondary objectives exist to guide employee behaviours,
which are investigated by human resource management theories. Particularly,
employee alignment involves (1) action alignment, i.e. obtaining the skills and
knowledge to perform, and (2) interest alignment, i.e. obtaining the motivation to
perform (Colvin and Boswell 2007). Thorough research is conducted by Boswell on
this line of sight, or the employee understanding of the organizations objectives and
how to contribute to those objectives (Boswell and Boudreau 2001, p. 851). Her
research gave evidence to four secondary objectives (Boswell et al. 2006): (1) top
management communication, (2) employee involvement in decision-making, (3)
extrinsic motivation, e.g. rewards and promotions, and (4) intrinsic motivation, e.g.
personal values and attitudes. With regard to the main capability areas, action
alignment impacts the performance of a single business process and thus belongs to
the management capability area. Interest alignment depends on an organisations
way of doing business and is thus classied within the culture capability area.
Consequently, the organisation management theories discussed above clarify the
importance of the identied sub areas for the nal three main capability areas i.e.
management, culture and structure.

4.1.2.1. Main capability area 4: management. The management capability area


surrounds the traditional business process lifecycle by providing ve sub areas
necessary to govern the previous sub areas.

. Strategy and KPIs. Since business processes must contribute to customer


satisfaction and business performance, they need to serve the organisational
200 A. Van Looy et al.

mission, vision and strategy. This is called strategic alignment, i.e. aligning
business processes with strategic objectives and customers needs (Lee and
Dale 1998) or systematically connecting business processes with the business
strategy and thinking in terms of customer goals (Neubauer 2009). Many
scholars agree that the organisational strategy must be translated into a
business process strategy, and the organisational performance targets (KPIs)
must be translated into business process performance targets (KPIs)
(Harrington 1991, Davenport 1993, Lee and Dale 1998, Gulledge Jr and
Sommer 2002, Smith and Fingar 2002, Jeston and Nelis 2006, Gillot 2008,
Palmberg 2009, Smart et al. 2009, Kohlbacher 2010, Trkman 2010).
. External relationships and SLAs. For strategy realisation, business processes
must take into account their external environment. Moreover, external parties
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must be actively involved in activities regarding business process modelling,


deployment, optimisation or management. Examples are external commu-
nication or committing to Service Level Agreements (SLAs) with partnering
suppliers and customers (Harrington 1991, Champy 2002, Smith and Fingar
2002).
. Roles and responsibilities. A permanent business process owner must be
appointed by top management. He is responsible and accountable for the
performance and continuous improvements of a specic business process, as well
as for the budget, resources and the interfaces with other business processes. He
can be assisted by a process team to model, deploy and optimise business
processes. He also leads a cross-functional team of business process participants
(Harrington 1991, Davenport 1993, Lee and Dale 1998, Gulledge Jr and Sommer
2002, Hammer and Champy 2003, Jeston and Nelis 2006, Gillot 2008, Palmberg
2009, Smart et al. 2009, Kohlbacher 2010, Trkman 2010).
. Skills and training. In order to full these roles, individuals must be trained to
obtain the required skills and knowledge. Besides knowledge on the process
models, employees can be trained in problem solving, process improvement
and decision making (Harrington 1991, Smart et al. 2009, Trkman 2010).
However, Trkman (2010) explains that a trade-o must be made between the
use of specialist and generalist employees.
. Daily management. The process owner applies project management activities,
e.g. decision making, planning, budgeting, communication, business-IT
alignment, change management, risk management, compliance management,
quality assurance and conguration management (Davenport 1993, Rosemann
2010).

4.1.2.2. Main capability area 5: culture. As from the fth capability area, i.e.
culture, we cope with organisational characteristics, instead of a specic business
process. This capability area has four sub areas.

. Values. A process-oriented culture implies a certain set of values considered


supportive of BPM objectives (vom Brocke and Sinnl 2011, p. 369). An
organisation must cherish values that facilitate the realisation of the previous
capability areas. Examples are a customer focus, empowerment, innovation,
multidisciplinary collaboration and trust (Davenport 1993, Armistead and
Machin 1997, Lee and Dale 1998, Champy 2002, Kohlbacher 2010).
Enterprise Information Systems 201

. Attitudes and behaviours. These values must be concretised in attitudes and


behaviours that go beyond a specic business process. For instance, employees
who are aware of the business processes within their organisation, who are
motivated to do their job, who do not resist change, who share technological
and organisational facilities, as well as lessons learned among business
processes through a repository or social network (Davenport 1993, Lee and
Dale 1998).
. Appraisals and rewards. Employees must be appraised and rewarded according
to the performance of business processes, instead of departments, e.g. by
combining team incentives with individual benchmarks. Hence, process-related
skills must be added to the job descriptions and career paths of all employees
(Harrington 1991, Armistead and Machin 1997, Lee and Dale 1998, Hammer
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and Champy 2003, Smart et al. 2009, Kohlbacher 2010).


. Top management commitment. Top managers must support or sponsor
business processes (Harrington 1991, Lee and Dale 1998, Jeston and Nelis
2006, Gillot 2008, Palmberg 2009, Kohlbacher 2010). It implies (1) a leadership
style, i.e. considering business processes as a way of managing the business and
(2) a leadership role with responsibilities, i.e. a top manager (e.g. Chief Process
Ocer, CPO) who is centrally responsible for and actively engages in all
business processes within the organisation, e.g. by assigning the process
owner, or setting the business process strategy and KPIs (Scheer and
Brabander 2010).

