Building Structures

Functions of a building
Principles of a Functioning Building
o Shelter
o Security
o Safety (and comfort)
o Ease of maintenance, periodic repair or replacement
o Adaptability and durability
o Ability to recycle materials and components
Achieve the goals in an economical, safe and timely fashion and efficient with your
resources available
Performance of a building
Main considerations for the performance of a building are:
o Space, determined by a figure for floor area
o Thermal and acoustic performance
o Design life and service life of the building / specific building elements
o Cost of construction, cost in use, cost in demolition
o Quality of the finished building
o Appearance of the finished buildings
The Quality of Buildings
Quality Control
o Management tool that ensures both work and products conform to predetermined
performance specifications
o Aims to identify defects on the processed used to make the product
Quality Assurance
o Managerial system that ensures quality service to predetermined parameters
o Aims to identify and correct defect in the finished product
Quality of the finished product will be determined by a number of variables constant for
all projects:
o Interaction and characteristics of the participants engaged in design, manufacture and
design
o Effectiveness of the briefing process
o Effectiveness of the design decision making process and resultant information
o Effectiveness of the assembly process
o Effectiveness of communications
o Time constraints
o Financial constraints
o Manner in which users perceive their built environment
Construction Defects
Product Defects
o Defects from the quality of the products provided by manufacturers
o Relies on correct specification and use
o Uncommon due to manufacturers quality control
Process Defects
o Arises from the design or construction process
o Quality of information and communication will influence potential defects
 o Design changes may increase the change of construction defects

Regulations and Approval

Approval must be applied for and have been granted before any construction processes
begin
Legislation concerns with the right to develop, alter and/or demolish buildings and is
extensive and complex
Potential issues
o Land Use Restrictions
o Heritage Building
Economic Factors
Energy Content
o Energy Content refers to the cost of production for the material
o Low energy content materials are cheaper as the energy are not used in production.
E.g. Timber, sandstone
o High energy content materials require energy in their production. E.g. Concrete, glass
Labour and Material costs
o 55% Materials and 45% Labour
o Cheap materials lower the value of building, whereas durable materials improves the
aesthetics of the building
o Choice of materials are dependent on:
Purchase and initial costs
Cost for repair
Cost for Maintenance
Cost for replacement of short-life products
 General Principles of Construction
Foundation
o Primary requirements for a foundation is strength and stability
o Loads on a buildings are transferred to the ground safely without causing deflections
of deformation of the building or movement of the ground that would impair the
stability of the building and/or neighbouring buildings.
Floors
o Strength
Floor structure must be strong enough to support safely the dead load of the floor
Timber floor structure is suitable for a single family domestic building of not more
than 3 storeys.
Precast concrete are an economic alternative
Reinforced concrete for larger imposed loads and wider span
o Fire
Suspended upper floors are designed to provide resistance to fire temporarily
enough for occupants to escape the building
The notional periods of resistance to fire range from 30min to 4 hours
Ground Supported Concrete
o First build the external and internal load bearing walls from the concrete foundation
up to the level of the damp proof course
o A hardcore bed (free draining sand/gravel) and the concrete slab are spread and
levelled within an area created by the walls
o Care must be taken when dealing with soils sensitive to moisture (i.e. swelling or
shrinkage of clay)
Suspended concrete floor slabs
o Suspended floors are supported by load bearing walls or sometimes beams
o When the slab is supported on only two parallel or near parallel walls or beams it
should be designed as a one-way slab (spans in one direction)

o If the slab is to be supported on three or four sides and the length is not more than
twice the width, then the load may be carried in two directions and the slab should be
designed for two-way action.
 Walls
o The prime function of an external wall is to provide shelter against the environment
o Walls should have adequate strength and stability to be self supporting and also to
support roofs and upper floors
o Walls can either be load-bearing or non load bearing
o Timber has moderate compressive and tensile strength used to construct frames for
walls for domestic use.
o Well burned brick provides compressive strength, durability, fire resistance and
aesthetics of the material that commends it as a walling material
o Stone exhibits high compressive strength and a sense of solidarity and permanence.
o Stone and bricks are rarely utilised for small structures because the functional
requirements of stability and exclusion of weather dictates the thickness of the wall in
excess of that required in strength alone.
o Steel and concrete are used principally for their considerable strength as the structural
frame members of large buildings
o Stability of walls are affected by stability of foundations, eccentric load that can
deform and overturn walls, lateral forces, and thermal expansion.
Roof
o The functions of a roof is to protect against the weather and reduce the loss of heat
from a building
o Roofs can be either pitched or flat
o Strength and stability are dependent on the adequate support from the walls or beams
and thickness of the timber joists
o The roof should not experience excessive deformation under applied loads
o The most economical method of insulating a pitched roof is to lay or fix some
insulating material between or across ceiling joists
o Pitched roof coverings
Useful for their appearance, durability and freedom from maintenance
Tiles overlap each other horizontally and the tale of the tile bears directly on the
back of the tile below to allow water to flow down to the gutter
Handmade tiles should not be laid on a roof slope pitched less than 45 degrees
Minimal angle for dense tiles should not me less than 35 degrees

Windows
o The prime function of a window is to admit adequate daylight into the room of the
structure.
o The quantity of admitted light is dependent on:
 Size of the window relative to the area of the room lit
Height of the head of the window above floor level
Depth inside the room to which useful light will penetrate
o Higher the depth, the greater the requirements for supplementary artificial light
o Stability and Strength:
When closed, the window should be strong enough to resist the likely pressures and
suction of wind
When opened, the window should withstand the effect of gale force winds
A window should be securely fixed in the wall opening for security and weather
tightness

Doors
o A door is a solid barrier that is fixed in an opening in a wall to hinge, pivot or slide
open
o The primary function of a door when open is to allow the safe means of access and
egress
o The standard width and height of a single leaf door is 762mm by 1981mm
o To allow comfortable access for people with disabilities, the minimum clear opening
for a single door should be 800mm.
o For acoustic privacy, doors offer reduction in sound as the surrounding
walls/partitions and be fitted with flexible air seals all round
o Security
External doors should be designed so as to provide a secure barrier against
unauthorized entry
Solid components (hinges, locks, and key bolts) fixed to a solid frame are the best
security against forced entry
Stairs and Ramps
o Stairs
The primary function of stairs and ramps are for access between floors and different
levels of a building.
Accessible for all, regardless of disability, must be addressed when considering
changes in level
Max pitch for the slope is 42 degrees.
The tread is the full length of the horizontal platform
Rise is the vertical distance between the top surface of one tread and the top
surface of the next.
Going is the horizontal distance between the front of the nosing on one tread and
the front of the nosing on the next tread
 Handrails are required at least once on a stairway.
If greater than 1m then 2 handrails are required.
o Ramps
Ramps should be designed to form as gentle an incline as possible to avoid steep
gradients
Landings may be required to assist users or helpers to rest during ascent or descent,