Kim Kostere & Linda Malatesta - Maps, Models & The Structure of Reality - NLP in Psychotherapy (1990) (OCR) PDF

Maps, Models and the
Structure of Reality
NLP Technology in Psychotherapy
Kim Kostere
Linda Malatesta
MefamorPhous Press
Portland, Oregon
Published by
MetamorPhous PreSS
P.O. Box 10616
Portland, OR 97210-0616
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

utilized in any form of by any means, electronic or
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any information storage and retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the author.
Copyright 1990 by Kim Kostere and Linda Malatesta

Cover Design & Editing by Lori Stephens
Printed in the United States of America
Malatesta, Linda K.
Maps, models, and the structure of reality:
NLP technology in psychotherapy / Linda K. Malatesta, Kim M. Kostere
p. cm.
Includes bibliograt>hical references.
ISBN 1-55552-007-3: $11.95
1. Neurolinguistic programming 2. Neurolinguistic programming-
Case studies. I. Kostere, Kim M. II. Title
RC489.N47M35 1989
616.89'I4-dc 20 89-36356
Appreciation is given for permission to reprint from the following
publishers:
The Use of Symptoms as an Integral Part of Hypnotherapy by Erickson,

M., Copyright 1965. Reprinted by arrangement with American Journal
of Clinical Hypnosis, 2250 East Devon #336, DesPlaines, IL 60018.
Man's Search For Meaning by Frankl, V., Copyright 1959. Reprinted
by arrangement with Beacon Press, 25 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 021 08.
A Teaching Seminar with Milton H. Erickson, M.D. by Zeig, J. (Ed.),
Copyright 1980. Reprinted by arrangement with Brunner/Mazel Pulr
lishers, 19 Union Square West, New York, NY 10003.
Zen Flesh, Zen Bones by Reps, P., Copyright 1939. Reprinted by
arrangement with Charles E. Tuttle Publishing Co., Inc., Suido 1-
Chrome, 2-6, Bunko-Ku, Tokyo,Japan.
Exploring The Crack In The Cosmic Egg-by Pearce,]., Copyright 1974.
Reprinted by arrangement with The Julian Press, Inc., 225 Park Avenue
South, New York, NY 10003.
Mind And Nature by Bateson, G., Copyright 1979. Reprinted by
arrangement with E.P. Dutton, a division ofNAL Penguin, Inc., 2 Park
Avenue, New York, NY 10016.
Solutions by Cameron-Bandler, L., Copyright 1985. Reprinted by
arrangement with Future Pace, Inc., P.O. Box 1173, San Rafael, CA
94915.
Medicine Woman by Andrews, L., Copyright 1983. Reprinted by
arrangement with Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street,
New York, NY 10022
The Doors of Perception by Huxley, A., Copyright 1954. Reprinted by
arrangement with Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 10 East 53rd Street,
New York, NY 10022.
Steps To An EcololrY Of Mind by Bateson, G., Copyright 1972.
Reprinted by arrangement with Harper & Row Publishers, Inc., 10 East
53rd Street, New York, NY 10022.
On Becoming a Person by Rogers, C., Copyright 1961. Reprinted by
arrangement with Houghton Mifflin Company, 1 Beacon Street, Boston,
MA02108.
iii
Innovative Hypnotherapy by Erickson, M., Zeig, J., Copyright 1980.
Reprinted by arrangement with Irvington Publishers, Inc., 740 Broad-
way, New York, NY 10003.
Problem-Solving Therapy, Second Edition by Haley, J., Copyrigh t 1987.
Reprinted by arrangement with Jossey-Bass, Inc., 433 California Street,
San Francisco, CA 94104.
Way of the Peaceful Warrior by Millman, D., Copyright 1980, 1984.
Reprinted by arrangement with HJ. Kramer, Inc., P.O. Box 1082,
Triburon, CA 94920.
Introduction To Linguistics by Wardhaugh, R., Copyright 1972.
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The Roots Of NLP by Dilts, R., Copyright 1983. Reprinted by arran-
gement with Meta Publications, Inc., P.O. Box 565, Cupertino, CA
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Provocative Therapy by Farrelly, F., Brandsma, J., Copyright 1974.
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Physics as Metaphor by Jones, R., Copyright 1982. Reprinted by
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Reframing: Neuro-linguistic Programming and the Transformation of
Meaning by Bandler, R., Grinder, J., Copyright 1982. Reprinted by
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Guru: Metaphors from a Psychotherapist by Kopp, S., Copyrigh t 1971.
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The Structure Of Magic by Bandler, R., Grinder, J., Copyright 1975.
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The Tao of Physics by Capra, F., Copyright 1975. Reprinted by
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My Voice )ViII Go With You: The Teaching Tales of Milton H. Erickson,
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Change by Watzlawick, P., Weakland,]., Fisch, R., Copyright 1974.
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Uncommon Therapy: The Psychiatric Techniques of Milton H. Erickson,
M.D. by Haley,]., Copyright 1973. Reprinted by arrangement with W.
W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10110.
v
Dedicated to
Pecos Bill
Crystal Pyramids
and
The Big Picture
vi
Acknowledgements
We would like to gratefully acknowledge the following pioneers in

the fields of psychology, philosophy, Neurolinguistic Programming, and
science whose work laid the foundation for this book:
Harlene Anderson, Richard Bandler (co-founder of NLP), Gregory

Bateson, Leslie Cameron-Bandler, FriyofCapra, Robert Dilts, Milton H.
Erickson, Richard Fisch, Harold Goolishian, David Gordon,John Grinder
(co-founder of NLP) , Jay Haley, Clark Moustakas, Fritz Perls, Cereta
Perry, Virginia Satir,John Weakland, and Paul Watzlawick.
We are also grateful to the following people who have supported us

throughout this project: Sandra Anderson, Walter T. Kostere, Gabriel
Malatesta, Geraldine Malatesta, M. Diane Vincent, David Balding, Lori
Stephens, Nancy Robinson, Karen Bos, Yvonne Warner,Jeanette Bow-
man, Wanda Valeu, Debbie Malatesta, Carmen Hall, Terry Boortz,
Angela Daniels, Nicola Malatesta, Mary Selep, Mary P. Hramiec, Ingrid
Markwort, Kirsten Stewart,Joanne Lindensmith, Deborah Bright, Susan
Porosky, Deborah Nagy,Jennifer Hall, Christian Zieminski, and Joseph
Matthew Daniels.
Special thanks are given to The Center for Humanistic Studies in

Detroit, Michigan for leading us into self-search and expanding our
models of the world.
CONTENTS
Preface xi
Introduction xiii
CHAPTER 1 - MODELING . 1
Logical Typing . . . . . . . 4
Universal Modeling Processes . 5
Levels of Modeling . . . . . 6
Minimum Requirements for a Model 13
The Primacy of Experience 14
The Structure of Reality 15
Internal vs. External . 17
Science as a Metaphor . 18
CHAPTER 2 - CHANGE 19
Modeling and Change 20
Presuppositions .... 20
CHAPTER 3 - RELATIONSHIP POSTULATES 23

Pacing and Leading . . . . . . . . . . . 24
CHAPTER 4 - LANGUAGE POSTULATES 31

The Meta-Model 31
~k~n M
Distortion 35
Generalization 39
Questions 44
CHAPTER 5 - EVOLUTION POSTULATES 49

Description .... 50
Referential Index Shift 59
Time Projection 62
Paradoxical Intervention 66
ix
Exaggeration 74
Reframing . 77
Content Reframing 78
Six-Step Reframing 80
Contextual Reframing 85
Paradoxical Intervention
With Reframing . 88
Metaphor . . . . . 91
Metaphoric Reframing 97
CHAPTER 6 - ECOLOGY POSTULATES 103

The Ecology Frame 103
Reframing the Reframe 104
Reflections III
Bibliography 113
About The Authors 117
x
PREFACE
Where does NeuroLinguistic Programming come

from? Upon what epistemological foundation is this
profound technology of communication and change built?
Kim Kostere and Linda Malatesta provide answers to these
and other questions. The major strands of this exposition
serve to make the foundation of modeling comprehensible
to the general reader.
Certainly all practitioners ofNeuroLinguistic Program-
ming should have the knowledge contained here
thoroughly integrated into their every experience and be-
havior. Without it, practitioners are merely performing
recipes and violating the very tenets from which Neuro-
Linguistic Programming springs. Such practitioners are
held to criteria of right vs. wrong, correct vs. incorrect, and
thus the map is wrongly perceived as the territory and our
evolutionary progress is lost.
With the knowledge presented here, practitioners will
know they can find their way through uncharted territory
with the confidence that well-formed outcome, sensory
experience and relevant feedback are true guides to suc-
cessful change.
Leslie Cameron-Bandler
San Rafael, California
xi
INTRODUCTION
Since its inception in the mid 1970s, publications on

the subject of NeuroLinguistic Programming have em-
phasized therapeutic interventions, patterns for creating
successful outcomes, and algorithms for change. Although
these books have illuminated a path toward creating excel-
lence in the areas of education, psychotherapy, business
management and behavioral medicine, little attention has
been placed on examining the philosophical foundation
upon which NeuroLinguistic Programming rests. The pur-
pose of this book is not to present new technology but
instead to explicate the philosophical base and epis-
temological assumptions which underlie this state of the art
model of communication and change. In doing so, we have
drawn from the fields of systems theory, physics, second-
order cybernetics, phenomenology and linguistics. Also,
this volume examines the pattern which connects Neuro-
Linguistic Programming to Ericksonian psychotherapy,
strategic/systemic psychotherapy and humanistic/existen-
tial psychology. We, the authors, hope that the material
contained within this exposition will provide the means by
which a practitioner of NeuroLinguistic Programming can
transcend the confines of everyday models of existence in
order to enter into the realm of endless possibilities.
Linda Malatesta
Kim M. Kostere
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan
xiii
1
MODEUNG
In 1933, Alfred Korzybski published his classical work,

Science and Sanity. Within this volume, Korzybski carefully
described the relationship between a representation and
that which it represents. To illustrate this concept, he used
as a metaphor the relationship between a map and the
territory it depicts. "A map is not the territory it represents,
but if correct, has a similar structure to the territory, which
accounts for its usefulness." (p. 58)
A representation is not what it represents; one is a
symbol for the other. This distinction may seem insig-
nificant on the surface. However, as we explore the process
bywhich maps, models, and representations are built, it will
become clear that the relationship which exists between
map and territory, when examined in detail, has an effect
on the very structure of reality as we know it.
A model is a symbolic representation that depicts struc-
ture. Each one of us builds models or representations of
the world, and it is by way of these models that we organize
and communicate experience. It is through the process of
modeling that the infinite variety of experience is or-
ganized into a form that can be interpreted, understood,
2 Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality
and utilized. Modeling is an integral part of our daily lives

and is the way by which we transform the chaotic into the
structured. Capra (1975) describes the role that modeling
plays in physics:
In physics, the in terpretations of experimen ts are

called models or theories, and the realization that
all models and theories are approximate is basic to
modern scientific research. Thus the aphorism of
Einstein, "As far as the laws of mathematics refer to
reality, they are not certain; and as far as they are
not certain, they do not refer to reality." (p. 27)
A model, by its very nature, includes certain facets of

experience and excludes others.
Physicists know that their methods of analysis and

logical reasoning can never explain the whole
realm of natural phenomena at once, and so they
single out a certain group of phenomena and try to
build a model to describe this group. In doing so,
they neglect other phenomena and the model will
therefore not give a complete description of the
real situation. (Capra, 1975, p. 27)
A model is neither good nor bad, right nor wrong, but

can be evaluated only as to its usefulness in making available
specific outcomes. Models inherently provide both limita-
tions and resources.
Newtonian (classical) and Einsteinian (modern)
physics exemplify the development of two very different
models that represent essentially the same territory. For
many years, the model created by Isaac Newton provided
the paradigm used in the study of physics. During the first
three decades of this century, however, Einstein, Heisen-
Modeling 3
berg, and Bohr strayed away from the presUppOSItions

accepted by Newton, and hence modern physics was born.
Both the classical and modern models of physics are effec-
tive in explaining certain phenomena and making possible
various outcomes. Neither the classical nor the modern
models are right, better, or correct; they are, however,
different and therefore produce different outcomes. The
difference between each model lies in its method of or-
ganizing a description of the world and the presuppositions
upon which it is built.
To illustrate these poin ts, let us look at one of the

best known models in physics, Newton's "classical"
mechanics. The effects of air resistance or friction,
for example, are generally not taken into account
in this model because they are usually very small.
But apart from such omissions, Newtonian
mechanics was for a long time considered to be the
final theory for the description of all natural
phenomena, until electric and magnetic
phenomena, which had no place in Newton's
theory, were discovered. The discovery of these
phenomena showed that the model was incom-
plete, that it could be applied only to a limited
group of phenomena - essentially the motion of
solid bodies.
Studying a limited group of phenomena can also
mean studying their physical properties only over a
limited range, which may be another reason for the
theory to be approximate. This aspect of the ap-
proximation is quite subtle because we never know
beforehand where the limitations of a theory lie.
Only experience can tell. Thus the image of classi-
cal mechanics was further eroded when twentieth-
century physics showed its essential limitations.
Today we know that the Newtonian model is valid
only for objects consisting of large numbers of

atoms, and only for velocities which are small com-
pared to the speed oflight. When the first condition
is not given, classical mechanics has to be replaced
by quantum theory; when the second condition is
not satisfied, relativity theory has to be applied. This
does not mean that Newton's model is "wrong," or
that quantum theory and relativity theory are
"right." All these models are approximations which
are valid for a certain range of phenomena. Beyond
this range, they no longer give a satisfactory descrip-
tion of nature, and new models have to be found to
replace the old ones - or better, to extend them by
improving the approximation. (Capra, 1975, p. 28)
At this point, it is necessary to clarify that in using a

model to explain modeling, we are in fact creating a model
which is also affected by the process of modeling. Modeling
is recursive. Thus, we are faced with a paradox. "The map
is not the territory," and the map created by this statement
is also not the territory.
Logical Typing
The theory of logical types states that there is a discon-

tinuity between a class of information and the members of
that class. This theory is used to delineate levels of abstrac-
tion and states that one logical level is about (meta-to) the
logical level below it.
1. The class cannot be a member of itself nor can

one of the members be the class, since the term
used for the class is of a different level of abstrac-
tion - a different logical type - from terms used for
members. (Bateson, 1972, p. 202)
Modeling 5
2. The name is not the thing named but is of a dif-

ferent logical type, higher than that of the thing
named. (Bateson, 1979, p. 251)
To illustrate this point, Gregory Bateson (1972), in Steps

To An Ecology of Mind, uses the content area offurniture in
order to clarify the idea of logical typing.
Ifwe classify chairs together to constitute the class

of chairs, we can go on to note that tables and lamp
shades are members ofa large class of "nonchairs,"
but we shall commit an error in formal discourse if
we count the class of chairs among the items within
the class of nonchairs.
Inasmuch as no class can be a member of itself,
the class of non chairs clearly cannot be a nonchair.
Simple considerations of symmetry may suffice to
convince the non mathematical reader: (a) that the
class of chairs is of the same order of abstraction
(i.e., the same logical type) as the class of non chairs;
and further, (b) that if the class of chairs is not a
chair, then, correspondingly, the class of non chairs
is not a nonchair.
Lastly, the theory asserts that if these simple rules
of formal discourse are contravened, paradox will
be generated and the discourse vitiated. (p. 280)
Since the modeling process involves levels of abstrac-

tion, the theory of logical typing is essential in under-
standing the process of modeling.
Universal Modeling Processes
Bandler and Grinder (1975) describe in detail the three

universal modeling processes: generalization, deletion,
and distortion, and the effects that these processes have

upon the models or maps that we build.
Generalization is the process by which elements
or pieces of a person's model become detached
from their original experience and come to repre-
sent the entire category of which the experience is
an example. (p. 14)
Deletion is a process by which we selectively
pay attention to certain dimensions of our exper-
ience and exclude others. (p. 15)
The third modeling process is that of distortion.
Distortion is the process which allows us to make
shifts in our experience of sensory data. (p. 16)
Levels of Modeling
There are three levels of modeling that have a direct

effect on our experience of the world. These levels of
modeling could be described as layers which separate us
from the world at large. They are: sensory experience, ex-
perience of experience, and language.
Language
Experience of Experience
Sensory Experience
WORLD AT LARGE
Each level of modeling is meta-to the level of modeling

which is the next logical level below it. The higher the
model is in abstraction, the greater the distance between it
and the world at large. For example: sensory experience is
meta-to the world at large, experience of experience is
meta-to sensory experience, and language is meta-to ex-
perience of experience.
Modeling 7
1) Sensory Experience:
The first level of modeling is sensory experience. Sen-
sory experience is synonymous with perception and is the
means by which we make contact with the world at large.
The act of perceiving takes the abundance of information
available in the world at large and organizes it into visual,
auditory, kinesthetic (the physical sensations of touch,
emotion, and visceral sensations), olfactory, and gustatory
sensations. Perception is the filtering system by which our
sensory apparatus (eyes, ears, nose, mouth, and skin) takes
information available in the world at large and converts it
into a form which is compatible with the central nervous
system. During the transformation process, the ongoing
bombardment of information that exists in the world at
large becomes categorized into images, sounds, feelings,
smells, and tastes and is, therefore, altered from its original
form. These sensory distinctions are not the product of our
environment as such, but are instead the result of the
coding that occurs in the central nervous system.
For instance, the linear nature of time may be totally
the result of the central nervous system. All sensations are
transmitted sequentially as a series of electrical impulses.
This process could account for our experience of past,
present, and future since each impulse is transmitted
before or after the other. In other words, time as we ex-
perience it may not exist in the world at large but instead
be the result of the modeling process. Past, present, and
future may all exist simultaneously in the world at large.
Thus, the framework posed by linear time might be solely
the product of our central nervous system.
The suggestion is that the function of the brain

and nervous system and sense organs is in the main
eliminative and not productive. Each person is at
each moment capable of remembering all that has
ever happened to him and of perceiving everything
that is happening everywhere in the universe. The

function of the brain and nervous system is to
protect us from being overwhelmed and confused
by this mass of largely useless and irrelevant
knowledge, by shutting out most of what we should
otherwise perceive or remember at any moment,
and leaving only that very small and special selec-
tion which is likely to be practically useful. Accord-
ing to such a theory, each one of us is potentially
Mind at Large. But in so far as we are animals, our
business is at all costs to survive. To make biological
survival possible, Mind at Large has to be funneled
through the reducing valve of the brain and nerv-
ous system. (Huxley, 1954, pp.22-23)
2) Experience of Experience:
The second level of modeling is experience of ex-
perience.
This level of experience involves the mental maps

or models we make to organize and respond to our
immediate sensory perceptions. Neurologically,
these are representations resulting from the
stimulation of networks of cortical cells and
neurons that form complex branching and inter-
connecting chains of causation in the brain. (Dilts,
1983, p.15)
Experience of experience includes that portion of in-

ternal processing or thinking which occurs in primary
sensory modalities. By primary sensory modalities, we mean
pictures, sounds, feelings, tastes, and smells. Excluded from
this level of modeling is internal dialogue because lan-
guage, whether spoken out loud or experienced internally,
is at a different logical level than primary sensory repre-
sentations. Grinder and Bandler (1976) refer to the
Modeling 9
primary sensory modalities as representational systems.