4.1.2.3. Main capability area 6: structure. Finally, the structure capability area is
also an organisational characteristic. It implies a permanent, structural
reconguration with two sub areas.

. Process-oriented organisation chart. Various authors suggest a shift from a


vertical, departmental organisation towards a horizontal organisation (Daven-
port 1993, Armistead and Machin 1997, Lee and Dale 1998, Gulledge Jr and
Sommer 2002, Hammer and Champy 2003, Palmberg 2009, Kohlbacher 2010,
Trkman 2010). By structurally emphasising end-to-end business processes or
value chains, this shift expresses process-oriented values, such as a customer
focus, and multidisciplinary collaboration. Silvestro and Westley (2002)
explain the (dis)advantages of a vertical and horizontal organisation. A matrix
structure allows combining both advantages.
. Process-oriented management/governance bodies. Additional bodies must be
created, such as (1) a process management council or oce (per business
process), (2) a program management council or oce, or a steering committee
(among business processes) and (3) a centre of excellence or support oce (i.e.
a competence centre to assist these councils) (Neubauer 2009, Kohlbacher
2010, Scheer and Brabander 2010, Trkman 2010). A program manager must be
assigned to coordinate the process owners. He leads a centralised centre of
excellence, comprising process experts or internal consultants in methods and
IT for process management and project management (Rosemann 2010, Scheer
and Brabander 2010). In other words, the centre of excellence is for the BPM
head, what the improvement team is for the process owner. The realisation of
centralised services belongs to the higher maturity levels of previous sub areas.
202 A. Van Looy et al.

This sub area merely addresses the existence of the bodies, with associated
roles and responsibilities among business processes.

4.2. Empirical validation of capability sub areas


To check the strength of our conceptual framework, Appendix 2 demonstrates that
all collected BPMMs were successfully mapped to the 17 capability sub areas,
without identifying new sub areas. This means that the BPMMs showed no
capability sub areas that could not be ranked in one of the theoretically identied
sub areas. Nonetheless, only one model addresses all sub areas, i.e. (Champlin 2008).
In line with Section 3.1. Appendix 2 separates the BP-, BPM- and BPO-specic sub
areas by vertical lines. The mapping is summarised in Figure 3.
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Most models actually cover both sub areas within deployment, both sub areas
within optimisation and the sub area of strategy-setting with KPIs within
management. Other sub areas are less frequently addressed. Particularly, the sub
areas of business process analysis, the organisation chart and the corresponding
bodies are only covered by 20 models or less. This implies that BPO maturity is
mostly determined by the BPO-specic culture capability area, particularly
represented by the more tangible sub areas of attitudes and behaviours and
appraisals and rewards, without structural recongurations. The latter are more
drastic than introducing a process-oriented culture and seem to be less obvious or
necessary for most BPMMs. Finally, the more technical BPMMs are supposed to
focus more on the BP lifecycle aspects, i.e. by also requiring detailed process
analyses.

Figure 3. The capability sub areas in actual BPMMs.


Enterprise Information Systems 203

The mapping of theoretical capability areas to existing BPMMs has conrmed


the comprehensiveness of our conceptual framework. Nonetheless, it turned out that
some BPMMs are restricted to BPM capability areas, whereas others include BPO-
specic capability areas. Also the sub areas are not always addressed. Consequently,
dierent types of maturity seem to be measured by the existing BPMMs, which make
statistical classication worthwhile.

5. Classication (RQ3)
5.1. Exploratory classication by cluster analysis
We applied trial-and-error to choose the algorithmic method and the number of
clusters that best t our data, by using SPSS (version 18). The independent variables
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were the 17 capability areas. Since they are binary (i.e. present or not), no
standardisation was required.

. First, all methods available in SPSS (version 18) were tried on the full dataset
(N 69), resulting in four methods with clusters containing at least three
BPMMs. Other methods with clusters containing one or two BPMMs are
considered as less reliable and thus omitted.
. Next, to obtain stable results, these four methods were used on a split dataset,
comprising only BPMMs for generic business processes (N 37). It makes
abstraction of the specic process types included, i.e. supply chain or
collaboration processes, to be applicable to any process type. All four
methods, resulting from the previous step, showed similarity on the split
dataset for two clusters. Since two clusters merely conrm the previous
distinction between BPM maturity and BPO maturity, we opted for a
renement into more clusters to provide more information. This option
resulted in two methods, each with three clusters that stayed fairly similar on
the split dataset: Wards method and k-means.

The previous steps reduced our choice to two algorithmic methods (i.e. Ward and k-
means) with three clusters. Both clustering solutions were further examined to
evaluate which one best ts our data.

. A Cohens Kappa value was computed as a measure of agreement on group


memberships. A good agreement was found between both methods on the
full dataset (kappa 0.4 5 0.455 50.75; p 5 0.001). Still 30 (out of 69)
BPMMs were assigned to a dierent cluster, which indicates that both
methods propose dierent solutions. When comparing the full and split
dataset, more agreement exists. The Wards method showed a good to almost
excellent agreement (kappa 0.4 5 0.703 50.75; p 5 0.001), with seven (out
of 37) BPMMs being dierently classied on the split dataset. Regarding k-
means, an excellent agreement was found (kappa 0.815 4 0.75; p 5 0.001),
with merely four (out of 37) BPMMs being dierently classied on the split
dataset.
. Since both solutions statistically t our data, the nal clustering was guided by
the meaningfulness of the proposed solutions. We have chosen Wards method
as it almost equally divides the 69 BPMMs in three clearly separated clusters
(i.e. 20, 23 and 26 BPMMs): a partial BPM cluster, a quasi-full BPO cluster
204 A. Van Looy et al.

and an intermediate cluster combining BPM with some BPO-specic capability


areas.

The representation of the capability areas in the nal cluster solution is detailed
in Appendix 3. It also visualises the great similarity between the clustering of the full
sample and the split sample, indicating reliability or secondary validity. In general,
the capability areas regarding business process analysis and the structural
reconguration of the chart and bodies are merely addressed in the BPO cluster
(C). Although the BPM cluster (A) assesses and improves BPM, the models included
cover more optimisation capability areas than management capability areas, except
for the strategic link. Particularly, the need for appropriate skills and training is
frequently underestimated. The intermediate BPO cluster (B) combines BPM with
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cultural capability areas. Especially process-oriented attitudes and corresponding


appraisals are highly represented. These tangible actions appear to be the rst steps
to introduce BPO in an organisation. Finally, the BPO cluster (C) covers quasi-all
theoretical capability areas. However, adapting the whole organisation chart is more
drastic and seems to be less obvious than establishing a competence centre.
Nevertheless, this cluster gives evidence to the comprehensiveness of our literature
study.
Table 1 shows which BPMMs belong to which cluster. Each cluster contains
models for generic BPs, supply chains and collaboration BPs. However, supply
chains are mostly addressed in the clusters for BPM and intermediate BPO (A and B)
and collaboration BPs in the intermediate BPO cluster (B). Hence, the quasi-full
BPO option of cluster C primarily addresses generic BPs.
We must note that group membership to a particular cluster does not imply that
all models included are restricted to the typical characteristics of that cluster. For
instance, the BPM cluster (A) also contains BPMMs addressing some BPO-specic
capability areas, albeit in a minor way.

5.2. Conrmatory classication by discriminant analysis


To validate the three clusters, a discriminant analysis was conducted to predict which
BPMM belongs to which cluster. If this predicted group membership corresponds to

Table 1. The group membership according to cluster analysis.

Cluster A (23) Cluster B (26) Cluster C (20)


BPM Intermediate BPO BPO
BP: AOU, ARM, BIS, BPM, BP: BPT, CAM1, DEL, BP: CAM2, CHA, FAA,
DET, ISO, MAU, MCC1, ESI1, FIS, HAR2, GAR1, GAR2, HAM,
O&I, SKR, SMI, SPA ROH, RUM, SAP HAR1, IDS, LEE, OMG,
ORA, REM, ROS, SCH1,
SEI, WIL
SC: ABE, AND, ARY, CGR, SC: BOH, CAM3, CHI, SC: CGF, EKN, LMI
IBM, JER, MAN, MCL, CSC, MCC2, MIC,
RIV, SCC NET, PMG, SCH2,
STE, TOK
Collaboration: SIM Collaboration: ESI2, Collaboration: TAP
FRA, MAG, RAM,
VIC, WOG
Enterprise Information Systems 205

the group membership obtained from cluster analysis, our proposed BPMM
classication is conrmed. Hence, the independent variables (i.e. discriminators or
predictors) were the 17 capability areas, measured as binary values. The dependent
variable is the categorical membership variable, resulting from the cluster analysis.
The two discriminant methods available in SPSS (version 18) were performed, i.e.
regular and stepwise. First, the regular method included all independent variables.
Second, in the stepwise method, subsequent steps included only the most
discriminating independents until an additional step did not signicantly increase
the proportion of total variability explained. Per method, the discriminant analysis
calculated two linear equations, i.e. two discriminant functions ( the total number
of clusters minus one), to predict group membership. In both methods, the
discriminant functions were highly signicant (p 5 0.001). The discriminant
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functions in the regular method respectively explain 96.3% and 75.3% of the total
variability between the clusters (R2), whereas those in the stepwise method
respectively explain 93.4% and 66.4%. All discriminant functions and the associated
scatter plot with BPMMs are available in Figure 4. In future research, these
functions can also be used to classify new BPMMs that do not appear in our dataset.
Figure 4 shows the centroids of each cluster, based on the cluster means of the
independents. Although the centroids are the best representations of each cluster,
they merely serve a classication purpose, i.e. they are calculated to classify existing
BPMMs into groups, without indicating which BPMM is best to use. The points in
Figure 4 represent particular BPMMs per cluster of the cluster analysis. Since the
stepwise method is more accurate, one point represents multiple BPMMs. BPMMs
with discriminant scores near to a centroid are predicted as belonging to that group.

Figure 4. The canonical discriminant functions to classify BPMMs (with unstandardised


coecients).
206 A. Van Looy et al.

An approximation of the predicted memberships are visualised by circles per


method. Since almost all BPMMs in each circle belong to the same cluster, it reveals
that the classication results are fairly similar with those of the cluster analysis.
A more formal statistic to validate the BPMM classication is shown in Table 2,
as the degree of conformance between cluster analysis and discriminant analysis.
Particularly, the original cluster membership (in the rows) is compared with the
predicted group membership by the discriminant analysis (in the columns).
Depending on which discrimination method was used, 85.51% or more of the
BPMMs were predicted in the same clusters as in cluster analysis. This percentage is
signicantly higher than the percentage by chance (i.e. 33.33% for three clusters of
equal size). The percentages of the stepwise method are more accurate, since they
focus on the best discriminators. When translating to the formal Cohens Kappa, it
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means an excellent agreement between cluster analysis and discriminant analysis


(kappa 4 0.75; p 5 0.001). The BPMM classication is thus strongly conrmed.