The five representational systems are as follows:
(V) Visual
(A) Auditory
(K) Kinesthetic
(0) Olfactory
(G) Gustatory
Representational systems and series of representational

systems are the building blocks of experience of ex-
perience. Human beings experience such phenomena as
thinking, memory, imagination, and intuition as specific
sequences of representational systems. For example, a man
might experience a specific memory from childhood as an
image of his grandmother's kitchen, the aroma of baking
bread, and the secure feeling of being with grandma (the
content). This example could be diagramed as: V-O-K (the
model). Notice that this level of modeling does not em-
phasize content but instead delineates form. The sequenc-
ing of representational systems is a calculus for the way that
a person organizes his/her experience and as such is not
content dependent. The man described in the previous
example might remember his first lover by seeing an image
of her face, remembering the smell of her perfume, and
feeling the love he had for her (the content). Again, the
form is the same V-O-K (the model), but the content has
shifted dramatically.
Our experience, at this level of modeling, is affected by
the limitations of consciousness. George Miller (1956), in
his article, The Magic Number 7t2, defines the limits of
consciousness. Miller states that a person can only keep 72:2
chunks of information in conscious awareness at one time.
Due to this limitation, we selectively focus on certain
parameters of experience. Since we are present at each
moment in time, with all of our sensory apparatus open to
experience, our brain records all sensory input. The limita-

tions of consciousness, however, force us to focus on certain
portions ofinternal processing. To return to the aforemen-
tioned example, one could describe the man's memories
of both his grandmother and his lover as follows:
In this diagram, the representational systems which are

in conscious awareness are circled. The portions of ex-
perience not circled are represented neurologically in the
brain, however, not at a conscious level.
3) Language:
Language, the third level of modeling, is a digital sys-
tem. By digital system we mean a series of symbols which
stand for sensory representations. Language is not ex-
perience. It is a representation of experience, and there-
fore is ai a higher logical level than sensory experience and
experience of experience. Words draw their meaning from
the sensory representations to which they are associated.
For example: the word "dog" is a symbol for a particular
type of small animal. In order to understand this word, we
search our experience of experience for a visual, auditory,
kinesthetic, olfactory, and/or gustatory sensation that is
associated with the symbol (dog). The process of associat-
ing language to sensory representations is known as
transderivational search. The more abstract the word (e.g.,
love, power, sin), the more complex becomes the process
of transderivational search. Transderivational search is a
highly individualized process since words become attached
Modeling 11
to personal internal representations. In returning to the

previous example, for some people the word "dog" will
elicit an internal representation of a collie, while for others,
the word dog may represent a poodle, a German shepherd,
or a basset hound. This example illustrates the slippage that
exists between language and experience.
Semantics is the branch oflinguistics that is devoted to

the study of how words acquire their meaning. Transforma-
tional grammar (Noam Chomsky) makes a distinction be-
tween deep structure and surface structure.
Deep structure is the abstract structure, postu-

lated as underlying a sentence, containing all infor-
mation necessary for both the syntactic and
semantic interpretations of the sentence. Surface
structure is the grammatical relationship among
words of an actually observed sentence.
(Wardhaugh, 1972, pp. 207-220)
The surface structure is what is spoken (written), while the

deep structure is the actual meaning of the sentence.
Language is the means by which we communicate with
each other. It is through language that we are able to share
ideas, memories, and dreams. Many of our cultural tradi-
tions and biases, as well as intellectual and educational
achievements, are preserved and handed down from
generation to generation in the form of the written and
spoken word.
Every individual is at once the beneficiary and the

victim of the linguistic tradition into which he has
been born - the beneficiary inasmuch as language
gives access to the accumulated records of other
people's experience, the victim in so far as it con-
firms him in the belief that reduced awareness is the
only awareness and as it bedevils his sense of reality,

so that he is all too apt to take his concepts for data,
his words for actual things. (Huxley, 1954, p. 23)
The grouping of sensory representations, via language,

helps create our individualized models of the world. Lan-
guage is one way that we organize a world model.
Through cultural conditioning, the name label

for a thing will become, over time, a specific inter-
mediary, functioning between the sensory input
and the finally created percept - that which is "seen."
The acculturated person doesn'tjust "see the tree,"
for instance, but the tree-as-named. And through
acculturation, a name doesn't simply denote. Lan-
guage becomes seman tic, which means that the
name or word carries with it the related attitude sets
of that culture. This has far reaching effects.
Any object, symbolized or not, that has been
labeled with a name, then has this mediation-efIect
of semantics to funnel through before being cog-
nized by the acculturated mind. Whether the sen-
sory stimulus is from out-there, as with a tree, or
internally generated, as with its symbolic form, the
stimulus is channeled through the mediating act of
"the tree as named," that is, language and its seman-
tic overlay.
Jerome Bruner spoke ofour "representing reality
to ourselves" verbally in order to make metaphoric
mutations of our representations and so change
aspects of that reality. This is one of the uses of
language and creative logic. But, through accul-
turation, we don't employ language selectively -
either as a tool for logic, or as communication.
When language becomes semantic, and takes on
negative and positive values beyond denotation,
Modeling 13
our homeostatic system reacts to the emotional

undertones involved. Then we act on tangible sen-
sory data, as well as our abstract creations, through
our culture's value system. No longer do we interact
directly with reality, neither a reality of the natural
world, including other people, nor the reality of
creations possible through creative logic. We inter-
act with a "mediated reality" and consider the artifi-
cial result our natural condition. (Pearce, 1974, pp.
45-46)
Many people process information (think) in the form

of internal dialogue. Internal dialogue i~ the act of talking
to oneselfin one's head. A person's internal dialogue is one
of the ways that he/she maintains a particular model of the
world. It is the ongoing stream of words in one's head that
confirms and maintains a person's beliefs about the world
in which he/she lives. The world, or to be more accurate a
person's model of the world, is believed to be as it is because
one convinces him/herself ofit through internal dialogue.
Many forms of psychotherapy such as cognitive therapy,
Rational Emotive Therapy and Transactional Analysis are
aimed at changing a person's internal dialogue, thus
changing his/her model of the world and the feelings
and/ or behaviors that exist within this model.
Minimum Requirements for a Model
For a model to be well-formed, it must have the facility

to describe both content and process. Content distinctions
are the elements within a model that portray substance.
Movement and the relationships between/among the
various content are represented by process distinctions. An
excellent example of a model that contains both of these
essential distinctions is linguistics. In linguistics, words and
vocabulary (semantics) are the content distinctions while

syntax delineates the rules of process that describe how the
words may be arranged and combined.
The Primacy of Experience
Thus far in this book we have presented a model of

modeling. There are two conclusions that can be drawn
from this meta-model:
1. Human beings build models of the world.
2. People do not act directly upon the world at large but

instead upon models of the world.
Since we can never directly encoun ter the world at large

and our experience of the world is filtered through several
levels of modeling, all experience is intersubjective. That
is, experience is observer-dependent and the result of a
co-existent relationship between the subject and the object.
Experience consists of an ongoing "dance" between that
which is perceived and the perceiver. The object perceived
can never be isolated from the act of perception; they are
one. This model emphasizes the uniqueness of all ex-
perience. Thus, one can never be an "objective" observer;
one can never "know" an objective reality.
Modern people tend to discount unfamiliar

worlds by carefully distinguishing between them
and their physical reality. Dream, myth, literature,
even modern art are relegated to the realm of
imagination and subjectivity, which is assumed to
have no objective existence, no consistent physical
properties, no logical, eternal, governing laws by
which we may predict and control events. We may
Modeling 15
appreciate other subjective worlds, find them amus-

ing, even derive wisdom from them, but we need
not take them seriously or treat them as real and
objective. The two realms are separate and distinct
- the one exists as part of the mind, the other,
altogether apart from mind.
By subjectivity I am not referring to the effects on
scientific thought of the individual tastes, preferen-
ces, and prejudices of scientists, which change with
time, are influenced by peer pressures, and figure
prominently in the formation of scientific
paradigms. Rather, I mean the basic role that mind
and the self play at some unfathomable level in the
workings of the universe. Subjectivity in science has
both a personal and an impersonal aspect, and
fundamentally I mean it to refer to the dependence
of the physical world on consciousness. Mind and
matter are not separate and distant, but form an
organic whole, in my view. To distinguish a subjec-
tive from an objective viewpoint is ultimately il-
lusory. (Jones, 1982, p. 10)
The Structure of Reality
The only reality is intersubjective reality; that is, each

person's experience of the world is observer-dependent
and, as such, true for him/her. Unfortunately, a concept
that is central to many psychological theories is that of
reality testing. Within this concept lie the presuppositions
that there is an objective reality, this objective reality is
knowable, and personal perception can be tested against
this objective reality for accuracy.
An individual whose perceptions are not in line with
the perceptions of the psychologist is often labeled as
psychotic or schizophrenic. Contrary to the medical model,
which attaches a diagnosis to such a person implying sick-

ness, another way to view this discrepancy is to identify that
the psychologist and the client have differen t models of the
world. Each of these models, being valid and true for the
person involved, represent different maps for essentially
the same territory. Different means different and does not
connote right or wrong, good or bad, sick or well.
We have often wondered whether the difficulties en-
dured by those people labeled as schizophrenic are the
result of their experiences in nonshared reality or if the
pain which they suffer is due to the fact that they live in a
culture which makes few or no provisions for individual
differences. People who lived in tribal societies and had
models of the world that differed drastically from the con-
sensus reality of other tribe members were often assigned
roles that allowed them to use their differences in produc-
tive ways. Those individuals, having different models of the
world, often became shamen, medicine men/women,
prophets, and seers and held highly-respected positions in
the community. Our technological society, however, does
not have a convenient place for differences; therefore,
difference is often seen as sick and/ or crazy.
Central to the practice of psychiatry, psychology, and
social work is the concept of diagnosis. By its very nature,
diagnosis presupposes sickness, thereby placing the
therapist in the role of curer and the client in the role of
patient. The very act of diagnosing takes the ongoing
process of experience and freezes it in time, thus convert-
ing an ongoing, changeable process into a static, unchan-
geable event.
When a therapeutic problem is defined as the

social relationships of clients, a therapist must in-
clude himself in the issue since he helps define the
problem. To label a child as "delinquent" or as
suffering from "minimal brain dysfunction," or to
Modeling 17
label an adult as an "alcoholic" ora "schizophrenic,"

means that one is participating in the creation of a
problem in such a way that change may be made
more difficult. A therapist who describes a family
situation as characterized by "a dominating mother
and a passive father" or "a symbiotic relationship
between mother and daughter" has created
problems, although the therapist might think he is
merely identifying the problems put before him.
The way one labels a human dilemma can crystallize
a problem and make it chronic. (Haley, 1987, p. 2-3)
Internal vs. External
A fundamental difference between people who are

considered "sane" in our society and those who are diag-
nosed as "insane" is the ability to distinguish between "in-
ternally" and "externally" generated experiences. To
return to the logical levels of modeling presented earlier in
this book, "internally" generated experience is synonymous
with experience of experience and "externally" generated
experience, with sensory experience. Due to the modeling
process, both forms of experience take place intersubjec-
tively. However, for most people, there is a qualitative
difference between that which is perceived as being outside
of ourselves and that which is experienced as occurring
within our own minds.
To illustrate this point, let us take a person who is
experiencing auditory "hallucinations," hearing voices
coming from an electrical outlet. Upon closer investiga-
tion, it may very well be that this person is indeed having
an auditory experience but the experience is actually his
own internal dialogue which he is attributing to some
external source. This person is, therefore, unable to dif-
ferentiate between language (internal dialogue) and sen-
sory experience (the sound of someone speaking to him).

He is mixing logical levels of modeling. Most of us have
experienced our own internal dialogue. However, this ex-
perience is somehow qualitatively different from the ex-
perience of hearing someone talk to us. This difference
allows us to discriminate between the two.
Science as Metaphor
Over the last few hundred years, no model has gained

more respect and credibility than science. In fact, science
is surrounded by such an aura of infallibility that many
people consider it to be "the ultimate truth." Modern
science, the product of a particular paradigm known as the
scientific method, is no more or less true than any other
model. Since science is preserved, taught, and transmitted
via language, one could conceptualize science as an
elaborate metaphor. "Metaphor implies the creation of an
idea or symbol, which not only stands for something else
but, in fact, stands alone as a new evocation of meaning."
Gones, 1982, p. 51) As in all models, the metaphor of
science provides both resources and limitations, and can
only be evaluated by the usefulness of its outcomes.
2
CHANGE
Change is a transItIon from one point to another.

Change can be intentional as in a client seeking the help
of a therapist, or it can occur quite unintentionally as in the
case of St. Paul falling from his horse. Change can be a
natural transition, for example, when a child enters puberty
or a teenager matures to adulthood. However, in many
cases, change requires a decision to change and some effort
on the part of the person desiring the change.
There are two types of change. The first type is remedial
change which is change initiated to fix or repair. This type
of change is usually evidenced by the presence of emotional
and/ or physical pain/discomfort. Here, change is imple-
mented as a remedy for such pain. The second type of
change is generative change and involves change for the
sake of enhancing the person, evolving his/her being, and
does not involve taking away discomfort. Generative
change is not directed at taking away uncomfortable or
undesirable symptoms, but instead is aimed at personal
growth and the fulfillment of human potentials.
Change is often described in terms of positive and
negative. The assignment of such distinctions to the change
process is futile and the value judgments imposed by this

labeling seem to make more of a statement about the
context in which the transition has occurred than the actual
change itself.
Modeling and Change
The process of psychotherapy is aimed at change, be it

remedial or generative. It is our belief that many of the
limitations clients bring to therapy with the hopes of
change are limits in their model of the world, not in the
world at large. The process of therapy involves working with
clients in order to facilitate the expansion of their world
model, that is, to open new possibilities, to broaden the
scope and depth of their world views, and to expand their
models to include a wider range of options and choices.
Presuppositions
As in all models, our conceptualization of the change

process has within it several presuppositions. These presup-
positions are not necessarily "truths." They are, however,
the basis upon which our model is built and as such they
provide a useful way to proceed.
1) Resources:
It is our belief that each person entering therapy al-
ready has within him/her all the resources needed in order
to make the desired change(s). The role of the therapist is
that of assisting the client in gaining access to and ap-
propriately contextualizing these resources.
2) Flexibility:
It is our belief that a choice is better than no choice. An
Change 21
essential goal in the therapeutic process is to assist the client

to increase his/her choices and options. Clients who ac-
quire a great deal of behavioral and psychological flexibili ty
appear to fare better in day-to-day living. These people
seem to be better equipped to "roll with the punches" and
"bounce back" from life's "ups" and "downs." This presup-
position is consistent with the law of requisite variety, a
concept from systems theory. The law of requisite variety
states that the component within a system or system within
a group of systems with the most variability controls the
system. (Ashby, 1956)
3) The Primacy of Experience:

It is our belief, as stated earlier, that each person's
experience is true for him/her. All experience, due to the
modeling process, is intersubjective. Both the client and
the therapist enter into the therapeutic process not with a
description of "reality" but with their own individualized
models of the world. Through the process of developing a
therapeutic relationship, the therapist and client co-create
a consensual world view which includes within it both the
presenting problem and the resources needed to imple-
ment the desired change. That is, the presenting problem
does not exist independent of the therapeutic context. It is
through the process of therapy that the client and therapist
co-create the problem as well as the solution. The present-
ing problem and the potential solution exist in the realm
of experience and, as such, are observer-dependent.
4) Adaptivity:
It is our belief that a person makes the best choice
possible at each moment in time, given the resources which
he/she has available. Aligned with this concept is the belief
that a person, if given a better choice, will take it. Central
to this presupposition is the idea that underlying each
choice/behavior there exists a positive intent. This concept
describes the innate good and inherent movement toward

self-actualization which lies within each person. Often the
problems that a person brings into therapy are the results
of decisions/choices made which have become frozen in
time and, as such, are no longer appropriate - given the
client's current resources and state of being. Thus, a once-
adaptive behavior becomes maladaptive. Psychotherapy
facilitates the process of opening up new choices and
making new decisions, thereby expanding the client's
model of the world.
5) Being and Becoming:

It is our belief that human beings are constantly in
process. Life involves movement, transformation, and
evolution. There are numerous levels of movement which
lend credence to this presupposition, such as the move-
ment among atoms and molecules at the atomic level, the
constan t regeneration of cells at the physiological level, and
the movement of heavenly bodies at the planetary level. A
person and his/her world model are in a constant state of
being and becoming. Our theory of change accepts this
constant state of becoming, integrating it into the model
and utilizing the movement to facilitate change.
6) Relativity:
It is our belief that our model of growth and change,
like all models, is nothing more than a model; that is, our
model is affected by the process of modeling and, there-
fore, has within it inherent limitations and resources. We
believe that it is important, when using this model of
change, not to mistake the model for the person. All models
are generalizations and each person is an individual.
3
RElATIONSHIP
POSTUlATES
Cen tral to the practice of psychotherapy is the develop-

ment of a therapeutic relationship which promotes and
facilitates the change process. Rogers (1961) describes such
a relationship as follows:
My interest in psychotherapy has brought about

in me an interest in every kind of helping relation-
ship. By this term I mean a relationship in which at
least one of the parties has the intent of promoting
the growth, development, maturity, improved
functioning. improved coping with life of the other.
The other, in this sense, may be one individual or
a group. To put it another way, a helping relation-
ship might be defined as one in which one of the
participants intends that there should come about,
in one or both parties, more appreciation of, more
expression of, more functional use of the latent
inner resources of the individual. (pp. 39-40)
The therapeutic relationship is marked by a sense of

mutuality, of two human beings embarking on a journey
together. This type of relationship is akin to what Buber
(1937) refers to as an "I-and-thou" relationship. It is our
belief that a therapeutic relationship does not consist of
rigidly defined roles. A growth-promoting relationship in-
volves two human beings, sharing experiences and walking
down the path of change together.
Pacing and Leading
The first step in the development of a therapeutic

relationship is that of establishing rapport. Pacing refers to
the process whereby the therapist enters into the world of
the client. This is accomplished by accepting the client's
model of the world and joining the client at that model.
The process of pacing involves an openness to and accep-
tance of the world of the experiencing client. It is by
entering into the client's world that the therapist can come
to understand and know the client. Once havingjoined the
clien t at his/her model of the world, the therapist can begin
to assist the client in expanding his/her world view to
include more options/choices. This process is known as
leading.
There are a number of methods which can be used to
facilitate the process of pacing and leading (Bandler,
Grinder, 1979; Lankton, 1980; Cameron-Bandler, 1985;
Kostere, Malatesta, 1985). Mirroring is a pacing technique
in which the therapist directly adopts a portion of the
client's ongoing analogue (non-verbal) behavior. There
are several behavioral systems which can be used in mirror-
ing. For example: a therapist can directly adopt the client's
breathing rate and depth, body posture, and/or body
movement.
Mirroring is a powerful tool that both facilitates a deep
Relationship Postulates 25
sense of rapport and allows the therapist to have an ex-

perience of the client's experience. Mirroring is an effec-
tive technique for entering into the client's model of the
world. There are, however, situations in which the client is
experiencing a great deal of physical and/or emotional
pain. In those cases, the therapist may elect not to use direct
mirroring but, instead, crossover mirroring. Crossover mir-
roring allows the therapist to pace the client while main-
taining his/her own physical integrity. In crossover
mirroring, the therapist does not directly have an ex-
perience of the client's experience, nevertheless can estab-
lish rapport without feeling the client's pain. Crossover
mirroring is a form of pacing in which the therapist
matches anyone of the client's output channels with any
output channel of a different system. For example: the
therapist can pace the client by synchronizing his voice
tempo with the client's breathing rate.
In both mirroring and crossover mirroring, once rap-
port has been established, by either directly or indirectly
matching the client's analogue behavior, the therapist can
begin to lead the client by overlapping his/her behavior
from the present state to the desired state. Once the feed-
back loop of mirroring has been established and the
therapist begins to alter his/her analogue behavior, the
client will follow.
Descriptive pacing is a process whereby the therapist
verbally feeds back to the client his/her verbal and/or
analogue behavior. Pacing the verbal component of the
client's behavior consists of feeding back the client's lan-
guage, a technique that is similar to active listening. When
descriptively pacing analogue behavior, the therapist
delivers a verbal description of the client's readily observ-
able ongoing behavior. Verbal and analogical descriptive
pacing and leading can be used either independently or
together in order to establish rapport and lead the client
to the desired state. For example: a therapist might respond
to a client who is discussing his fears by stating, "As you sit

there, gripping the arms of your chair, I can see the tight-
ness of your facial muscles and the light perspiration on
your forehead. I also hear you telling me that you are
feeling fearful. I, however, want you to notice that your
breathing is becoming deeper and more even and, as you
continue to talk, realize that you are sharing with greater
comfort."
The process of pacing and leading is not based on a
cause-effect paradigm. During this process, the client and
the therapist co-create a model of the world in which they
co-exist. Pacing and leading could be represented
metaphorically as follows: The therapist enters into the void
to meet the client, the therapist joins the client in the
darkness, and together they move toward the light.
The following case study, from the work of the late
Milton H. Erickson, M.D., is an elegant example of pacing
and leading.
George had been a patient in a mental hospital

for five years. His identity had never been estab-
lished. He was simply a stranger around the age of
twenty-five who had been picked up by the police
for irrational behavior and committed to the state
mental hospital. During those five years he had said,
"My name is George," "Good morning," and "Good
night," but these were his only rational utterances.
He uttered otherwise a con tinuous word-salad com-
pletely meaningless as far as could be determined.
It was made up of sounds, syllables, words and
incomplete phrases. For the first three years he sat
on a bench at the fron t door of the ward and eagerly
leaped up and poured forth his word-salad most
urgently to everyone who entered the ward. Other-
wise, he merely sat quietly mumbling his word-salad
to himself. Innumerable efforts had been made by
psychiatrists, psychologists, nurses, social service

workers, other personnel and even fellow patients
to secure intelligible remarks from him, all in vain.
George talked only one way, the word-salad way.
Mter approximately three years he continue to
greet persons who entered the ward with an out-
burst of meaningless words, but in between times
he sat silently on the bench, appearing mildly
depressed but somewhat angrily uttering a few
minutes of word-salad when approached and ques-
tioned.
The author joined the hospital staff in the sixth
year of George's stay. The available information
about his ward behavior was secured. It was learned
also that patients or ward personnel could sit on the
bench beside him without eliciting his word-salad
so long as they did not speak to him. With this total
of information a therapeutic plan was devised. A
secretary recorded in shorthand the word-salads
with which he so urgently greeted those who
entered the ward. These transcribed recordings
were studied but no meaning could be discovered.
These word-salads were carefully paraphrased,
using words that were least likely to be found in
George's productions and an extensive study was
made of these until the author could improvise a
word-salad similar in pattern to George's, but utiliz-
ing a different vocabulary.
Then all entrances to the ward were made
through a side door some distance down the cor-
ridor from George. The author then began the
practice of sitting silently on the bench beside
George daily for increasing lengths of time until the
span of an hour was reached. Then, at the next
sitting, the author addressing the empty air, iden-
tified himself verbally. George made no response.
The next day the identification was addressed

directly to George. He spat out an angry stretch of
word-salad to which the author replied, in tones of
courtesy and responsiveness, with an equal amount
of his own carefully contrived word-salad. George
appeared puzzled and, when the author finished,
George uttered another contribution with an in-
quiring intonation. As if replying the author verbal-
ized still further word-salad.
After a half dozen interchanges, George lapsed
into silence and the author promptly went about
other matters.
The next morning appropriate greetings were
exchanged employing proper names by both. Then
George launched into a long word-salad speech to
which the author courteously replied in kind.
There followed then briefinterchanges oflong and
short utterances of word-salad until George fell
silent and the author went to other duties.
This continued for some time. Then George,
after returning the morning greeting, made mean-
ingless utterances without pause for four hours. It
taxed the author greatly to miss lunch and to make
a full reply in kind. George listened attentively and
made a two hour reply to which a weary two hour
response was made. (George was noted to watch the
clock throughout the day.)
The next morning George returned the usual
greeting properly but added about two sentences of
nonsense to which the author replied with a similar
length of nonsense. George replied, "Talk sense,
Doctor." "Certainly, I'll be glad to. What is your last
name?" "O'Donovan and it's about time somebody
who knows how to talk asked. Over five years in this
lousy joint" ... (to which was added a sentence or
two of word-salad). The author replied, "I'm glad
to get your name, George. Five years is too long a

time" ... (and about two sentences of word-salad
were added).
The rest of the account is as might be expected.
A complete history sprinkled with bits of word-salad
was obtained by inquiries judiciously salted with
word-salad. His clinical course, never completely
free of word-salad which was eventually reduced to
occasional unintelligible mumbles, was excellent.
Within a year he had left the hospital, was gainfully
employed, and at increasingly longer intervals
returned to the hospital to report his continued and
improving adjustment. Nevertheless, he invariably
initiated his report or terminated it with a bit of
word-salad, always expecting the same from the
author. Yet he could, as he frequently did on these
visits, comment wryly, "Nothing like a little non-
sense in life, is there, Doctor?" to which he obviously
expected and received a sensible expression of
agreement to which was added a brief utterance of
nonsense. Mter he had been out of the hospital
continuously for three years of fully satisfactory
adjustment, contact was lost with him except for a
cheerful postcard from another city. This bore a
brief but satisfactory summary of his adjustments in
a distant city. It was signed properly but following
his name was a jumble of syllables. There was no
return address. He was ending the relationship on
his terms of adequate understanding. (Erickson,
1965, pp. 57-65)
4
LANGUAGE
POSTUIA.TES
As stated earlier, language is not experience. It is a

model of experience. Even though language is not ex-
perience, it is a powerful organizing tool which has a
profound effect on our models of the world. Since much
of the information communicated during the therapeutic
process is done so verbally, this section is devoted to the
linguistic components of the change process.
The Meta-Model
As previously mentioned, transformational gram-

marians make a distinction in linguistics between surface
structure and deep structure. We, as native speakers of the
English language, have intuitions about the meaning of
language. In many cases, these intuitions supply us with
meaning (deep structure) which is not formally displayed
in the surface structure. Since language is a model, it is
affected by the three universal modeling processes: dele-
tion, distortion, and generalization. Often, the language

that a client uses to describe his/her experience becomes
detached from the experience. The meta-model is a series
of formal linguistic operations designed to reconnect lan-
guage to experience. (Bandler, Grinder, 1975; Lankton,
1980; Cameron-Bandler, 1985; Kostere, Malatesta, 1985)
Although the meta-model operates on the linguistic level
of modeling, intervention using the meta-model will have
an effect On other parameters of the client's model of the
world.
Deletion
Deletion is meaning in the deep structure that is miss-

ing from the surface structure. The meta-model systemati-
cally recovers the deleted material.
1) Simple Deletion:
This form of deletion involves sentences in which the
verb has the potential of occurring with two noun phrases
or argument nouns; however, only one argument noun is
displayed in the surface structure of the sentence. In this
case, the second argument nOUn has been deleted from the
surface structure and can be recovered by using the meta-
moo I'!1.
Client: I'm happy.

Therapist: With whom/about what?
Client: I feel angry.

Therapist: At whom/about what?
Client: I don't know.

Therapist: What specifically don't you know?
Language Postulates 33
Client: I'm confused.

Therapist: About what?
Client: I'm scared.

Therapist: Of what?
2) Comparative Deletion:
Comparative deletion refers to a situation in which a
client's sentence draws a comparison; however, the surface
structure of the client's language does not indicate what is
being compared.
Client: She's happier.

Therapist: She's happier than whom?
Client: John is more sensitive.

Therapist: John is more sensitive than whom?
Client: He is the best.

Therapist: He is the best compared to whom?
Client: Jenny is least threatening.

Therapist: Jenny is least threatening compared
to whom/what?
3) Modal Operators:
In many cases, the client's language will indicate that,
in certain situations, there is no choice. Since language is
not experience, the lack of choice may not exist in the world
at large but only in the client's model/language. By chal-
lenging modal operators, the therapist expands the client's
model to include more choices. There are two challenges
for modal operators: "What would happen if you did
(didn't)?" and "What stops you?"
Modal Operators of Necessity
The modal operators of necessity are: must, it's necessary,

have to, should, need to, and have got to.
Client: I have to clean the house before

my husband gets home.
Therapist: What would happen if you didn't?
Client: I should finish this project by Friday.

Therapist: What would happen if you didn't?
Client: I need to quit drinking.

Therapist: What would happen if you
did/didn't?
Modal Operators of Possibility
Can 'tand it simpossible are examples of modal operators

of possibility.
Client: I can't quit drinking.

Therapist: What stops you from quitting? What
would happen if you did?
Client: It's impossible to talk to my boss.

Therapist: What stops you? What would happen
if you did?
Client: I can't concentrate on work.

Therapist: What stops you? What would
happen if you did?
Each of the two challenges for modal operators will

offer the therapist a different type of information. The

challenge "What stops you?", in most cases, allows the client
to search into his/her personal history for an answer, while
"What would happen if you did (didn't)?" has the client
project experientially into the future.
Distortion
Distortion in natural language systems occurs when a

person makes shifts in his/her linguistic representations.
In this case, the person's deep structure is distorted from
the world of sensory experience. These shifts often create
an impoverished model of the world, thus restricting the
person's options and abilities to act in the world.
1) Nominalization:
The process whereby a verb is changed into a noun,
thus changing an ongoing process into a static event/ob-
ject, is called nominalization. In many cases, once the
process of nominalization has occurred, the client per-
ceives the nominalized material as an unchangeable
even t/ object instead of a changeable ongoing process. The
process of nominalization is an example of distortion.
The decision is final.
In the above sentence, the word decision is a

nominalization. It is a verb (decide) that has been changed
to function in the sentence as a noun. In this case, there is
possibly no reason why the client can't redecide about the
issue except that he/she perceives the decision as an un-
changeable event. It is the first task of the therapist to assist
the client in changing the nominalization back into a
process. Once a verb has been nominalized, much of the
information concerning the process has been deleted. The
second task of the therapist is to recover the deleted

material. The material deleted from the aforementioned
example might be:
Who is deciding?
Deciding about what?
Deciding when?
Deciding where?
How specifically deciding?
To recover the deleted material, the therapist can use the

meta-model questions listed in the section on deletion.
The way to test for nominalization is to examine
the surface structure of the sentence and identify the words
functioning as nouns. If you cannot imagine being able to
reach out and touch the nouns, they are nominalizations.
For example, you can touch a chair, a table, a car, men and
women. However, you cannot touch love, frustration, mar-
riage, fear and decision. Another test is to take the noun
and place it after the phrase "an ongoing." If the phrase is
logical, it is a nominalization.
An ongoing chair)
An ongoing table) Nouns
An ongoing car)
An ongoing love)
An ongoing decision) Nominalizations
An ongoing fear)
Client: I want love.

Therapist: You want loving from whom?
Client: The decision is made.

Therapist: What specifically are you deciding?
Client: There is frustration in my life.

Therapist: What specifically is frustrating you?
Client: My confusion is terrible.

Therapist: What specifically is confusing you?
In the English language, many words ending in ion are

nominalizations and they can easily be changed back into
verbs by using their ingform.
2) Cause and Effect:

Cause and effect is a form of distortion in which a cHen t
claims that there exists a cause-effect relationship between
two not necessarily-related events. This issue arises in the
field of psychotherapy when a client claims that his/her
emotions, attitudes, and/or behaviors are caused by
another person or thing and that the client has no control
over his/her response(s) in the situation. The meta-model
response to a cause and effect violation is: How specifically?
Client: My husband makes me cry.

Therapist: How specifically does your husband
make you cry?
Client: My job depresses me.

Therapist: How specifically does your job
depress you?
Client: Debbie makes me angry.

Therapist: How specifically does Debbie
make you angry?
3) Implied Causatives:
Many times when the word "but" is present in the
surface structure of a sentence, a cause-effect relationship
is implied even though it is not formally stated. Implied
causatives, like cause-effect statements, often connect two

not necessarily-related events into a cause-effect relation-
ship. This form of distortion can create limits in the client's
model of the world. The meta-model challenge for implied
causatives is to reverse the sequence of the cause-effect
relationship and to verify that the reverse order is then
accurate.
Client: I would go back to school, but I have

to support my family.
Therapist: Then, if you didn't have to support
your family, you would go back to
school. Right?
Client: I don't want to beat my wife, but

she always nags me.
Therapist: Then, if your wife didn't nag you,
you wouldn't beat her. Correct?
Another option in challenging implied causatives is that of

asking if the cause-effect sequence is always the case.
Client: I don't want to beat my wife, but

she always nags me.
Therapist: Do you always beat your wife when
she nags you?
A third choice in challenging implied causatives consists of

accepting the cause-effect relationship and asking the
question: How specifically?
Client: I don't want to beat my wife, but she

always nags me.
Therapist: How specifically does she nag you?
4) Mind Reading:
Mind reading is a type of distortion in which the client
claims to have information about another person's in ternal
state (thoughts, feelings, attitudes, likes, and dislikes)
without indicating the means by which the information was
obtained. The meta-model response to challenge a mind
reading statement is: How specifically?
Client: I know my wife loves me.

Therapist: How specifically do you know that
your wife loves you?
Client: I sense that he hates me.