6. Discussion
Based on the theoretical capability areas to reach business (process) excellence, our
sample is classied into three maturity types: BPM maturity, intermediate BPO
maturity and BPO maturity. This formal classication renes the initial dichotomy
of BPM maturity and BPO maturity.
Cluster C in Figure 4 represents BPO maturity and is the most comprehensive
regarding the theoretical capability areas. Cluster B, with intermediate BPO
maturity, is a good alternative for organisations wishing to improve business
processes in a holistic way but without formal structural reforms. For instance,
initiatives by middle managers without input of top managers, or for less intense
collaborations between departments or organisations. BPM maturity in cluster A
does not cope with organisational aspects and is the least comprehensive. For
instance, it is more suited for teams wishing to improve their business processes
without input of higher management.
At present, the clusters are described based on their coverage of capability (sub)
areas. Some preliminary guidance is given to organisations on how to choose a
cluster, i.e. mainly based on top management support. However, organisations are
likely to select a BPMM based on other variables too. For instance, their choice may
depend on the organisation size (e.g. smaller organisations may not need BPO
maturity with structural recongurations and a centre of excellence) or on the initial
knowledge on process excellence (e.g. organisations new to process improvements
may just want to be introduced to the basics of BPM maturity), among others.
Interestingly, future research could investigate which maturity type is best suited for
which specic situation, for instance by case studies or surveys among organisations.
Nevertheless, this paper remains restricted to the theoretical identication and
empirical validation of the capability areas and their statistical classication.
The three BPMM examples regarding maturity levels in the introduction section
each belong to a dierent cluster. OMG (2008) belongs to the BPO cluster (C) by
assessing and improving all theoretical capability areas, except for BPO-oriented
values. In the intermediate BPO cluster (B), the Rummler-Brache Group (2004)
measures most BPM capability areas (except for BP analysis, external relationships
and skills), supplemented by BPO-oriented values, attitudes and rewards. Finally,
McCormack and Johnson (2001) illustrate the BPM cluster (A), by addressing BP
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Table 2. The classication results of discriminant analysis compared to cluster analysis.

Predicted group membership Predicted group membership


for the regular method for the stepwise method
A B (Intermediate B (intermediate
Wards clusters (BPM) BPO) C (BPO) A (BPM) BPO) C (BPO) Total
Original Count A(BPM) 23 0 0 22 1 0 23
B (intermediate BPO) 0 26 0 1 25 0 26
C (BPO) 0 1 19 0 3 17 20
Result 98.55% (i.e. 68/69) of original 92.75% (i.e. 64/69) of original
grouped cases correctly classied. grouped cases correctly classied.
(kappa 0.978 4 0.75; p 5 0.001) (kappa 0.890 4 0.75; p 5 0.001)
Cross- Count A(BPM) 21 2 0 21 2 0 23
validateda B (intermediateBPO) 4 22 0 1 23 2 26
C (BPO) 1 3 16 1 3 16 20
Result 85.51% (i.e. 59/69) of cross-validated 86.96% (i.e. 60/69) of cross-validated
Enterprise Information Systems

grouped cases correctly classied. grouped cases correctly classied.


(kappa 0.780 4 0.75; p 5 0.001) (kappa 0.802 4 0.75; p 5 0.001)
a
In cross validation, each case (i.e. BPMM) is classied by the discriminant functions derived from all cases other than that case.
207
208 A. Van Looy et al.

design, measurement, evaluation, strategy, roles and BPO-oriented attitudes. It thus


includes one BPO-specic capability area but lacks half of the fundamental BPM
capability areas. Furthermore, the other BPMMs mentioned in the introduction
section are classied in the BPO cluster (C) (Harrington 1991, de Bruin and
Rosemann 2007, Hammer 2007), even though (Harrington 1991) it is more on the
border line with the intermediate BPO cluster.
Furthermore, we recall from Section 3.2. and Appendix 2 that assessment items
may literally refer to one, more or all business processes in the organisation. By
taking into account this additional dimension, the BPMM classication can be
further rened into nine maturity types being measured by the currently proposed
BPMMs: BPM maturity for one, more or all business processes, intermediate BPO
maturity for one, more or all business processes and BPO maturity for one, more or
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all business processes in the assessed organisation(s) or supply chain. Consequently,


the BPMM classication further renes earlier ndings regarding the maturity for
specic or all business processes (de Bruin and Rosemann 2007).
Interestingly, this classication allows evaluating the maturity of BPMMs or the
completeness of BPMMs with respect to the theoretical capability areas. Figure 5 is
based on logical induction, with BPM being contained in BPO, which includes
organisational aspects across business processes.
Of all the maturity types identied, BPM for one business process is the least
complete, whereas BPO for all business processes is the most complete. The
relationships in between are less hierarchical, by indicating that completeness
increases (1) from BPM over intermediate BPO to BPO and (2) from one over more
to all business processes. For instance, we do not assert that BPO for one or more
business processes is necessarily better than BPM for all business processes. We only
emphasise that BPO models are inherently more complete than intermediate BPO

Figure 5. The completeness of BPMMs.


Enterprise Information Systems 209

Table 3. A nal BPMM classication.