Therapist: How specifically do you sense that
he hates you?
Client: I know that my husband is unhappy

in our marriage.
Therapist: How specifically do you know that
your husband is unhappy in the
marriage?
Another method for challenging mind reading state-

ments is that of asking the client to check out his/her
assumption by asking the other person involved if the
information gathered through mind reading is accurate.
This process will begin to assist the client in using sensory
experience during communication.
Generalization
In natural language systems, generalization is the

process whereby an element in the client's surface structure
has come to represent an entire category of information of
which it is only one example. Generalization can cause a
loss of detail, thus creating an impoverished model of the

world. This same modeling process can also account for a
client's move from the specific to the general, thereby
allowing an isolated experience to expand into a universal.
I) Lack of Referential Index:

Lack of referential index occurs when a category of
objects/events is mentioned in the client's surface struc-
ture; however, the client does not refer to a specific ob-
ject/event in sensory experience. Lack of referential index
is an example of both deletion and generalization. The
meta-model responses for lack of referential index are:
Who specifically? What specifically? Which specifically?
Client: People are dangerous.

Therapist: Which people specifically are
dangerous?
Client: Women hurt me.

Therapist: Which women specifically hurt you?
Client: They're trying to find me.

Therapist: Who specifically is trying to find you?
Client: Boats are fun.

Therapist: Which boats specifically are fun?
2) Unspecified Verbs:
Unspecified verbs are verbs in a sentence that do not
indicate a full description of the action taking place. The
meta-model response to an unspecified verb is: How specifi-
cally?
Client: My husband hurts me.

Therapist: How specifically does your husband
hurt you?
Client: My boss frustrates me.

Therapist: How specifically does your boss
frustrate you?
Client: My children irritate me.

Therapist: How specifically do your children
irritate you?
Client: My mother bores me.

Therapist: How specifii;.ally does your mother
bore you?
Client: I know I'm tired.

Therapist: How specifically do you know
you're tired?
Client: I realize my mistake.

Therapist: How specifically do you realize .
your mistake?
3) Universal Quantifiers:
Universal quantifiers are those words that, as
generalizations, stand for an entire category of which one
example is a representative. Examples of universal quan-
tifiers are: all, always, every, everybody, nobody, and never.
There are two ways to challenge universal quantifiers. The
first way is to use exaggeration in order to bring forth a
response that puts the generalization into a more ap-
propriate perspective.
Client: Nobody loves me.

Therapist: You mean nobody in the entire
world?
Client: I'm always right.

Therapist: You mean always. every single time?
Client: All men stink.

Therapist: Every last one of them?
The second way to challenge universal quantifiers is to

challenge the quantifier as a lack of referential index.
Client: Nobody loves me.

Therapist: Who specifically does not love you?
Client: I'm always right.
Therapist: When specifically are you right?
Client: All men stink.
Therapist: Which men specifically stink?
4) Complex Equivalence:
Complex equivalence is a special case of generalization
in which the client equates a definition/meaning to a
certain behavior or set of behaviors that is not necessarily
true. Complex equivalence is similar to mind reading in
that the client claims to have knuwledge of another
person's internal state(s). In complex equivalence, how-
ever, the client claims to have acquired this knowledge via
sensory-based distinctions and the behavior mayor may not
be an indicator of that internal state. There are two steps
to challenging a complex equivalence.
1. Challenge the generalization by asking the client if

the generalization is always true.
2. If the client agrees that the generalization is always

true, switch referential index. In switching referential
index, you hold the generalization constant. However, you
change the role of the people involved. In most cases, this
new generalization will not hold true and as such gives the
therapist new information to explore.
Transcript
Client: When my daughter raises her

voice ... she is angry at me.
Therapist: Does your daughter's raising of her
voice always mean that she is angry
at you?
Client: No.
Therapist: When specifically does it mean that
she is angry at you?
Transcript
Client: Jennifer frowns at me ... she is

disappointed in me.
Therapist: DoesJennifer's frowning at you
always mean that she is disappoint-
ed in you?
Client: Yes.
Therapist: Does your frowning atJennifer
always mean that you are disappoint-
ed in her?
Client: No, that's a different situation.
Therapist: How specifically is that a different
situation?
5) Lost Performative:
Many times a client will make a statement that is indica-
tive of a personal belief system and will present it as though
it is a universal truth. Lost performative refers to a situation
in which a client takes a generalization about his/her
model of the world and presents it as a generalization about
the world itself. In the English language, information about
who is making a statement is often deleted from the surface
structure. At the beginning of each utterance, one could
put the statement "1 am telling you that" which would

indicate, in the surface structure, who is speaking the
sentence.
There are two ways to challenge violations of lost per-
formatives: "Forwhom?" and "1 hear that you are telling me
that." The purpose of these challenges is to have the client
own the beliefs as personal truths and not as universal
truths.
Client: It's wrong to love two people at the

same time.
Therapist: It's wrong for whom to love two
people at the same time?
Client: Relationships are painful.

Therapist: I hear that you are telling me that
relationships are painful.
Client: Drinking beer is natural.

Therapist: Drinking beer is natural for whom?
Questions
Questions, in the context of psychotherapy, create a

framework for the change process. When working with
clients, it is essential to ask questions that define the goals
of therapy and gather the information necessary to imple-
ment the desired change. The following questions are
designed to elicit a full representation of the client's
present state and desired state, and to facilitate the process
of gaining access to the resources needed to achieve the
desired outcome.
1) What are you currently experiencing?

This question elicits information regarding the client's
present state. When using this question, as in all of the

questions in this section, it is important to gather sensory-
based descriptions.
2) In which context(s) are you having this experience?

Delivered in order to gather additional information,
this question regarding the client's present state begins to
contextualize the presenting problem.
3) What are the positive gains of your current ex-

perience?
A question of this nature is designed to identify the
positive intent involved in the present state and to incor-
porate the satisfaction of the secondary gains into the
desired change. By addressing the issue of secondary gains,
this question begins to sort through positive intents in
order to preserve personal ecology.
4) What specific change do you want for yourself?

Within this question lies the presupposition that the
client wants to make a change and that the change is for
him/herself. This question sets the initial goal(s) or out-
come(s) for the therapeutic sessions. In order for a goal to
be well-formed, it must be within the client's model of the
world. A well-formed goal cannot be that of changing
another person's behavior, attitude, and/or personality.
Also, the goal must be stated in positive terms so as to
indicate what the client wants for him/herself rather than
what is not wanted.
5) What will having the change do for you?

This question requires that the client consider what this
change will do for him/her. The effective use of this ques-
tion insures that the change is valuable and will not nega-
tively affect personal ecology. In addition, by using this
question, a previously ill-formed goal can be transformed
into a goal that is well-formed. For example, a person whose

desired goal is to be 10 years younger is presenting an
ill-formed goal. However, by exploring what this change
would do for him/her, this unattainable goal might be
transformed into an attainable one, such as feeling more
attractive, having a more positive self-image, or accessing
more energy.
6) In which context do you want the change?

A client may desire a change with little or no considera-
tion made to the exact context(s) in which the change is
desired. It is important for the therapist to assist the client
in making the changes necessary. It is of utmost impor-
tance, however, that change occur only in the appropriate
situations. Many times, changes are made which generalize
randomly across numerous contexts in a hit-or-miss
fashion. When change is implemented in this generalized
manner, the change may be very appropriate in some of
the contexts and totally inappropriate in others. The
therapist, when precisely and clearly delineating the ap-
propriate context(s), can implement change without nega-
tively affecting the total-personal ecology of the client.
7) How will you know when you have made the change?
This question requires that internal and/or external
indicators of change are established in the goal-setting
process. The therapist can, by using the above question,
elicit from the client (either by verbal description or direct
behavior) the internal or external responses which allow
the client to know that the goals are achieved. For example:
the indicator may be a certain body sensation, body pos-
ture, way of seeing the world, breathing rate or possibly the
content of the client's internal dialogue.
8) What have you tried in the past in order to resolve

your problem(s)?
This question further defines the problem as existing

within the client's model of the world, thus, it indirectly
assumes that the solution also exists within his/her world
model. Also, this question elicits from the client informa-
tion regarding past attempts at problem resolution. By
gathering this information, the therapist can avoid trying
unsuccessful treatment strategies over and over again. Un-
successful attempts at problem resolution often create a
meta-loop which further perpetuates and exacerbates the
problem. For example: the person who becomes depressed
may try to "pull" himself out of the depression. When this
attempt to alleviate the depression fails, the person then
becomes depressed about being depressed. The circular
reinforcement of the symptom leads to further exacerba-
tion of the symptom which in turn leads to the next level
of symptom reinforcement. Thus, the loop, meta-loop and
possibly meta-meta-Ioop are created. Information about
failed past attempts at problem resolution assists the
therapist and client in the development of a successful
treatment strategy, which leads the client to the dissolution
of the loop. (Fisch, Weakland, Segal, 1982)
9) What resource(s) do you need in order to make the

change?
This question both presupposes that the client has the
resources needed to make the desired change and assists
the client to identify these resources.
5
EVOLUTION
POSTULATES
Evolution postulates are therapeutic interventions that

facilitate the change process. These interventions are
designed to assist the client to evolve from the present state
to the desired state. Each of the postulates described in this
section presuppose that rapport has been established and
well-formed goals set. It is important that the use of these
interventions are the natural outgrowth of the therapeutic
experience and not just a series of techniques.
Once upon a time a tree grew in the Ravine of

Lung Men - a tree as old as the memory of mankind.
From its wood, a sorcerer made a harp. It was a
magnificent instrument, beautifully made, and per-
fect down to the very last detail.
The most famous artists came to play this harp;
but however great their skill, all they could produce
was a lot of discordant noise, not in the least pleas-
ing to the ear.
As a result, the beautiful but unusable harp lay
idle for many long years among the treasures of the

Emperor of China.
Finally Pay Ya came along. At his touch the harp
came to life and produced beautiful sounds which
called to mind the old tree's memories; the seasons,
and Nature being reborn; the songs of the birds,
and the fights of wild beasts; the falling rain and the
silence of the ice; and the loves and joys and suffer-
ings of all those who had lain beneath the tree or
even walked in its shade.
When Pay Ya was asked how he had managed to
tame the harp, he explained that instead of trying
to impose his will upon it, he had left it free to
choose its own theme; all he had done was follow
this theme, and adjust himself to the harp, until he
and it had become one single instrument; and thus
they made their music together. (di Villadorata,
1974, p. 35)
Description
One of the most powerful tools of change is description.

The very process of having a client describe fully his/her
experiences has a profound effect on the client's model of
the world. In order to explore the inheren t value of descrip-
tion, we will differentiate between description and explana-
tion. The process of description provides answers to
questions involving the "What?" and "How?" of experience.
"What?" refers to the textures and fabrics, that is, the stuff
of which experience is made. "How?" is a question which
elicits process information, particularly sequence. Explana-
tion, unlike description, is made of causal inferences and
often produces information about the cause of the cause
of the cause. Causal-based meta-loops are frequently the
result of "Why?" questions.
Evolution Postulates 51
Description is a means by which a client can expand

his/her model of the world. This process opens up new
possibilities, offers new options, and affords access to inter-
nal resources. An important part of facilitating a client who
is in the process of describing his/her experiences is work-
ing with the client to include all facets of experience in the
description. A description should include both thoughts
and feelings, or to be more specific, the visual, auditory,
kinesthetic, olfactory and gustatory parameters of ex-
perience.
Description usually involves the use of language. As
indicated earlier, language is not experience. It is a repre-
sentation of experience. The process whereby words be-
come connected to experience is called transderivational
search. The process of description in and of itself generates
subjective representations both for the client and the
therapist. These representations, gained via description,
call forth an extended model of the world. Thus, the
process of description affords the client an opportunity to
experience an enriched world model.
An important distinction to be made when examining
the issue of description is that of meta-experience versus
congruent experience. Often when clients describe their
experiences, they do so from the vantage point of being in
the experience. A description of an experience that is
derived from being in the experience is known as a con-
gruent description. Congruent description helps facilitate
the client's experiencing of an experience as it is repre-
sented. Often a client will begin a description with the
portion of the experience that stands out foremost in
his/her consciousness. As the description unfolds, includ-
ing various facets of experience, the client will gain access
to a fuller representation of his/her experience, thereby
creating an extended model of the world.
Meta-description occurs when a client describes
his/her experience from the vantage point of being an
observer. From this disassociated position, the client will

describe his/her representation of the experience from a
different perspective, thus creating a new experience which
in turn leads to an expanded model of the world.
Congruent description tends to elicit experiences that
are attached, via transderivational search, to the root ex-
perience. In most situations congruent description, by
facilitating the re-experiencing of portions of the root
experience, opens up new possibilities for the client. There
are, however, cases when congruent description is contrain-
dicated. Such cases occur when the root experience is so
overwhelming for the client that he/she is not willing to
have a direct experience of the representation. Examples
of these experiences might include rape, a severe beating,
the death of a significant other, or a traumatic accident. In
these situations, meta-description allows the client to have
an experience of the experience which is disassociated
from the root experience. The distance created by this
disassociation allows the client to describe the root ex-
perience from a new vantage point, thus creating a new
experience. Meta-description allows the client to stand
back, take a fresh look, and learn something new.
Transcript
Nick is a thirty-two year old married male who entered

therapy with the stated problem ofjealousy. The following
transcript was taken from Nick's third therapy session and
illustrates the use of congruent description in working with
his jealousy.
Nick: I had a terrible week.

Therapist: What are you currently experiencing?
Nick: I'm overwhelmed with jealousy.

Therapist: In what situations are you

experiencing jealousy?
Nick: It seems like every time my wife leaves

the house, I become paralyzed
with jealousy.
Therapist: What specific change do you want
for yourself?
Nick: I want my wife to stay home all

the time.
Therapist: You mean every single moment of
every single day?
Nick: No. What I mean is that I want her to

either let me know exactly where she
is going to be or take me with her.
Therapist: What would this do for you?
Nick: I would feel less fearful that she is

with some other man.
Therapist: Since you can't change your wife, I
wonder what it is that you want
for yourself.
Nick: I want to feel secure.

Therapist: In what context do you want to feel
secure?
Nick: I want to feel secure with or without

my wife by my side.
Therapist: How are you feeling at this moment?
(Pause)
Nick: I'm feeling intense jealousy.

Therapist: Will you begin to describe your

experience of jealousy?
Nick: Well, I can feel the anxiety burning

in my stomach. I feel tension in my
chest and pressure around my face.
I just feel real scared. My hands are
feeling cold and clammy. I'm really
having a hard time breathing.
Therapist: Are there any images that accompany
those feelings?
Nick: I see my wife in the arms of another

man. I picture her laughing and
having fun with this guy. I hear her
telling him that she loves him and
now they are kissing. I visualize them
running off together and I'm feeling
alone. This lousy movie keeps play-
ing over and over again in my head
and my jealousy gets worse.
Therapist: Do you have any facts that suggest
your wife is having an affair?
Nick: No.
Therapist: I heard you say earlier that you want
to feel secure.
Nick: Yes, that's what I want.

Therapist: Will you describe what feeling secure
is like for you?
Nick: For me, security is a warm feeling

in my lower chest and stomach.
With that feeling comes a sense
of relaxation.
Therapist: Can you feel that experience now?
(Pause)
Nick: Yes, I can feel the warmth in my

chest and stomach. I'm beginning to
feel my muscles loosening up. My skin
is feeling warm and my face flushed.
The lights in this room seem to have
softened. My voice sounds more even
and softer as I hear myself speak.
Therapist: Are you experiencing any internal
images and/or sounds?
Nick: I see myself standing tall and appear-

ing confident.
Therapist: Are you with anyone in this image?
Nick: No, I'm alone.

Therapist: And where are you?
Nick: I'm at home.

Therapist: Now Nick, what I want you to do is
take a moment and step into that
picture, feeling those feelings of
being there.
Nick: Okay.
(Pause)
Therapist: What are you experiencing?
Nick: Security.
Nick returned the following week and reported an

absence of jealousy and a renewed sense of security. As
shown in the transcript, the therapist worked with the client

to transform an ill-formed goal (his wife staying home all
the time) into a well-formed goal (the feeling of security).
Once a well-formed outcome had been established, the
therapist facilitated the session by asking the client to fully
describe both the present state and the desired state. In
each of these descriptions, the therapist facilitated the
client to develop a full representation of each state. The
process of building a full representation, via description,
allowed the client to extend his model of the world and to
expand his awareness of the visual and auditory portions of
experience that were formerly out of conscious awareness.
Many times, a client will enter therapy with an issue that
presents itself in only one of the sensory modalities, for
example, the experience of an uncomfortable feeling or a
visual "hallucination." By facilitating the client's building
of a fuller representation of the experience, including all
sensory modalities, the therapist can assist the client to
extend his/her world model, thus creating more options
and choices.
Transcript
Karen is a forty-two year old attorney with the stated

problem of depression that is manifested by the symptoms
oflack of concentration, insomnia, loss of energy, and free
floating anxiety.
Therapist: What do you want for yourself today?

Karen: I want to get a handle on my
depression.
Therapist: Is there anything currently happen-

ing in your life that warrants you
feeling depressed?
Karen: No, I don't think so.
Therapist: Would you take a moment and

describe your depression?
Karen: I feel tired all the time. The quality
of my work is suffering because I'm
having a hard time concentrating.
From time to time, I become over-
whelmed with anxiety and, lately, I
have been waking up in the middle
of the night.
Therapist: What is the waking up all about?

Karen: I've been having horrible nightmares.
It seems that each of them is dif-
ferent. However, in each dream
there is a tragedy, a loss, an accident,
sometimes death. I feel frightened.
(Karen begins crying as her skin
color pales and her breathing rate
becomes erratic.)
(Pause)
Therapist: I understand that you are feeling

upset and I'm wondering if you
have ever experienced such tragedy
in your life?
Karen: (Continues crying) Yes, a long
time ago.
Therapist: Will you describe that experience?

Karen: I was only twenty-three, just out of
nursing school, and Ijoined the
army. I wanted to help but I wasn't
prepared for the horrors of Vietnam.
There was so much suffering, so

much death. (Karen begins to sob
heavily and places her face in
her hands.)
Therapist: (Reaches out and takes Karen's

hand) I understand that Vietnam was
a painful experience for you; how-
ever, you are here now with me.
(Pause)
Karen: That was a horrible experience.

(Stops crying) So terrible that when
I came back from Vietnam, I gave up
my nursing career and went to
law school.
Therapist: I'm wondering if you could comfort-

ably sit here with me, feeling a sense
of safety and protection, as you
describe your experience of Vietnam
as though you were narrating a
movie? As you do so, you can con-
tinue feeling the comfort and safety
of the present while experiencing
the images and sounds of your past.
(Pause)
Karen: I can see the chaos of war. The

hospital is filled with injured and
dying soldiers. The corridors are
lined with patients, many of whom
are screaming in agony. I can see
myself being overwhelmed by the
pain and sorrow of the patients. I

can see the tension and tiredness in
my face. There was just too much
to do and not enough time or
energy to take care of all those
who needed help.
(Pause)
Therapist: Now that you have experienced your

past from a different perspective,
what new understandings have
you gained?
Karen: I realize that I have attempted to
block much of those experiences.
However, they have continued to
haunt me in the forms of depression
and nightmares. Mter witnessing
my past, I realize that my depression
and anxiety was appropriate back
then, but now with this new per-
spective, I can let go of the past and
get on with my life.
In the previous transcript, the therapist worked with the

client utilizing meta-description in order to create a new
experience of a traumatic event in her past. This interven-
tion assisted the clien t in extending her model of the world.
Referential Index Shift
Referential index shift is a process that allows a client

to make shifts in his/her sensory representations in order
to perceive an experience from a different perspective. The
use of this pattern is an example of the creative utilization
of distortion. Referential index shift can be utilized by

having the client describe a particular situation from dif-
ferent vantage points. In this case, the therapist has the
client describe a situation from various spatial coordinates
similarly to having a person walk around a piece of sculp-
ture and describe it from different angles. A variation on
this process is to have the client describe how another
person (friend, family member, spouse) would perceive the
situation. As in all descriptive interventions it is important,
when using referential index shift, to assist the client to
create a description that includes all parameters of ex-
perience.
Transcript
The client is a twenty-eight year old male who was

referred by the Employee Assistance Program at a local
automotive plant with the stated problem of conflict with
co-workers and supervision on the job. The client was seen
three times prior to the following session and the therapist
noticed that the client had a tendency to view issues from
a rather one-sided perspective.
Therapist: How are you today?

Client: Not so good.
Therapist: What's going on?

Client: Well, I got into trouble at work again
yesterday.
Therapist: What happened?

Client: My foreman yelled at me for missing
the day before and, when I came
back late from my break, the line
was backed up andJohn, the guy
who works next to me, asked me why

I always make a mess of things.
Therapist: How do you feel about this?

Client: I feel that it's unfair. I've worked
there for eight years and I pay my
union dues monthly. Nobody there
likes their job. It's just that I'm more
honest about it. I have the right to
miss a few days here and there and a
lot of people come back late from
breaks. If I had a good union, the
boss wouldn't be harassing me.
Therapist: I understand how you feel, but I

wonder if you can see this issue from
a different perspective, perhaps that
of a co-worker?
Client: Well, I think John probably sees me
as being irresponsible which makes
his job harder. He would say that
work would go smoother and faster
if I had a better attitude about work.
Therapist: How about from the perspective of

your foreman?
Client: My foreman would see me as a good
worker when I am there but that I
miss too much time and I'm late too
often. I think he would also say that
people like me make his job harder.
I guess he gets angry.
Therapist: What about from the perspective of

your union steward?
Client: He sees me as a pest and would
probably say that I'm a complainer.

I guess he gets pretty frustrated
with me too.
Therapist: What have you gained from viewing

these different perspectives?
Client: I need to be more aware of how
my behavior affects me and
other people.
Time Projection
Time projection is a process whereby a client moves

backward or forward in his/her experience of time in order
to describe experiences that exist in these other time
frames. The process of description, when used in time
projection, assists the client to expand his/her model of the
world by freeing up resources that are either frozen in the
past or unrevealed in the future.
There are clients who, upon entering treatment, state
that a particular event in their past is somehow restricting
their options in the present. In such a case, time projection
is a tool that assists the client to re-experience the event and
then describe it. This process facilitates change byexpand-
ing the client's model of the world and increasing his/her
choices. Time projection can also be used to assist the client
to move forward in his/her experience of the future in
order to gain access to resources that exist in the realm of
possibilities and/or to "try on" a change. In addition to
being an effective method for gaining access to the desired
state and verifying the desirability of a change, future time
projection can serve as a test for possible ecological
ramifications.
Transcript
Terry is a twenty-six year old single female who entered

therapy with the stated problem of depression and anxiety.
Terry's case history revealed that she is an only child and
that her father died of cancer when she was eight years old.
Terry's mother is retired and in good health. Terry also
disclosed that she is in a six year relationship in which she
is verbally and physically abused.
Therapist: How is the situation at your home?

Client: Unbearable, I can't stand being with
him anymore.
Therapist: What stops you from leaving?

Client: I've tried leaving in the past and
each time I get so overwhelmed with
fear, I return to be with him. It's the
same feeling as when my dad died.
I'm still afraid of being alone. I still
carry around a sense of embarrass-
ment about being alone and the
anxiety of wondering if I can make it.
Therapist: I wonder if you would be willing to

go into your past and describe how
you experienced the loss of your
father. .
(Pause)
Client: I feel helpless and scared. I feel

angry and even embarrassed that I
don't have a dad. I worry about how
my mother and I will make it. I also
worry that my mother might die and

then I will really be alone. My future
looks dim. I never want to be left
again. I never want to be alone.
Therapist: What have you gained from descrilr

ing that experience from your past?
Client: I realize how much the death of my
father has affected me in my rela-
tionship with my boyfriend. I also
realize now that I'm not eight years
old anymore and I'm capable of
taking care of myself.
In the previous transcript, the therapist utilized time

projection to assist the client with moving into her ex-
perience of the past in order to free her from the restric-
tions imposed by early life experiences.
Transcript
Chris is a twenty-six year old single male who entered

therapy in order to explore self-esteem issues. The follow-
ing transcript illustrates the use of future time projection
as a method of facilitating goal achievement.
Therapist: What specific change do you want for

yourself?
Chris: I would like to feel more attractive.
Therapist: In what context would you like to feel

this way?
Chris: When I'm in a social situation.
Therapist: What would having this change do for

you?
Chris: I would feel better about myself,
more relaxed and more confident.
Therapist: Let's pretend for just a moment that

it is three months into the future
and you have achieved your goal of
feeling more attractive.
Chris: Okay.
Therapist: Close your eyes and make a clear

visual image of what you look like
being attractive.
Chris: I see myself standing erect, shoulders
nicely held back, head high with a
slight smile on my face. I'm five or
ten pounds thinner. Also, I see that
my hair is professionally styled and I
have on a well-tailored suit, white
shirt, and silk tie.
Therapist: Good, now take a moment and step

into the image.
(Pause)
Chris: Okay.
Therapist: Describe your experience of being
attractive.
Chris: I feel relaxed and confident. My
voice tone sounds deep and smooth.
I'm aware that my breathing rate is
even (pause) and the voice in my
head is saying positive things.
Therapist: How does the world look to you?

Chris: Bright, friendly, and alive.
Therapist: Will you stand up and walk around

my office in order to get a feel for
an attractive gait?
Chris: Okay (stands up and begins walking
about the room). I feel graceful
and sturdy.
Therapist: It must be nice to know that you have

the resources of being attractive avail-
able to you and can now utilize them
in your day-to-day life.
Paradoxical Intervention
Down through the ages, the issue of paradox has fas-

cinated logicians, philosophers and linguists. In simple
terms, a paradox is a contradiction. That is, a paradox by
its very nature is a situation in which the impossible appears
to exist. One of the most famous paradoxes is Epimenides'
Paradox or the liar's paradox: Epimenides, the Cretan,
states, "All Cretans are liars."
Paradox, in formal logic, occurs when logical levels are
mixed. An illustration of the role oflogicallevels in paradox
may be found in the following example of a librarian
attempting to fully catalog the contents of a library. If the
librarian develops a book that is an index containing all of
the books in the library, how should the index itself be
indexed? Since the index contains information about the
other books in the library, it is at a higher logical level than
the other books. In order to completely catalog the library,
the index must be included in an index. Thus, there would
need to be a meta-index that in turn would need to be
included in a meta-meta-index if the cataloging is to be
complete. This process could be infinite and the catalog

would never be all inclusive.
Another example of a paradox is illustrated by the
following:
The statement within

this frame is untrue.
A paradox can be presented behaviorally as well as

linguistically. The paradoxical injunction "be spon-
taneous" is an example of both a behavioral and a prag-
matic paradox. A pragmatic paradox is a paradox in which
a person is placed in a double bind; that is, a person is
placed in a situation in which he/she has no choice. In the
aforementioned pragmatic paradox, as soon as a person
attempts to act on the injunction, he/she cannot. (Weeks,
L'Abate, 1982)
In 1956, Gregory Bateson, Don D. Jackson, Jay Haley
and John H. Weakland published a paper entitled Toward
a Theory of Schizophrenia. Within this paper, the authors
described the role which the double bind (pragmatic
paradox) plays in the development of schizophrenia. In the
following passage, the ingredients necessary for a
pathogenic double bind are described:
l. Two or more persons. Of these, we designate

one, for purposes of our definition, as the "victim."
We do not assume that the double bind is inflicted
by the mother alone, but that it may be done either
by mother alone or by some combination of

mother, father, and/or siblings.
2. Repeated experience. We assume that the
double bind is a recurrent theme in the experience
of the victim. Our hypothesis does not invoke a
single traumatic experience, but such repeated ex-
perience that the double bind structure comes to
be an habitual expectation.
3. A primary negative injunction. This may have
either of two forms: (a) "Do not do so and so, or I
will punish you," or (b) "If you do not do so and so,
I will punish you." Here we select a context of
learning based on avoidance of punishment rather
than a context of reward seeking. There is perhaps
no formal reason for this selection. We assume that
the punishment may be either the withdrawal of
love or the expression of hate or anger - or most
devastating - the kind of abandonment that results
from the parent's expression of extreme helpless-
ness.
4. A secondary injunction conflicting with the
first at a more abstract level, and like the first
enforced by punishments or signals which threaten
survival. This secondary injunction is more difficult
to describe than the primary for two reasons. First,
the secondary injunction is commonly communi-
cated to the child by nonverbal means. Posture,
gesture, tone of voice, meaningful action, and the
implications concealed in verbal comment may all
be used to convey this more abstract message.
Second, the secondary injunction may impinge
upon any element of the primary prohibition. Ver-
balization of the secondary injunction may, there-
fore, include a wide variety of forms; for example,
"Do not submit to my prohibitions"; "Do not think
of what you must not do"; "Do not question my love
of which the primary prohibition is (or is not) an

example"; and so on. Other examples become pos-
sible when the double bind is inflicted not by one
individual but by two. For example, one parent may
negate at a more abstract level the injunctions of
the other.
5. A tertiary negative injunction prohibiting the
victim from escaping from the field. In a formal
sense, it is perhaps unnecessary to list this injunc-
tion as a separate item since the reinforcement at
the other two levels involves a threat to survival, and
if the double binds are imposed during infancy,
escape is naturally impossible. However, it seems
that in some cases the escape from the field is made
impossible by certain devices which are not purely
negative, e.g., capricious promises of love, and the
like.
6. Finally, the complete set of ingredients is no
longer necessary when the victim has learned to
perceive his universe in double bind patterns. Al-
most any part of a double bind sequence may then
be sufficient to precipitate panic or rage. (Bateson,
1972, pp. 206-207)
A person who is placed in a pathogenic double bind is

stuck in a no-win situation and, as such, often retreats into
a "schizophrenic" world as a way out of the pragmatic
paradox. In contrast to the pathogenic double bind, the
therapeutic paradox places the client in a no-lose situation.
In the therapeutic paradox, any response made to the
paradoxical intervention is an expansion of the client's
model of the world and, therefore, involves movement
towards the desired state.
By therapeutic double binds we mean situations,

imposed upon the client by the therapist, in which
70. Maps, Models, and the Structure of Reality
any response by the client will be an experience, or

reference structure, which lies outside the client's
model of the world. Thus, therapeutic double binds
implicitly challenge the client's model by forcing
him into an experience which contradicts the im-
poverishing limitations of his model. This ex-
perience then comes to serve as a reference
structure which expands the client's model of the
world. (Bandler, Grinder, 1975, p.169)
In order to adequately describe the role of paradoxical

intervention in the change process, it is necessary to dif-
ferentiate between first-order change and second-order
change. First-order change is a change that is made within
a system or reference structure. Second-order change is a
change in the system or reference structure itself. Thus,
second-order change is at a higher logical level than first-
order change. Second-order change is change of change.
Paradoxical intervention is an example of second-order
change because such intervention allows the client to cre-
ate a new reference structure regarding the identified
problem or symptom. (Watzlawick, Weakland, Fisch, 1974)
One of the most widely used forms of therapeutic
paradox is that of symptom prescription. In symptom
prescription, the therapist not only paces the client by
accepting his/her presenting symptom(s) but encourages
the client to continue experiencing the symptom, however,
with some qualifications. These qualifications usually in-
volve issues such as the following: when the symptom will
occur, to what degree of intensity, how often, and/or in
which con text (s). By using this form of pragmatic paradox,
the therapist: (1) paces the client by accepting the symptom,
(2) refuses to enter into a power struggle with the client
regarding the symptom, (3) gives directives that presup-
pose that the client has control of the symptom, (4) assists
the client to break free of the circularly reinforcing meta-
loop which is further perpetuating the symptom, and (5)

creates a double bind in which the client either gives up the
symptom or gains control over the symptom, thus facilitat-
ing movement toward the desired state.
The following case studies, the first from the work of
Victor Frankl, M.D. and the second from that of the late
Milton H. Erickson, M.D., are excellent examples of
symptom prescription:
A young physician consulted me because of his

fear of perspiring. Whenever he expected an out-
break of perspiration, this anticipatory anxiety was
enough to precipitate excessive sweating. In order
to cut this circle formation I advised the patient, in
the event that sweating should recur, to resolve
deliberately to show people how much he could
sweat. A week later he returned to report that when-
ever he met anyone who triggered his anticipatory
anxiety, he said to himself, "I only sweated out a
quart before, but now I'm going to pour at least ten
quarts!" The result was that, after suffering from his
phobia for four years, he was able, after a single
session, to free himself permanen tly ofit within one
week. (Frankl, 1959, p. 196)
Concerning psychotherapy, most therapists over-

look a basic consideration. Man is characterized not
only by mobility but by cognition and by emotion,
and man defends his intellect emotionally. No two
people necessarily have the same ideas, but all
people will defend their ideas whether they are
psychotically based or culturally based, or national-
ly based or personally based. When you understand
how man really defends his intellectual ideas and
how emotional he gets about it, you should realize

that the first thing in psychotherapy is not to try to
compel him to change his ideation; rather, you go
along with it and change it in a gradual fashion and
create situations wherein he himself willingly chan-
ges his thinking. I think my first real experiment in
psychotherapy occurred in 1930. A patient in Wor-
cester State Hospital, in Massachusetts, demanded
he be locked in his room, and he spent his time
anxiously and fearfully winding string around the
bars of the window of the room. He knew his
enemies were going to come in and kill him, and
the window was the only opening. The thick iron
bars seemed to him to be too weak, so he reinforced
them with string. I went into the room and helped
him reinforce the iron bars with string. In doing so,
I discovered that there were cracks in the floor and
suggested that those cracks ought to be stuffed with
newspaper so that there was no possibility (of his
enemies getting him), and then I discovered cracks
around the door that should be stuffed with
newspaper, and gradually I got him to realize that
the room was only one of a number of rooms on the
ward, and to accept the attendants as a part of his
defense against his enemies, and then the hospital
itself as a part of his defense against his enemies,
and then the Board of Mental Health of Mas-
sachusetts as part, and then the police system - the
governor. And then I spread it to adjoining states
and finally I made the United States a part of his
defense system; this enabled him to dispense with
the locked door because he had so many other lines
of defense. I didn't try to correct his psychotic idea
that his enemies would kill him, I merely pointed
out that he had an endless number of defenders.
The result was; the patient was able to accept
ground privileges and wander around the grounds

safely. He ceased his frantic endeavors. He worked
in the hospital shops and was much less of a prob-
lem. (Erickson, Zeig, 1980, pp. 335-336)
In the aforementioned case studies, both therapists

accepted their client's symptoms and prescribed the
symptoms with some qualifications. In each of these studies,
the paradoxical intervention provided relief from the an-
ticipatory symptoms and allowed the client to give up the
presenting symptoms. Paradoxical intervention, byaccept-
ing the client's symptoms and working to expand his/her
model of the world, facilitates the change process.
The following case studies further illustrate the use of
paradoxical intervention.
Case Study A
Jane is a thirty year old woman who is successfully

self-employed.Jane entered treatmentwith the stated prob-
lem of anxiety relating to business issues. Jane described an
inability to erUoy leisure time as a result of constantly
worrying over her business. When Jane began treatment, it
was apparen t that her anxiety served a positive inten t in that
it motivated her to achieve results in her business transac-
tions. The problem, however, was thatJane's anxiety had
become overgeneralized and was intruding into other areas
of her life. I decided to use paradoxical intervention in
order to assist Jane in achieving her treatment goal of
remaining efficient in business while also enjoying a social
life. During the second therapy session, I instructed Jane to
spend one hour per day, from 8:00 to 9:00 a.m., writing
down everything that she should worry about for that day
and to be sure that her list included everything! Jane agreed
to follow my directive and when she returned two weeks
later she reported that she was handling her business much
more efficiently. In addition,jane stated that her social life
had improved immensely because she no longer was taking
work home or worrying about business matters during her
leisure time.
Case Study B
Roberta entered treatment stating that she was a com-