Intermediate BPO for


BPM for all BPs (9) all BPs (7) BPO for all BPs (10)
BP: ARM, BIS, BPM, MAU, BP: BPT, CAM1, BP: CAM2, CHA,
MCC1, O&I, SKR, SMI, DEL, FIS, HAR2, GAR2, HAM, IDS,
SPA ROH, RUM ORA, REM, ROS,
SCH1, WIL

BPM for more (core) BPs (13) Intermediate BPO for BPO for more (core) BPs
more (core) BPs (8)
(15)
BP: AOU, ISO BP: ESI1 BP: FAA, LEE, OMG,
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SEI
SC: ABE, AND, ARY, CGR, SC: BOH, CAM3, SC: CGF, EKN, LMI
IBM, JER, MAN, MCL, CHI, CSC, MCC2,
RIV, SCC MIC, NET, PMG,
SCH2, STE, TOK
Collaboration: SIM Collaboration: ESI2, Collaboration: TAP
VIC, WOG

BPM for one (core) BP (1) Intermediate BPO for BPO for one (core) BP
one (core) BP (4) (4)
BP: DET BP: SAP BP: CHA, GAR1,
HAM, HAR1
Collaboration: FRA,
MAG, RAM

models, which in turn are more complete than BPM models, and this for an equal or
lower number of business processes. As a result, BPMMs worthy of the label BPO
do exist and were found by the cluster analysis.
Table 3 shows a nal BPMM classication, resulting from Figure 5. We recall
from Section 3.2. that Champlin (2008) and Hammer (2007) provide a maturity type
for both a single business process and all business processes.
Finally, we conclude by emphasising that a critical view on BPMMs seems
necessary in order not to be misled by the real BPMM names, i.e. based on the
capability coverage and the number of processes addressed. For instance, Appendix
1 shows that the model of McCormack and Johnson (2001) is called a BPO maturity
model, whereas our study has ranked it as measuring BPM maturity, albeit for all
processes. Another example is given by de Bruin and Rosemann (2007), whose model
is called BPM maturity, whereas we have ranked it as BPO maturity for all
processes (which is better than the name suggests). On the other hand, Harringtons
process maturity grid (1991) was also classied in the BPO cluster, but further
analysis shows that it addresses a single business process, instead of all business
processes.

7. Conclusion
This research responds to the lack of consensus on the capability areas necessary for
business process maturity. Therefore, we have presented a conceptual framework
which underpins six main capability areas and 17 sub areas.
210 A. Van Looy et al.

The main capability areas are based on accepted denitions of three umbrella
terms in the business process literature, i.e. business process (BP), business process
management (BPM) and business process orientation (BPO): (1) modelling, (2)
deployment, (3) optimisation, (4) management, (5) culture and (6) structure. It
turned out that some collected BPMMs are limited to BPM maturity (by addressing
areas 1 to 4), whereas others cover BPO maturity (by addressing areas 1 to 6).
The sub areas within the rst three main capability areas are primarily founded
by the business process lifecycle theories, whereas the others are more supported by
established organisation management theories. On the other hand, the rst four
main capability areas represent the characteristics of specic business processes,
whereas the nal two main capability areas characterise the whole portfolio of
business processes within the involved organisations. All sub areas are represented
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by the collected BPMMs, but especially those within deployment and optimisa-
tion. Not surprisingly, these are the two areas which are most directly related to
business process performance or excellence. The other areas are less frequently
addressed, which suggest dierent maturity types being measured by the collected
BPMMs.
Particularly, cluster and discriminant analysis have elicited three maturity types:

. business process management (BPM) maturity, primarily focussing on


business process modelling (1), deployment (2), optimisation (3) and manage-
ment (4);
. business process orientation (BPO) maturity, combining BPM maturity with a
process-oriented culture (5) and structure (6);
. intermediate BPO maturity, limiting BPO maturity to some process-oriented
aspects, usually cultural (5).

BPO maturity is the most comprehensive but requires top management


commitment. Alternatively, intermediate BPO maturity is also realisable by middle
management. BPM maturity is more suited for team initiatives. Evidence has shown
that a business process (BP) maturity type, merely centred on modelling and
deployment, was not present for generic business processes.
Furthermore, we added the number of business processes addressed to each
BPMM type, i.e. does it concern the maturity of one, more or all business processes
in the involved organisation(s)? The extended BPMM classication allows
evaluating the completeness of BPMMs by arranging those nine resulting maturity
types. It implies that existing BPMMs do not measure the same maturity and blindly
comparing results leads to incorrect conclusions. Thereby, opportunities exist to
rene many models towards more complete BPMMs.
Consequently, the research gave evidence of a conceptual framework with six
main capability areas and 17 capability sub areas. Together with the classied
maturity types, it contributes to the grounding of BPMM literature. For instance,
our conceptual framework can be translated towards a maturity theory, in which an
increase in capability areas contributes to higher maturity and higher business
(process) performance (see Figure 1). Future research can demonstrate which
combinations of capability areas (i.e. maturity types) contribute more to
performance than others. For instance, do the additional eorts of BPO maturity
signicantly increase business (process) performance, compared to the basic eorts
of BPM maturity? Or does it depend on other variables, such as the organisation
Enterprise Information Systems 211

size? Another research avenue is to investigate which variables impact the cluster
choice of organisations. This article already suggested some variables, i.e. top
management support, organisation size and the initial knowledge on process
excellence. However, further investigation is required and the ndings might be
aggregated into a decision tool, which would be of practical use to managers wishing
to select a BPMM. As such, organisations can nd the BPMM that best ts their
organisational needs, based on rational considerations. Besides these dierent
options to further elaborate on the ndings, the paper contributes to improving
existing BPMMs, i.e. in terms of developing the uncovered areas, or developing new
BPMMs. As such, this framework can be used to evaluate the scope of existing
BPMMs or to direct the design of new BPMMs.
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zur Muehlen, M., and Ho, D.T.-Y., 2006. Risk management in the BPM lifecycle. In: C.J.
Bussler, A. Haller, eds. BPM 2005 international workshops, BPI, BPD, ENEI, BPRM,
WSCOBPM, BPS. 5 September 2005, Nancy, France. LNCS 3812. Berlin: Springer, 454
466.
Enterprise Information Systems 217