pulsive cleaner and had previously been diagnosed as an
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder. Roberta
reported that she is constantly looking for dirt in her house
and she is always either cleaning or yelling at other family
members to do their chores. Roberta also indicated that she
often re-cleans after her family members have completed
their chores because they don't know how to "clean right."
Mter a couple of interviews, I instructed Roberta to spend
the following week waking up one hour earlier and, with
pencil and pad in hand, make a listing of all things that she
would do if she was a "really good housekeeper." The client,
after laughing for a few moments, reluctantly agreed to
follow my directives. During the next session, Roberta
stated that she followed my directives for two days until she
saw how silly her list had become and then decided to enjoy
the extra hour of morning sleep. Roberta also stated that
she no longer felt compelled to clean house.
Exaggeration
Exaggeration is a type of paradoxical intervention that

is similar to symptom prescription. However, when using
exaggeration the therapist not only paces the client's
symptoms but does so in an extremely amplified form. The
use of exaggeration often elicits a polarity response from
the client; that is, the client will adopt a position directly
opposite to that of his/her original position (symptom). In
other cases, the use of exaggeration will bring forth a
response that qualifies the symptom, thus placing it into a
more reasonable perspective. Exaggeration opens up new
possibilities and expands the client's often restricted model
of the world either by eliciting a yet-unrevealed polarity or
by placing the symptom in a less severe frame of reference.
The following case study from the work of Frank Far-
relly illustrates the use of exaggeration with a severely
disturbed client.
As an example, a student therapist in a super-

visory conference asked, "Now what do I do? I've
got a patient that claims she's Christ's mistress."
Mter a brief discussion, we decided that the student
would become the third woman in the eternal tri-
angle, beating her patient's time with Jesus. With
coaching, the student (who was physically attractive
and a plausible-looking candidate for the role of
Christ's mistress in contrast to the patient who
looked like a Mack truck with elephantiasis) was
encouraged to ridicule the patient's ideation by
claiming that she, the student, was Christ's real,
favorite mistress! The student was urged to make
statements such as "When I had my legs around
Jesus the other night, He told me He was going to
drop you in favor of me. He told me all about you
and what a dull lump you are to screw." She was to
tell the patient lengthy and specific details about
her highly satisfying sexual and personal relation-
ship, while making invidious comparisons between
her and the patient's relationship with Jesus.
I also assured the student, who had religious
sensibilities, that God would not strike her dead,
that He would not regard this as "blasphemy", and
that since God was omniscient, it was a cinch that

He understood the purpose and meaning of
provocative therapy. And, who knows, He might
even give it His blessing with this poor delusional
woman. Three interviews later the patient in a very
embarrassed manner was asking the student to
"Quit talking in that crazy way. I didn't even half
believe it when I was saying all that nutty stuff." And
thus endeth a four year delusional system. (Farrelly,
Brandsma, 1974, p.107)
In the previous case, the therapist entered into the

non-shared reality of the client in an exaggerated way, thus
eliciting responses that was more closely aligned with con-
sensus reality.
Case Study C
The client, a thirty-six year old woman, entered the

session stating that she was having problems with her four-
teen year old daughter, Mary. The client reported that her
daughter constandy stayed home from school and com-
plained of being ill; however, when taken to the physician,
she was always found to be healthy. When Mary stayed home
from school, she spent the day drinking pop, watching t.v.,
listening to the radio and wandering around the house
"having a good time." However, when she was forced to go
to school, she told her teacher that she was sick and was
then sent home. I suggested to the client that the next time
her daughter stays home from school that she treat her as
if she were really sick. That is, to keep her in bed with no
lV, radio or phone, give her plenty ofjuices and especially
lots of pampering. Furthermore, if Mary makes any inquiry
as to the reason for the special treatment; the only explana-
tion that is to be given is, "Mter all, you are sick and I want
you to get well." The client followed through with my

directives and after a couple days of pampering, Mary
began to attend school as scheduled.
Case Study D
A very attractive young woman was referred to me by a

psychiatrist who recommended supportive substance abuse
counseling in addition to weekly psychiatric care. I saw this
client over a period of several weeks for chemical depend-
ency related issues. At the onset of one of our sessions, the
client began by saying: "I'm leaving for Hollywood tomor-
row. You are aware that I am Brooke Shields. I have been
offered a wonderful part in a love story and guess what? I
will be playing opposite Robert Redford." The client spoke
for several moments on her new movie script and the
preparations for her trip to Hollywood.
Mter listening to the client describe her experience, I
responded: "I've seen pictures of Brooke Shields and saw
her once in a movie. I think you are much, much prettier
than her." I looked intensely at the client as we simul-
taneously took a deep breath and endured a moment of
silence. The client's skin flushed as she said, "I'm not
Brooke Shields, I'm Penny."
Reframing
Reframing is a therapeutic tool that allows the therapist

to assist the client in transforming experiences that were
once perceived as liabilities into assets. The process of
reframing takes an experience that the client considers to
be negative and places it into a positive frame, thereby
changing the entire meaning of the experience.
To reframe, then, means to change the concep-

tual and/ or emotional setting or viewpoint in rela-
tion to which a situation is experienced and to place
it in another frame which fits the "facts" of the same
concrete situation equally well or even better, and
thereby changes its entire meaning. (Watzlawick,
Weakland, Fisch, 1974, p. 95)
Experience in and of itself has no meaning. It is the

judgments (thoughts and feelings) about the experience
which renders it meaning. Reframing is an example of
second-order change because reframing works to change
the context in which an experience is perceived. That is, in
reframing, the experience itself is not changed, it is the
client's perceptions of the experience that are changed. A
client's thoughts and feelings aboutan experience are meta-
to the experience and, as such, are at a higher logical level.
Since reframing operates at a meta-level, it provides tools
for changing one's perceptions of an experience even
though the experience itself may be unchangeable.
Content Reframing
Content reframing is a linguistic pattern that allows the

therapist to systematically redefine the meaning of a
specific experience. This redefinition changes the client's
internal response to the experience which thereby provides
an additional reference structure in the client's model of
the world. By providing an additional reference structure,
the client's world model is expanded, thus resulting in the
opportunity for additional choices/ options. The following
case study is an exquisite example of content reframing:
During a seminar in New York, a couple asked for

help with a very specific and somewhat unusual
problem. It seemed that the carpeting in their

house was very plush and showed every footprint.
Now this was, of course, not a problem in and of
itself, but the woman was compulsive about
vacuuming the carpet so no footprints showed.
Since everytime anyone walked on it there were
footprints, she did a lot of vacuuming. This drove
everyone crazy, and was a source of tremendous
tension between her and her husband. Everytime
she looked at the footprinted carpet, she felt bad
and did not feel good until she had vacuumed it.
Mter listening to this description, I asked myself
how footprints on the carpet could be experienced
as a positive occurrence by this woman in a way that
she will not feel the need to constantly vacuum. The
answer made my task an easy one. I asked her to
close her eyes and see her carpeted home - to see
that the carpet was perfect, not a single strand out
of place. And as she was enjoying seeing the carpet
so perfect, I told her she could become aware that
there was also complete silence in her house; and
as she listened to the silence, she could realize she
was all alone. Her loved ones were gone and she was
all alone with her perfect carpet. It was only now, I
told her, that she would finally realize that every
footprint that appeared on that carpet was a sign
that her loved ones were near, and that she was with
her family. So each time in the future, whenever she
would see a footprint on the carpet, she could feel
the closeness of her family and the love she felt
towards them. Like Mother's Day presents saved
year after year, each footprint could be looked
upon warmly. Mter all, I said to her, whose small or
large foot had stepped there for her to see?
By doing what I did, I reframed "footprints on
the carpet" to trigger warm, loving feelings rather
than compulsive cleanliness. As strange as this may

sound, it worked with her and, really, it makes more
sense to feel good about footprints than it does to
feel bad about them.
(Cameron-Bandler, 1985, pp.161-162)
The following brief transcripts are further illustrations

of content reframing.
1.
Client: My childhood was terrible. My
mother was always too busy for me,
my father was never home, and my
older brother was constantly
hitting me.
Therapist: Isn't it a relief to know that your pain
is in the past and that having lived
through those experiences made you
the strong person that you are today?
2.
Client: My mother is really driving me nuts.
She is constantly bugging me. She
wants to know where I go, what I do,
who I see. She wants me to get good
grades in school and dress nice. Ijust
wish she would quit bugging me.
Therapist: Thank God that she loves you enough
to put that much energy into your
well-being.
Six-Step Reframing
The six-step reframing model rests on the presupposi-

tion that all behavior is adaptive given the context in which
it was learned and that behind all behavior there exists a
positive intent. (Dilts, 1983) The purpose of this formal

six-step procedure is to work with the client in order to
separate the behavior (symptom) from the intent and to
satisfy the secondary gains involved in the situation. The
following are the six steps of the reframing model
(Cameron-Bandler, 1985, Kostere, Malatesta, 1985):
(I) Identify the behavior/symptom and contact the part

that generates the behavior.
(2) Separate the intention from the behavior.
(3) Verify that the intention is positive.
(4) Have the creative part generate three new ways to
satisfy the intention and verify that the part responsible for
the old behavior agrees that the new ways will satisfy the
intention.
(5) Determine ifthe part responsible for the behavior
is willing to use these new options in place of the old
behavior. (A time limit may be necessary.) Have the part
responsible for the behavior implement these three new
options in the place of the old behavior.
(6) Verify that all parts agree to this new arrangement
(ecological check). Ifthere are any objections to this arran-
gement, backtrack to step 2. If there are no objections, have
the client thank all parts for their cooperation.
Transcript
Ethel is a fifty-five year old woman who has a long

history of excessive alcohol usage. Within the past two
months, she completed a twenty-eight day inpatient
rehabilitation program.
Therapist: How are you today?

Ethel: I've been feeling terrible.
Therapist: About what?

Ethel: I can't stop thinking about alcohol.
Therapist: How specifically are you thinking

about alcohol?
Ethel: Well, I keep having this picture in my
mind of a cold glass of beer and, you
know, sometimes I can even taste it.
Therapist: What feelings go along with that

picture?
Ethel: I feel anxious and afraid that I'm
going to take a drink.
Therapist: Are there any particular times when

you have this experience?
Ethel: Yes, when I'm alone.
Therapist: How often are you alone?

Ethel: A great deal of time.
Therapist: Have you always spent a great deal of

the time alone?
Ethel: No, I used to go to bars, parties and I
belonged to a bowling league but all
those activities involved drinking.
Since I've been sober, I've become
more and more isolated.
Therapist: All right. What I want you to do is to

go inside and ask the part of yourself
responsible for thinking about alco-
hol ifit has a positive intention?
(Pause)
Ethel: (Eyes closed) I don't know.
Therapist: What did you experience?

Ethel: I saw a cold glass of beer.
Therapist: Okay, go inside and ask the part of

yourself responsible for thinking
about drinking if it has a positive
intent, and if the answer is yes, have
that part signal you with the image
of a cold glass of beer.
Ethel: I saw a cold glass of beer.
Therapist: Are you aware that you have a

creative part?
Ethel: Yes.
Therapist: Go inside and ask your creative part

to make contact with the part respon-
sible for thinking about drinking and
ask if your creative part will create
three new ways to satisfy that positive
intent. If the answer is yes, have the
image of a cold glass of beer appear.
Ethel: I saw the image.
Therapist: Good. Have your creative part signal

you with the image once it has gen-
erated the three new ways to
satisfy the intent.
(Pause)
Therapist: Fine. Now ask the part responsible

for thinking about drinking if she
would review these three new ways
to satisfy the positive intent. If she
agrees that they will take care of you

in the place of the old behavior
(thinking about drinking), to signal
you with the image.
(Pause)
Therapist: Now go inside and ask if the part

responsible for thinking about
drinking is willing to be responsible
to implement these three new ways
in place of the old behavior for the
next three months, and if so, to
signal you with the image.
Therapist: Now, thank your creative part and

the part responsible for thinking
about drinking for working with you
in this special way.
(Pause)
Ethel: Okay, I thanked them.
Therapist: Ask your creative part and the part of

yourself responsible for thinking
about drinking to be still and ask if
any other parts have any objections
to these new arrangements.
(Pause)
Ethel: I didn't get any objections.

Therapist: Fine, these arrangements will cover

the next three months and if they
work for you they can continue in-
definitely. However, if any new
arrangements need to be made, this
can occur in the naturally integrative
time known as sleep and dreaming.
Contextual Reframing
In some cases, a behavior (symptom) causes a problem

in a person's life because it has become detached from the
context in which it was useful. In other words, the behavior
has become overgeneralized. Contextual reframing is a
process whereby the therapist works with the client to
reattach the behavior to the context(s) in which it is ap-
propriate and eliminate it from all other contexts.
(Cameron-Bandler, 1985; Kostere, Malatesta, 1985) The fol-
lowing are the six steps used in contextual reframing:
1. Identify the behavior/symptom and contact the part

that generates the behavior.
2. Separate the intention from the behavior.
3. Verify that the intention is positive.
4. Have the part responsible for the behavior along with

the creative part determine in which context(s) the be-
havior serves the positive intention.
5. Have the part responsible for the behavior be respon-

sible to implement the behavior only in the appropriate
context(s) .
6. Verify that all of the parts agree to this new arrange-

ment (ecological check).
Transcript
Jennifer is a twenty-two year old woman who entered

therapy with the stated problem of anxiety. During the
initial interview, Jennifer reported that she was molested
several months ago by her former boss and has since
generalized her anxiety in such a way as to fear all men.
Therapist: What change do you want for yourself

today?
Jennifer: I want to be able to be comfortable
around men.
Therapist: All men?

Jennifer: Well, no. I would like to feel comfort-
able around the men I work with and
I would like to begin dating again.
Therapist: Fine. Go inside and ask the part

responsible for generating your
anxiety if it has any positive intention.
(Pause)
Jennifer: All I got was a feeling of anxiety.
Therapist: All right. Now, go inside and ask the

part of you responsible for the
anxiety if it has a positive intent and,
if so, to signal you by having those
feelings recur.
Jennifer: I had the feelings again.
Therapist: Since that part of you has a positive

intent, ask that part along with the
help of your creative part to sort
through the possible contexts or
situations where the anxiety truly
serves the positive intent and
functions in a useful way. Once those
parts have secured the contexts
where the anxiety does serve a
positive function, have it signal you
with the feelings.
(Pause)
Jennifer: Okay. I had the feelings again.
Therapist: Go inside and ask the part of yourself

responsible for the anxiety if she
would be in charge of allowing the
anxiety to occur only in the contexts
where it serves the positive function
for the next three months. If she
grees, have her signal you.
(Pause)
Jennifer: I got the feelings.
Therapist: Okay. Now, thank those parts for co-

operating with you in this way.
However, ask them to be silent and
ask if any other parts object to this
new arrangement.
(Pause)
Jennifer: There are no objections.
Therapist: These arrangements will cover the

next three months and may continue
indefinitely. However, if at any point
you need to make any new negoti-
ations, they can occur during the
dream process.
Paradoxical Intervention With Reframing
Often paradoxical intervention and content reframing

are used together in order to assist the client in achieving
his/her goals. The following case study from the work of
the late Milton H. Erickson, M.D. is an excellent example
of how these powerful therapeutic tools can be used
together.
A twenty-one year old girl came to Erickson and

said she wanted help. She would like to get a hus-
band and have a home and children, but she had
never had a boyfriend and felt she was hopeless and
destined to be an old maid. She said, "I think I'm
too inferior to live. I've got no friends, I stay by
myself, and I'm too homely to get married. I
thought I'd see a psychiatrist before I committed
suicide. I'm going to try you for three months time,
and then if things aren't straightened out, that's the
end."
The young lady worked as a secretary in a con-
struction firm and had no social life. She had never
dated. A young man at her office showed up at the
drinking fountain each time she did, but even
though she found him attractive and he made over-
tures, she ignored him and never spoke to him. She
lived alone and her parents were dead.