Appendix 1. The collected BPMMs (N 69)


ID Author(s) BPMM name Reference(s)

(1) Business process


(1.1) Academic
AOU Aouad, Cooper, Hinks, Co-maturation model for Aouad et al. 1998, 1999
Kagioglou and Sexton synchronising BP and IT
ARM Armistead, Machin and Pritchard BPMs degree of progress (as part Armistead and Machin 1997,
of a larger survey) Pritchard and Armistead
1999
DET DeToro and McCabe Process condition rating model DeToro and McCabe 1997
HAM Hammer Process and Enterprise Maturity Hammer 2007
Model (PEMM)
HAR1 Harrington Process maturity grid Harrington 1991, 2006
LEE Lee, Lee and Kang Value-based process maturity Lee et al. 2007, 2009
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model (vPMM)
MAU Maull, Traneld and Maull BPR maturity model Maull et al. 2003
MCC1 McCormack and Johnson BPO maturity model McCormack and Johnson
2001, McCormack 2007a
ROH Rohlo Process management maturity Rohlo 2009a,b
assessment (PMMA)
ROS Rosemann, de Bruin and Power BPM maturity model de Bruin and Rosemann
2007, Huner 2004,
Rosemann and de Bruin
2005
SEI SEI, Software Engineering . Capability maturity model SEI 2006a,b, 2007, 2009
Institute (Carnegie Mellon integration (CMMI)
University) . Standard CMMI appraisal
method for process
improvement (SCAMPI)
SKR Skrinjar, Bosilj-Vuksic, BPO maturity model Skrinjar et al. 2008
Stemberger and Hernaus
WIL Willaert, Van den Bergh, Willems Holistic BPO maturity Willaert et al. 2007
and Deschoolmeester framework

(1.2) Non-academic
BIS Bisnez Management, Business BPM maturity model (in Dutch: Bisnez Management 2010
and IT Trends Institute, BPM volwassenheidsmodel)
students of Erasmus
University, BPM Magazine,
Information Magazine
BPM BPMInstitute State of BPM (as part of a larger BPMInstitute 2010, Dwyer
BPM survey) 2006
BPT BP Transformations Group and 8 Omega ORCA (Organisational BPT Group 2008, Towers
BPGroup (previously BPM readiness and capability 2009
Group) assessment)
CAM1 CAM-I, Consortium for Process-based management loop: Dowdle et al. 2005
Advanced Management- . discipline model
International (organisations current
philosophy, business model,
methods and tools)
. process-based management
assessment model
(components)
. process continuum model
(levels)
CAM2 CAM-I, Consortium for Process-based management Dowdle and Stevens 2007
Advanced Management- assessment and
International implementation road map
CHA Champlin (ABPMP) Process management maturity Champlin 2008
model
DEL Deloitte and Utrecht University Business maturity model and scan Deloitte 2010
ESI1 ESI, European Software Institute EFQM/SPICE integrated model Ostolaza and Garcia 1999
FAA FAA, Federal Aviation FAA 2001, 2004, 2006
Administration . FAA integrated capability
maturity model (FAA-iCMM)

(continued)
218 A. Van Looy et al.

Appendix 1. (Continued).
ID Author(s) BPMM name Reference(s)

. FAA-iCMM appraisal method


(FAM)
FIS Fisher (BearingPoint) Business process maturity model Fisher 2004
GAR1 Gardner Process improvement road map Gardner 2004
GAR2 Gartner BPM maturity and adoption Melenovsky and Sinur 2006
model
HAR2 Harmon (BPTrends) Informal BP maturity evaluation Harmon 2004
model
IDS IDS Scheer, Software AG IDS Scheer 2010, Luyckx
. BPM maturity check 2007, Scheer and
. BPM road map assessment Brabaender 2009
ISO ISO/IEC, International ISO/IEC 15504 ISO/IEC 2003, 2008
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Organisation for
Standardisation and
International Electrotechnical
Commission
O&I O&i BPM scan O&i 2010, Tolsma and de Wit
2009
OMG OMG, Object Management Business process maturity model OMG 2008
Group (BPMM)
ORA Oracle and BEA Systems BPM lifecycle assessment survey Oracle 2008a,b
REM Remoreras Process culture maturity model Remoreras 2009
RUM Rummler-Brache Group Process Performance Index Rummler-Brache Group 2004
SAP SAP Process maturity analysis and Scavillo 2008
plan
SCH1 Scheer BPM check-up Scheer 2007
SMI Smith and Fingar Process management maturity Smith and Fingar 2004
model (PMMM)
SPA Spanyi BP competence grid Spanyi 2004a,b
(2) Supply chain
(2.1) Academic
ARY Aryee, Naim and Lalwani SC integration maturity model Aryee et al. 2008
BOH Bohme and Childerhouse SC integration evaluation tool Bohme 2008
and maturity model
CAM3 Campbell and Sankaran SC integration enhancement Campbell and Sankaran 2005
framework (SCIEF)
MCC2 McCormack et al. SC management maturity model Lockamy III and
McCormack 2004,
McCormack 2007b
MCL McLaren Web-enabled SC integration McClaren 2006
measurement model
MIC Michigan State University 21st Century Logistics Closs and Mollenkopf 2004,
Framework Mollenkopf and Dapiran
2005
NET Netland, Alfnes and Fauske SC maturity assessment test Netland et al. 2007, Netland
(SCMAT) and Alfnes 2008
RIV Riverola SC management Technology Riverola 2001
maturity model
TOK Tokyo Institute of Technology Logistics scorecard (LSC) Enkawa 2005, Yaibuathet
et al. 2008
(2.2) Non-academic
ABE AberdeenGroup Global SC maturity framework AberdeenGroup 2006
AND Andersen Consulting (Accenture) SC continuum Anderson and Lee 2000
CGF CGF, Consumer Goods Forum Global scorecard for ecient CGF 2010
(former GCI, Global consumer response capability
Commerce Initiative)
CGR CGR Management Consulting SC management maturity model Ayers 2010a,b
CHI Chicago Consulting SC maturity model Chicago Consulting 2010
CSC CSC, SC Management Review Poirier et al. 2010
Magazine and Michigan State . SC maturity model (until 2006)
University . Ten SC competencies (as from
2007)

(continued)
Enterprise Information Systems 219

Appendix 1. (Continued).
ID Author(s) BPMM name Reference(s)
2
EKN eKNOWtion SC maturity monitor (SCM ) eKNOWtion 2009
IBM IBM SC maturity model IBM 2007
JER Jeroen van den Bergh Consulting SC maturity scan van den Bergh 2010
and VU University
Amsterdam
LMI LMI Research Institute GAIA SC sustainability maturity Boone et al. 2009
model
MAN Manugistics and JDA Software SC Compass Holmes 1997
PMG PMG and PRTM SC maturity model Cohen and Roussel 2005
SCC SCC, Supply Chain Council and SCORmark Survey (for APQC 2007, Supply-Chain
APQC benchmarking, resulting in an Council 2008
improvement road map)
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SCH2 Schoenfeldt SC mgt maturity model Schoenfeldt 2008


STE Stevens SC integration model Stevens 1989

(3) Collaboration
(3.1) Academic
FRA Fraser, Farrukh and Gregory Collaboration maturity grid (for Fraser et al. 2003
new product introduction and
development)
MAG Magdaleno, Cappelli, Baiao, Collaboration maturity model Magdaleno et al. 2008
Santoro and Araujo (ColabMM)
RAM Ramasubbu and Krishnan Process maturity framework for Ramasubbu and Krishnan
managing distributed software 2005
product development
SIM Simatupang and Sridharan SC Collaboration index Simatupang and Sridharan
2005
TAP Tapia, Daneva, vanEck and IT-enabled collaborative Tapia et al. 2008
Wieringa networked organisations
maturity model (ICoNOs
MM)
WOG Wognum and Faber Fast reactive extended enterprise Wognum and Faber 2002
capability assessment
framework (FREE-CAF)
(3.2) Non-academic
ESI2 ESI, European Software Institute Enterprise Collaboration de Soria et al. 2009
Maturity Model
VIC Voluntary Interindustry Collaborative planning, VICS 2004
Commerce Standards forecasting and replenishment
(CPFR) rollout readiness self-
assessment
220 A. Van Looy et al.

Appendix 2. The mapping of BPMMs

Mapping to the main capability areas and the number of business processes addressed
(i.e. one/more/all):
Number
BP BP BPM BPM BPO BPO of BPs
BPMM modelling deployment optimisation management culture structure addressed
AO 1 1 1 1 0 0 More
ARM 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
DET 0 0 1 0 0 0 One
HAM 1 1 1 1 1 1 One/All
HAR1 1 1 1 1 1 0 One
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LEE 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
MAU 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
MCC1 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
ROH 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
ROS 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
SEI 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
SKR 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
WIL 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
BIS 1 1 1 1 0 1 All
BPM 1 1 1 1 0 1 All
BPT 0 1 1 1 1 0 All
CAM1 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
CAM2 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
CHA 1 1 1 1 1 1 One/All
DEL 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
ESI1 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
FAA 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
FIS 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
GAR1 1 1 1 1 1 1 One
GAR2 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
HAR2 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
IDS 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
ISO 1 1 1 1 0 0 More
O&I 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
OMG 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
ORA 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
REM 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
RUM 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
SAP 1 1 1 1 1 0 One
SCH1 1 1 1 1 1 1 All
SMI 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
SPA 1 1 1 1 1 0 All
ARY 0 1 0 1 1 1 More
BOH 0 1 1 1 1 1 More
CAM3 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
MCC2 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
MCL 0 1 1 1 0 0 More
MIC 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
NET 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
RIV 1 1 1 1 0 0 More
TOK 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
ABE 0 1 1 1 0 0 More