The girl was pretty, but she managed to make
herself unattractive because her hair was straggly
and uneven, her blouse and skirt didn't match,
there was a rip in her skirt, and her shoes were
scuffed and unpolished. Her main physical defect,
according to her, was a gap between her front teeth,
which she covered with her hand as she talked. The
gap was actually about one-eighth of an inch wide
and not unsightly. Generally, this was a girl going
downhill, heading for suicide, feeling helpless
about herself, and resisting any acts that would help
her achieve her goal of getting married and having
children.
Erickson approached this problem with two
major interventions. He proposed to the girl that
since she was going downhill anyhow, she might as
well have one last fling. This last fling would include
taking the money she had in the bank and spending
it on herself. She was to go to a particular store
where a woman would help her select a tasteful
outfit, and to a particular beauty shop where she
would have her hair properly done. The girl was
willing to accept the idea, since it was not a way of
improving herself but part of going downhill and
merely having a last fling.
Then Erickson gave her a task. She was to go
home and in the privacy of her bathroom practice
squirting water through the gap between her front
teeth until she could achieve a distance of six feet
with accuracy. She thought this was silly, but it was
partly the absurdity ofit that made her go home and
practice squirting water conscientiously.
When the girl was dressed properly, looking at-
tractive, and skillful at squirting water through the
gap in her teeth, Erickson made a suggestion to her.
90 Maps. Models. and the Structure of Reality
He proposed that when she went to work the fol-

lowing Monday she playa practical joke. When that
young man appeared at the water fountain at the
same time she did, she was to take a mouthful of
water and squirt it at him. Then she was to turn and
run, but not merely run; she was to start to run
toward the young man and turn and "run like hell
down the corridor."
The girl rejected this idea as impossible. Then
she thought of it as a somewhat amusing but crude
fantasy. Finally she decided to do it. She was in a
mood for a last fling anyhow.
On Monday she went to work dressed in her new
outfit and with her hair done. She went to the water
fountain, and when the young man approached,
she filled her mouth with water and squirted it on
him. The young man said something like "you
damn little bitch." This made her laugh as she ran,
and the young man took after and caught her. To
her consternation, he grabbed her and kissed her.
The next day the young lady approached the
water fountain with some trepidation, and the
young man sprang out from behind a telephone
booth and sprayed her with a water pistol. The next
day they went out to dinner together.
She returned to Erickson and reported what had
happened. She said she was revising her opinion
about herself and wanted him to do a critical review
of her. He did, pointing out, among other things,
that she had cooperated well with him, that she had
dressed badly before but now dressed well, and that
she had previously thought she had a dental defect
instead of an asset. Within a few months, she sent
Erickson a newspaper clipping reporting her mar-
riage to the young man and a year later a picture of
her new baby. (Haley, 1973, pp. 71-72)
In the aforementioned case study, Dr. Erickson used a

combination of paradoxical intervention and reframing in
order to facilitate the change process. Dr. Erickson used
symptom prescription in working with his client by
prescribing her symptom (suicidal plans) with some
qualifications (buying new clothes and getting a different
hair style). Erickson also reframed the client's space be-
tween her teeth, thus transforming a physical characteristic
that she believed to be a liability into an attractive asset.
Metaphor
The purpose of medicine is power. You go to a

psychiatrist and he tells you your head is fouled up.
What he's doing is helping you to introspect and
learn about your own character. But since native
people have observed the four-leggeds and winged
ones and all the forces of nature for thousands of
years, we know your closest kinship. When I tell you
you're the black wolf, you look within yourself and
you know that you truly are. When you understand
the powers of the black wolf, you too will have those
powers. All the medicines are good and have power.
White people have this thing that says, "I'm not a
snake. I'm not a squirrel. I'm something impor-
tant." They separate, and that's their tragedy.
(Andrews, 1981, p. 107)
Therapeutic metaphors are teaching stories that

facilitate the change process. Sheldon Kopp (1971) defines
metaphor in the following passage:
Generally, a metaphor is defined as a way of

speaking in which one thing is expressed in terms
of another, whereby this bringing together throws
new light on the character of what is being

described. (p. 17)
There are two types of therapeutic metaphor: isomor-

phic and elicitation. An isomorphic metaphor is a story that
parallels, at a formal level, the presenting problem of the
client. Within an isomorphic metaphor, there is a pacing
and leading component, an access to conscious and/or
unconscious resources and often a solution set that allows
the client to choose from a number of possible solutions to
the presenting problem. The theoretical construct and
utilization of isomorphic metaphor has been described
fully in a number of books (Gordon, 1978; Lankton, 1980;
Cameron-Bandler, 1985; Kostere, Malatesta, 1985). There-
fore, the remainder of this chapter is devoted to presenting
the principles and applications of elicitation metaphors.
An elicitation metaphor is a story that is designed to
elicit a specific response. This type of metaphor is used to
call forth states of consciousness and the resources that lie
within them. Assisting clients to gain access to additional
resources facilitates the expansion of their world models,
thereby making more options/choices available.
There are two concepts that are central to under-
standing metaphor: displaced referential index and trans-
den'vational search. Displaced referential index refers to
the "as if' quality that exists in all metaphor. Within each
metaphor, there is a certain element of symbolism. The
symbolism can either be abstract or concrete. Metaphors
that contain abstract symbolism are known as deep
metaphors. Those containing symbolism that is more con-
crete are called shallow metaphors. In either case, the client
will usually identify with one or more of the symbols in the
story and, from that perspective, interpret and internalize
its meaning.
Transderivational search is the means by which lan-
guage is connected to experience. It is by the process of
transderivational search that the client associates the words

used in the metaphor to his/her model of the world. Thus,
each client's interpretation of the metaphor will be unique
because the words used in the story become associated to
his/her personal internal sensory representations. It is our
belief that each client interprets the presented metaphor
in the way that is most congruent with his/her own being
and in accordance with the desired goal. The following
stories are examples of elicitation metaphors:
Learning
Nan-in, a Japanese master during the Meiji era

(1868-1912), received a university professor who
came to inquire about Zen.
Nan-in served tea. He poured his visitor's cup full,
and then kept on pouring.
The professor watched the overflow until he no
longer could restrain himself. "It is overfull. No
more will go inl"
"Like this cup," Nan-in said, "you are full of your
own opinions and speculations. How can I show you
Zen unless you first empty your cup?"
(Reps, 1939, p. 5)
Motivation
A hundred or so years ago, Pecos Bill rode into a

small Texan town. Mter tying up his horse, Pecos
Bill walked into the town hotel and found that no
one was there. He then walked over to the saloon
and found it to be empty. Pecos Bill decided to help
himself to a few drinks. Mter finishing his whiskey,
he walked over to the general store and again, no
one was there. Pecos Bill, being a little on the shady

side, helped himself to the supplies he needed and
loaded them onto his horse. As he started to untie
his horse, he looked up and noticed that the front
door to the bank was wide open. Pecos Bill decided
to investigate further, and as he entered the bank,
much to his surprise the safe was unlocked and
nobody was there. Swiftly, Pecos Bill began loading
all the gold into his saddle bags. Pecos Bill then
mounted his horse and rode out of town heading
for the Rio Grande River. A few hours later, the
town's people returned from a Founder's Day pic-
nic to find that they had been robbed. The sheriff
immediately formed a posse and with great ex-
pediency, they fled to capture the culprit. By this
time, Pecos Bill had reached the Rio Grande and
found the river to be swollen. He thought, "My bags
are so heavy, I'll surely drown." He looked toward
the west and saw the great desert, sand and cactus
as far as one could see. He looked toward the east
and saw a range of towering mountains with snow
covered caps. He looked toward the north and
could see a cloud of dust far off into the distance
and realized that he was being followed. Pecos Bill
didn't know what to do, which way to turn, which
path to take, so he sat down and pondered. He
thought and thought and thought, until finally the
posse arrived. The sheriff rode up to Pecos Bill,
drew his gun and shot him three times until he was
dead. (Grinder, 1978)
Trusting the Self
Once upon a time, long long ago there lived a

very magical wizard. This wizard's name was Nicola
and he lived with his many friends in an enchanted

forest. Nicola was a very conscientious wizard and
spent long hours studying potions, spells, illusions
and other such tricks of his trade. Even though
Nicola was a skilled wizard who was held in high
esteem by his peers, he sometimes felt like some-
thing was missing in his life. Nicola often thought
of a story told to him by his mentor when he was a
young apprentice. The story was about a crystal
pyramid, located in the purple desert, that held the
secret to the magic of reflections. Nicola remem-
bered that his teacher told him that learning the
magic of reflections was the most important lesson
of wizardry.
One day Nicola set out on a journey to find the
crystal pyramid and learn its secrets. The journey
was long and as he crossed the sands of time he met
many perils, encountered numerous hardships. On
several occasions, Nicola considered turning back,
returning to his comfortable forest and giving up
his quest; however, driven by the desire to learn, he
continued on. Finally, the now-tired wizard came
upon the crystal pyramid and was in awe of its
wondrous beauty. The wizard, determined to dis-
cover the secrets of its magic, gazed into the colorful
glass but each time saw only an image of himself.
No matter which angle he chose, he was able to see
only himself, with each image being slightly dif-
ferent due to the formation of the crystal. After
quite some time, Nicola began the journey back
home taking with him a deep sense of confusion.
The disappointed wizard felt that he had gained no
new insight and he continued to ask himself, "What
did this experience mean?" Suddenly, with a flash
of insight, the answer to Nicola's question became
clear and he was able to live peacefully in the
enchanted forest knowing that he had truly found

the most powerful magic of all. (Kostere, Malatesta,
1988)
Congruency
A mother brought her young son to Mahatma

Gandhi. She begged, "Please, Mahatma. Tell my
son to stop eating sugar." Gandhi paused, then said,
"Bring your son back in two weeks." Puzzled, the
woman thanked him and said that she would do as
he had asked. Two weeks later, she returned with
her son. Gandhi looked the youngster in the eye
and said, "Stop eating sugar." Grateful but be-
wildered, the woman asked, ''Why did you tell me
to bring him back in two weeks? You could have told
him the same thing then." Gandhi replied, "Two
weeks ago, I was eating sugar." (Millman, 1980,
1984, p. 185)
Humility
Zen students are with their masters at least ten

years before they presume to teach others. Nan-in
was visited by Tenno, who, having passed his ap-
prenticeship, had become a teacher. The day hap-
pened to be rainy, so Tenno wore wooden clogs and
carried an umbrella. Mter greeting him Nan-in
remarked: "I suppose you left your wooden clogs in
the vestibule. I want to know if your umbrella is on
the right or left side of the clogs." Tenno, confused,
had no instant answer. He realized that he was
unable to carry his Zen every minute. He became
Nan-in's pupil, and he studied six more years to
accomplish his every-minute Zen. (Reps, 1939, p.

34)
Metaphoric Reframing
Metaphoric reframing is a technique that involves

. delivering a story which is designed to reframe an ex-
perience. The elegance of this technique, as in all
metaphor, is that the client assigns his/her own meaning
to the newly reframed experience.
A very old Chinese Taoist story describes a farmer

in a poor country village. He was considered very
well-to-do, because he owned a horse which he used
for plowing and for transportation. One day his
horse ran away. All his neighbors exclaimed how
horrible this was, but the farmer simply said,
"Maybe."
A few days later the horse returned and brought
two wild horses with it. The neighbors all rejoiced
at his good fortune, but the farmer just said,
"Maybe."
The next day the farmer's son tried to ride one
the wild horses; the horse threw him and broke his
leg. The neighbors all offered their sympathy for his
misfortune, but the the farmer again said, "Maybe."
The next week conscription officers came to the
village to take young men for the army. They
rejected the farmer's son because of his broken leg.
When the neighbors told him how lucky he was, the
farmer replied, "Maybe." (Bandler, Grinder, 1982,
p.l)
Cinnamon Face
A woman whom I had treated for pain came to

see me. She said "I'm not seeing you for myself now.
I want to see you about my daughter. She is eight
years old. She hates her sister; she hates me; she
hates her father; she hates her teacher, her school-
mates; hates the mailman, the milkman, the man in
the gas station - she just plain hates everybody. She
hates herself. I've tried, for a long time, to get her
to go to Kansas for the summer to visit her
grandparents. She hates them butshe doesn't know
them." So I asked, "What's all this hate about?" "A
mass of freckles on her face. The kids in school call
her Freckles and she hates those freckles terribly."
I said, "Where is the girl?" "She's out in the car,
doesn't want to come in. She hates you because
she's got freckles." I said, "Go out and bring the girl
in, even if you have to use force. And bring her into
this room." I sat at my desk in the other room. The
mother didn't have to use force. The girl came in
and stood in the doorway, her fists clenched, her
jaw jutting out, glowering at me and ready for a
fight. As she stood there, I looked at her and said,
"You're a thiefl You steal!" She said she was not a
thief and she did not steal. She could do battle on
that score. "Oh, yes, you're a thief. You steal things.
I even know what you stole. I even have proof that
you stole." She said, "You haven't got proof. I never
stoled nothin'." I said, "I even know where you were
when you stole what you stole." That girl was
thoroughly angry with me. I said, "I'll tell you where
you were and what you stole. You were in the
kitchen, setting the kitchen table. You were stand-
ing at the kitchen table. You were reaching up to
the cookie jar, containing cinnamon cookies, cin-

namon buns, cinnamon rolls - and you spilled some
cinnamon on your face - you're a Cinnamon Face."
(Erickson, 1982, pp. 152-153)
The Eucalyptus Tree
A rancher brought his wife in to see me. He said,

"She's been depressed and suicidal for nine whole
months. She's got arthritis. We haven't been mar-
ried very long. She developed severe arthritis and
she has gone to the orthopedic surgeon for therapy.
I've taken her to psychiatrists for psychotherapy.
They all recommended electric shock or insulin
shock when she's in her fifties."
"She wants to have a baby and the orthopedist
told her, "Getting pregnant may make your arthritis
worse and I would advise against it since you are
already sufficiently handicapped." She went to an
obstetrician who said, "I wouldn't advise a pregnan-
cy. You are very greatly handicapped and the
arthritis may get worse. You may be unable to
deliver the baby."
Her husband brought her in to see me, carrying
her. I let her tell me her story. She said pregnancy
was worth more to her than life. The husband said,
"I have to keep every sharp knife out of her reach."
Because a suicidal patient will commit suicide
despite your care - because there are many delays
that can occur before suicide happens.
I said, "Now madam, you say that a pregnancy is
more important to you than your life. The
obstetrician advises against it. The orthopedic sur-
geon advises against it; our psychiatrists have, also.
My advice is: Get pregnant as soon as you can. If
your arthritis gets worse, you stay in bed and you

can enjoy your pregnancy. Now when it comes time
to deliver, you can have a caesarean section. There
is no law against it. It's the sensible thing to do."
So she promptly got pregnant and her arthritis
improved. She lost her depression. It was a very
happy nine-month pregnancy. She delivered the
baby without incident and she really enjoyed Cyn-
thia, the name she gave the baby. Her husband was
very happy.
Unfortunately, at the age of six months, Cynthia
died of crib death. Mter some months, her husband
brought her in and said, "She's worse then ever." I
asked the woman about it. She said, "I just want to
die. I've got no reason for living." Very harshly and
meticulously, I said, 'Woman, how can you be so
stupid? For nine long months, you had the happiest
time of your life. You want to kill yourself and
destroy those memories? That's wrong. For six long
delightful months, you enjoyed Cynthia. Are you
going to destroy those memories? I think it's
criminally wrong."
"So your husband will take you home and get you
an eucalyptus sapling. You tell him where to plant
it. Eucalyptus trees grow very rapidly in Arizona. I
want you to name that eucalyptus sapling, Cynthia.
I want you to watch Cynthia grow. I want you to look
forward to the day when you can sit in the shade of
Cynthia."
I went out a year later to see her. The sapling had
grown very rapidly (I had one at least 60 feet tall in
my backyard, and it was only six years old). She
welcomed me. She was no longer confined to bed
or a chair. She was walking around greatly improved
in her arthritis. She had flower beds that occupied
more space than this entire building does. She
showed me all around her flower beds. She showed

me all different kinds of flowers. She gave me an
armful of sweetpeas to bring home. (Erickson in
Zeig, 1980, pp. 287-288)
6
ECOLOGY
POSTUlATES
Our model of communication and change is holistic in

nature; therefore, an important issue is personal ecology.
The idea of personal ecology rests on the premise that any
change within a system will have an effect on the entire
system. Any shift in a person's model of the world will have
an impact on all parameters of that person's world model.
This concept, coupled with our belief that each person
makes the best choice possible given the resources that
he/she has available, is the structure ofthe positive intent
which underlies secondary gains. The ecology frame and
reframing the reframe are two techniques that are designed
to work with issues regarding personal ecology.
The Ecology Frame
The ecology frame consists of assisting the client in

establishing an internal indicator that functions as a signal
to notify the client if the newly acquired change in some
way violates his/her personal ecology (Grinder, 1985). This

internal indicator can take the form of an internal image,
sound, feeling, taste or smell, and it is usually most effective
to use an indicator that is involuntary. Many clients have
the ecology frame as a natural part of their internal or-
ganization. For example, a client may enter a therapist's
office, establish a well-formed goal, and complete a piece
of work that achieves the desired goal. However, after the
goal is achieved, the client has an intuition that notifies
him/her that something is not right. Frequently, this intui-
tion is the result of the client's automatic ecology frame
which is attempting to signal the client that the change has
in some way violated his/her personal ecology. In this case,
a secondary gain has not been taken into consideration;
that is, the change may have a negative effect on some area
of the client's life. Once the client becomes aware that
his/her personal ecology has been violated, the therapist
can work with the client to satisfy the secondary gain in-
volved by using the six-step reframing model. This model
will provide a means whereby a negotiation can take place
among the client's internal parts so that the change can
remain without jeopardizing personal ecology.
Reframing the Reframe
Reframing the reframe is often the last step in the thera-

peutic process. This step involves reframing the return of
any symptom or relapse in such a way that it triggers the
need for further negotiation among parts rather than the
onslaught of anticipatory symptoms. Many times, the re-
turn of a symptom elicits an "Oh no, not again" response
from the client, which then leads to anticipatory symp-
toms and symptom-bound meta-loops. The return of a
symptom is often the result of either a shift in the client's
environment or a change in his/her internal organization.
Ecology Postulates 105
Bya shift in the environment, we are referring to a situation

in which factors in a client's life have shifted in such a way
as to render the change no longer adaptive. When referring
to a shift in the client's internal organization, we mean a
situation in which the arrangement of the client's internal
parts has changed, thus making the achieved therapeutic
goal no longer the best choice possible. In either case, if
the client experiences a return of the symptom, the six-step
reframing model is an effective intervention that will assist
the client in the process of internal reorganization, thus
satisfYing the new secondary gain (s) which has developed.
Transcript
Joseph is a thirty-six year old married male who was

referred by his physician with the stated problem of insom-
nia. During the initial interview, Joseph described a history
of inability to fall asleep at night. The following transcript
was taken from the second therapy session.
Therapist: Joseph, what change would you like

for yourself?
Joseph: I would like to be able to fall asleep
more readily at night.
Therapist: What is your sleeping pattern now?