(continued)
Enterprise Information Systems 221

Appendix 2. (Continued).
Number
BP BP BPM BPM BPO BPO of BPs
BPMM modelling deployment optimisation management culture structure addressed
AND 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
CGF 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
CGR 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
CHI 0 1 1 1 1 0 More
CSC 0 1 1 1 1 0 More
EKN 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
IBM 1 1 1 1 0 0 More
JER 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
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LMI 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
MAN 1 1 1 1 0 0 More
PMG 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
SCC 0 1 1 0 0 0 More
SCH2 0 1 1 1 1 0 More
STE 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
FRA 1 1 1 1 1 0 One
MAG 1 1 1 1 1 0 One
RAM 0 1 1 1 1 0 One
SIM 0 1 1 1 0 0 More
TAP 1 1 1 1 1 1 More
WOG 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
ESI2 1 1 1 1 1 0 More
VIC 0 1 1 1 1 0 More
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222

Renement of the mapping into capability sub areas:

Implemen- Measure- Improve-


BPMM Design Analysis tation ment Evaluation ment Strategy External Roles Skills Daily Values Attitudes Appraisals Top Chart Bodies

AOU 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
ARM 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0
DET 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
HAM 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1
HAR1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
LEE 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
MAU 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
MCC1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
ROH 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
ROS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
SEI 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
SKR 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
WIL 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1
BIS 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
BPM 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
BPT 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
CAM1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
CAM2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
A. Van Looy et al.

CHA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
DEL 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
ESI1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
FAA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
FIS 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
GAR1 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
GAR2 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
HAR2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
IDS 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1
ISO 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
O&I 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
OMG 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1
ORA 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1
REM 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1
RUM 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0

(continued)
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Implemen- Measure- Improve-


BPMM Design Analysis tation ment Evaluation ment Strategy External Roles Skills Daily Values Attitudes Appraisals Top Chart Bodies

SAP 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
SCH1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1
SMI 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
SPA 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
ARY 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0
BOH 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
CAM3 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
MCC2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 1
MCL 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
MIC 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
NET 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
RIV 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
TOK 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
ABE 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
AND 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
CGF 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
CGR 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1
CHI 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
CSC 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
EKN 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
IBM 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
JER 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
LMI 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1
Enterprise Information Systems

MAN 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
PMG 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1 0
SCC 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
SCH2 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
STE 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0
FRA 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
MAG 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
RAM 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
SIM 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
TAP 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
WOG 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
ESI2 1 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 0
VIC 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0
223
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224

Appendix 3. The degree of capability area representation per cluster


Implemen- Measure- Eva- Improve- Strate- Attitu- Apprai-
Clusters Design Analysis tation ment luation ment gy External Roles Skills Daily Values des sals Top Chart Bodies

Full sample: hierarchical Wards method (N 69)


A (BPM) N 23 Mean 0.74 0.04 0.74 0.87 0.96 0.74 0.74 0.52 0.52 0.22 0.57 0.26 0.13 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.13
SD 0.449 0.209 0.449 0.344 0.209 0.449 0.449 0.511 0.511 0.422 0.507 0.449 0.344 0.288 0.388 0.388 0.344
B (interm. BPO) Mean 0.73 0.000 0.92 1.00 1.00 0.96 0.96 0.81 0.88 0.69 0.81 0.62 0.81 0.92 0.46 0.27 0.08
N 26 SD 0.452 0.000 0.272 0.000 0.000 0.196 0.196 0.402 0.326 0.471 0.402 0.496 0.402 0.272 0.508 0.452 0.272
C (BPO) N 20 Mean 1.00 0.70 0.85 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.85 1.00 0.95 0.70 0.70 0.95 0.80 0.75 0.40 0.75
SD 0.000 0.470 0.366 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.308 0.366 0.000 0.224 0.470 0.470 0.224 0.410 0.444 0.503 0.444
Total Mean 0.81 0.22 0.84 0.96 0.99 0.90 0.87 0.72 0.80 0.61 0.70 0.52 0.62 0.61 0.45 0.28 0.29
N 69 SD 0.394 0.415 0.369 0.205 0.120 0.304 0.339 0.450 0.405 0.492 0.464 0.503 0.488 0.492 0.501 0.450 0.457

Split sample: hierarchical Wards method (N 37)


A. Van Looy et al.

A (BPM) N 8 Mean 0.88 0.13 0.63 0.75 1.00 0.50 0.75 0.25 0.50 0.000 0.13 0.50 0.25 0.000 0.13 0.13 0.000
SD 0.354 0.354 0.518 0.463 0.000 0.535 0.463 0.463 0.535 0.000 0.354 0.535 0.463 0.000 0.354 0.354 0.000
B (interm. BPO) Mean 1.00 0.000 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.33 1.00 0.78 0.56 0.11 0.44 0.67 0.000 0.000 0.33
N9 SD 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.500 0.000 0.441 0.527 0.333 0.527 0.500 0.000 0.000 0.50
C (BPO) N 20 Mean 0.95 0.60 0.85 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.90 0.80 1.00 1.00 0.55 0.70 0.85 0.80 0.80 0.40 0.65
SD 0.224 0.503 0.366 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.308 0.410 0.000 0.000 0.510 0.470 0.366 0.410 0.410 0.503 0.489
Total Mean 0.95 0.35 0.84 0.95 1.00 0.89 0.89 0.57 0.89 0.73 0.46 0.51 0.62 0.59 0.46 0.24 0.43
N 37 SD 0.229 0.484 0.374 0.229 0.000 0.315 0.315 0.502 0.315 0.450 0.505 0.507 0.492 0.498 0.505 0.435 0.502

Dark grey high representation (1  0.665); light grey medium representation (0.335 5 0.665).

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