Joseph: I go to bed around 1l:00 p.m. How-
ever, I often lie there, feeling anxious
and restless, not falling asleep until
2 or 3 o'clock in the morning.
Therapist: Will you describe the anxiety and

restlessness? (description)
Joseph: As I lie there in bed, looking at the
ceiling with an occasional glance at
the clock, I say to myself, "Oh no,

not another night of sleeplessness."
While lying there, I can feel my body
tensing up which leads to more
dread about not being able to sleep.
My house is so quiet. All of my
children are sleeping and I lay in bed
listening to my own heart beat,
wondering if I will ever fall asleep.
Therapist: Once you fall asleep, is your sleep

uninterrupted or do you experience
multiple awakenings?
Joseph: When I finally get to sleep, I average
3 to 4 hours of uninterrupted sleep.
Therapist: Take a moment, go inside, and ask

the part of you responsible for your
total well-being if he would signal
you if any of the changes which we
implement during this session in any
way violates your personal ecology.
(ecology frame)
(Pause)
Therapist: Did you get a response?

Joseph: My heart began to beat really fast.
Therapist: Go inside and ask that part to repeat

the response, if he is willing to signal
you with a fast heart beat should
there be any ecological violations.
(Pause)
Joseph: My heart began to beat really fast

again.
Therapist: I am willing to work with you if you

are willing to follow my directives
to the letter.
Joseph: I will do anything in order to get
more sleep.
Therapist: Fine. Tonight at 10:30, I want you to

leisurely prepare yourself for bed so
that by 1l:00 you can be ready.
Joseph: Ready for what?
Therapist: What I want you to do is to find a

good book, set your alarm clock
for 6:00 a.m., and then go sit in a
comfortable chair. Place your alarm
clock where you can easily notice the
time and then begin reading. Your
task is to continue reading until 6:00
a.m. and to count each hour as it
passes. I would like you to continue
this procedure for the next three
evenings which will be until our next
appointment. (symptom prescrip-
tion)
Joseph: All right, but I feel my heart beating
really fast.
Therapist: Take a moment, go inside, and ask

the part responsible for the rapid
heart beat if it is trying to signal you
and if so have your heart beat
fast again.
(Pause)
Joseph: It's beating fast again.

Therapist: Go inside and ask the part respon-
sible for the insomnia if it has a
positive intent. (six-step reframing)
(Pause)
Joseph: I got the fast heart beat.
Therapist: Good. Now ask that part if he would

let you know in consciousness what
the positive intent is.
(Pause)
Joseph: I saw an image of my wife and I sit-

ting at the kitchen table, in the
middle of the night, talking. You
see, often when I can't get to sleep,
I end up waking my wife and she
and I either sit at the kitchen table
and talk or watch T.V. together.
The house is quiet, the kids are
asleep, and its a good time for us
to be together.
Therapist: I see. Now, go inside and ask your

creative part to generate three new
ways to satisfy that positive intent
which will not result in any
negative symptoms.
(Pause)
Joseph: Okay, I have them. I saw three

new pictures. One of my wife and
I walking in the park together
after dinner. There is a park one
block from our house. The second
picture was of my wife and I going
to see a movie together. We haven't
done that in years. The third
picture was of my wife and I going
out to dinner together.
Therapist: Good. Now go inside and ask the part

of you responsible for the insomnia
if he would be willing to implement
these three new options in the place
of the old symptom; if so, to signal
you with the fast heart beat.
(Pause)
Joseph: My heart began to beat really

fast again.
Therapist: Now, thank your creative part and

the part of you responsible for the
insomnia for working with you in
this way. However, ask them to be
silent for a few moments and ask if
any other part has an objection to
this new arrangement. (ecological
check)
(Pause)
Joseph: I received no signals.

Therapist: Good. Now you have my instructions

for the next three evenings and I
will see you in three days.
Joseph: Okay, thanks.
Joseph returned, three days later, for his next

scheduled appointment. Joseph reported that the first
night, he stayed awake all night. However, the second night,
he fell asleep reading in the chair at 1l:30 p.m. The following
night, he fell asleep in his own bed at 1l:15 p.m. Joseph also
reported that he and his wife had been out to dinner once
and had taken two walks in the park. During this final
interview, the therapist told the client that if the insomnia
should ever reappear that it was only an indicator that he
needs to go inside and renegotiate among his internal parts
(reframing the reframe).
In the previous transcript, the therapist used symptom
prescription to break the meta-loop which was creating
anticipatory symptoms. The therapist employed the ecology
frame to iden tify the violation of personal ecology and then
utilized the six-step reframing model to satisfy the secon-
dary gains. Finally, the therapist implemented reframing
the reframe as a method of inhibiting the creation of
further meta-loops by the return of any symptoms.
REFLECTIONS
Once upon a time, far into the future, there was.a place
called the Land of Shadows. This exotic and beautiful place
was marked by a lush valley located between two towering
mountains. The Land of Shadows boasted of its midnight
sun whose rays delightfully bounced over the mountains.
This dance between the sun and the mountains created
mysterious and awesome shadows.
The Native Land People had forever lived in the valley.
They were childlike in their innocence and, with soft eyes,
welcomed the ever-changing shadow formations. The Na-
tive Land People embraced each moment with a sense of
newness and wonder.
Each year, many people journeyed to the Land of
Shadows. These visitors were graciously welcomed by the
Native Land People. Nevertheless, many of the visi tors were
initially confused by the illusive nature of this enchanting
land. They feared that the everchanging shadows were
foreboding signs of evil lurking in hidden places. Fruitless-
ly, they spent countless hours attempting to distinguish,
analyze, and interpret the shadows in order to discern their
"true" nature. .
Some of the visitors became fascinated by the provoca-
tive ways of the Native Land People and sought them out
as mentors. The mentors accepted the visitors' experiences
of confusion and their thirsts for new understandings. By
way of their mentorships, the visitors learned that con-
fusion was but the gateway to worlds-upon-worlds of new
experiences. The visitors were told enchanting stories
which described the intimate relationship between the sun
and the mountains and the shadows that they bore. Soon,
the visitors began to value the uniqueness and solitary
beauty of each shadow. Their fears changed to wonder and,

finally, many of the visitors grew to love the Land of
Shadows.
Mter their mentorships had ended, some of the visitors
journeyed back to their places of origin taking with them
the magic they had acquired. Others decided to stay in the
Land of Shadows making it their home.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Bateson, G. (1972). Steps to an Ecology ofMind. New York:
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_ _ . (1979). Mind and Nature. New York: Bantam
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Bateson, G., Bateson, M. (1987). AngelsFear: Towards an
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Buber, M. (1937). I and Thou. Edenburgh: T. and T.
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Calder, N. (1979) . Einstein's Universe. New York: Penguin
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Capra, F. (1975). The Tao of Physics: New York: Bantam
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presented at the Annual Scientific Meeting of the A.K. Rice
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J. (1980). Neuro-linguistic Programming: Vol. L Cupertino,
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di Villadorata, M. (1974). Aikido. Cambridge, Ontario:
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With You: The Teaching Tales OJ Milton Erickson, M.D .. New
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Grinder, J. (1978). Pecos BilL (This story was
paraphrased from an audio tape recorded at a seminar on
metaphor).
_ _ . (1985). Perceptual Styles And Masks. (Videotape)
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Grinder,]., Bandler, R. (1976). The Structure Of Magic,
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Jones, R. (1982). Physics As Metaphor. Minneapolis, Min-
nesota: University of Minnesota Press.
Kopp, S. (1971). Guru: Metaphors From A Psychotherapist.
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Korzybski, A. (1933). Science And Sanity. Lakeville, Con-
necticut: The International Non-Aristotelian Library
Publishing Company 4th Edition.
Kostere, K., Malatesta, L. (1985). Get The Results You
Want: A Systematic Approach To NLP. Portland, Oregon:
Metamorphous Press.
Kostere, K., Malatesta, L. (1988). (A metaphor
presented at a seminar on Metaphor in Ericksonian
Psychotherapy at The Center For Humanistic Studies,
Detroit, Michigan.)
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Lankton, S. (1980). Practical Magic. Cupertino, Califor-
nia: Meta Publications.
McCall, R. (1983). Phenomenological Psychology. Madison,
Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press.
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Two: Some Limits On Our Capacity For Processing Information.
The Psychological Review. Vol. 63, March.
Millman, D. (1980, 1984). Way Of The Peaceful Warrior.
Tiburon, California: H.]. Kramer, Inc.
Pearce, J. (1974). Exploring The Crack In The Cosmic Egg.
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Porter, A. (1970). Cybernetics Simplified. New York: John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.
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AndPre-zen Writings. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books.
Rogers, C. (1961). On Becoming A Person. Boston, Mas-
sachusetts: Houghton Miffiin Company.
Rosen,J. (1953). Direct Psychoanalysis. New York: Grune
and Stratton.
von Foerster, H. (1981). Observing Systems. Seaside,
California: Intersystems.
Wardhaugh, R. (1972). Introduction To Linguistics. New
York: McGraw Hill, Inc.
Watzlawick, P., Weakland,]., Fisch, R. (1974). Change.
New York: W. W. Norton and Company, Inc.
Weeks, G., L'Abate, L. (1982). Paradoxical Psychotherapy:
Theory And Practice With Individuals, Couples And Families.
New York: Brunner and Mazel, Publishers.
Zeig, J. (Ed.) (1980). A Teaching Seminar With Milton H.
Erickson, M.D .. New York: Brunner/Mazel, Publishers.
117
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Linda Malatesta received a M.A. degree in clinical and

humanistic psychology from The Center For Humanistic
Studies in Detroit, Michigan. Over the past several years,
she has conducted workshops and training seminars on
models of communication and their application to the
change process. Linda is the co-author of Get The Results You
Want: A Systematic Approach To NLP (Metamorphous Press).
Currently, Linda is involved in a psychotherapy practice in
Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.
Kim M. Kostere received a Psy.S. degree in clinical and
humanistic education and psychology from The Center For
Humanistic Studies in Detroit, Michigan and a Ph.D. de-
gree in clinical psychology from the Union Graduate
School in Cincinnati, Ohio. During the mid and late 1970s,
he studied NeuroLinguistic Programming with Richard
Bandler and John Grinder, Ph.D. Subsequently, he co-
founded the Ontario NLP Institute in Toronto, Ontario.
Kim has studied hypnosis with the late Milton H. Erickson,
M.D. and existential/phenomenological psychology with
Clark Moustakas, Ed.D, Ph.D. Kim has led numerous
workshops and training seminars throughout the United
States and Canada and is the co-author of Get The Results
You Want: A Systematic Approach To NLP (Metamorphous
Press). Currently, Kim is involved in a psychotherapy prac-
tice in Bloomfield Hills, Michigan.
Both authors can be contacted through Metamorphous

Press and are available for workshops and seminars.
INDEX
Andrews, L.: 91 Elicitation Metaphor: 92-93
Ashby, W.: 21 Erickson, M.: 26-29, 71-73, 88-91,
Bandler, R.: 5-6, 8, 24, 32, 69-70, 97 98-101
Bateson, G.: 4-5, 67 Exaggeration: 41, 74-77
Bohr, N.: 3 Experience of Experience: 6, 8-10,
Brandsma, J.: 75-76 17-18
Bruner, 1.: 12-13 Farrelly, F.: 75-76
Buber, M.: 24 First-<>rder Change: 70
Cameron-Bandler, L.: 24, 32, Fisch, R.: 78
78-S I, 85, 92 Fran kl, Y.: 71
Capra, F.: 24 Generalization: 5-6,22,31-32,
Cause and Effect: 37 3944
Circular Reinforcement: 47 Generative Change: 19-20
Chomsky, N.: II Gordon, D.: 92
Comparative Deletion: 33 Grinder, 1.: 5-6, 8, 24, 32, 69-70,
Complex Equivalence: 4243 93-94, 97, 103-104
Content Reframing: 78-S0, 88-91 Haley, J.: 16-17,67,88-90
Contextual Reframing: 85-S8 Heisenberg, W.: 2-3
Crossover Mirroring: 24-25 Huxley, A: 7-S, 11-12
Deep Structure: I\, 31-32, 35 Ill-formed Goal: 56
Deletion: 5-6, 31-35 Implied Causatives: 37-38
Description: 46, 50-59 Internal Dialogue: 8, 13
Descriptive Pacing: 25-26 Intersubjectivity: 14-15, 17,21
Dilts, R.: 8, 81 Isomorphic Metaphor: 92
Displaced Referential Index: 92 Jackson, D.: 67
Distortion: 5-6, 31-32, 35-39 Jones, R.: 14-15, 18
Double Bind: 67-71 Kopp, S.: 91-92
Ecology: 4546 Korzybski, A: I
Ecology Frame: 103-110 Kostere, K.: 24, 32, 81,85,92,94-96
Ecology Postulates: 103-110 L'Abate, L.: 67
Einstein, A: 2 Lack of Referential Index: 40
Einsteinian: 2 Language: 6,10-13,3147
Lankton, S.: 24, 32, 92 Simple Deletion: 32-33
Law of Requisite Variety: 21 SiHtep Reframing: 80-85,104-110
Levels of Modeling: 6,17-18 Second-order Change: 70, 78
Linguistics: 13-14 Secondary Gains: 45
Logical Types: 4-5, 8, 66 Semantic: 12-13
Lost Performative:4344 Semantics: 11, 14
Malatesta, L.: 24, 32, 81, 92, 94-96 Sensory Experience: 6-8,10,17-18
Meta-loop: 47 Surface Structure: 11,31-33,
Meta-Model: 3144 46-37,3940,4344
Metaphor: 18,91-97 Symptom Prescription: 70, 74,
Metaphoric Reframing: 97-101 88-91, 107, 110
Miller, G.: 9 Syntax: 14
Millman, D.: 96 Therapeutic Paradox: 69-70
Mind Reading: 39 Transderivational Search: 10,
Mirroring: 24-25 51-52, 92-93
Modal Operators: 33-35 Transformational Grammar: II
Modeling: 1-18,20 Time: 7
Newton, I.: 24 Time Projection: 62-66
Newtonian: 24 Universal Modeling Processes: 5-6,
Nominalization: 35-37 31-32
Observer-dependent: 14-15,21 Universal Quantifiers: 4142
Pacing and Leading: 24-29 Unspecified Verbs: 4041
Paradox: 4-5, 66 Wardhaugh, R.: 11
Paradoxical Intervention: 66-74, Watzlawick, P.: 78
88-91 Weakland, J.: 67, 78
Pearce, 1.: 12-13 Weeks. G.: 67
Positive Intent: 21-22,45 Well-formed: 13-14,4546
Pragmatic Paradox: 67, 70 Well-formed Goal: 49, 56, 104
Questions: 4447 World at Large: 6-7, 20
Referential Index Shift: 59-62 Zeig, 1.: 71-73, 99-101
Reframing: 77-91
Reframing the Reframe: 104-110
Remedial Change: 19-20
Reps, P.: 93, 96-97
Representational Systems: 8-10
Rogers, C.: 23
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Maps, Models and the

NLP Technology in Psychotherapy

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be

Copyright 1990 by Kim Kostere and Linda Malatesta

The Use of Symptoms as an Integral Part of Hypnotherapy by Erickson,

The Big Picture

We would like to gratefully acknowledge the following pioneers in

Harlene Anderson, Richard Bandler (co-founder of NLP), Gregory

We are also grateful to the following people who have supported us

Special thanks are given to The Center for Humanistic Studies in

CHAPTER 3 - RELATIONSHIP POSTULATES 23

CHAPTER 4 - LANGUAGE POSTULATES 31

CHAPTER 5 - EVOLUTION POSTULATES 49

CHAPTER 6 - ECOLOGY POSTULATES 103

Where does NeuroLinguistic Programming come

Since its inception in the mid 1970s, publications on

In 1933, Alfred Korzybski published his classical work,

and utilized. Modeling is an integral part of our daily lives

In physics, the in terpretations of experimen ts are

A model, by its very nature, includes certain facets of

Physicists know that their methods of analysis and

A model is neither good nor bad, right nor wrong, but

berg, and Bohr strayed away from the presUppOSItions

To illustrate these poin ts, let us look at one of the

only for objects consisting of large numbers of

At this point, it is necessary to clarify that in using a

The theory of logical types states that there is a discon-

1. The class cannot be a member of itself nor can

2. The name is not the thing named but is of a dif-

To illustrate this point, Gregory Bateson (1972), in Steps

Ifwe classify chairs together to constitute the class

Since the modeling process involves levels of abstrac-

Universal Modeling Processes

Bandler and Grinder (1975) describe in detail the three

and distortion, and the effects that these processes have

There are three levels of modeling that have a direct

Each level of modeling is meta-to the level of modeling

The suggestion is that the function of the brain

that is happening everywhere in the universe. The

This level of experience involves the mental maps

Experience of experience includes that portion of in-

primary sensory modalities as representational systems.

Representational systems and series of representational

experience, our brain records all sensory input. The limita-

In this diagram, the representational systems which are

to personal internal representations. In returning to the

Semantics is the branch oflinguistics that is devoted to

Deep structure is the abstract structure, postu-

The surface structure is what is spoken (written), while the

Every individual is at once the beneficiary and the

only awareness and as it bedevils his sense of reality,

The grouping of sensory representations, via language,

Through cultural conditioning, the name label

our homeostatic system reacts to the emotional

Many people process information (think) in the form

Minimum Requirements for a Model

For a model to be well-formed, it must have the facility

vocabulary (semantics) are the content distinctions while

The Primacy of Experience

Thus far in this book we have presented a model of

1. Human beings build models of the world.

2. People do not act directly upon the world at large but

Since we can never directly encoun ter the world at large