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Job Analysis

(Dr. Kamal Mukherjee)

1. What Constitutes a Job

1.1 Before informed decisions can be made about recruitment and development needs,
compensation plans, training and career development objectives, performance management
systems, and job design, data must be collected and analyzed. The technique used to acquire the
data necessary to make informed decisions is called job analysis. It is the systematic process of
determining the skills, duties and knowledge required for performing jobs in an organization.
This analysis identifies a jobs activities, behaviors, tasks, and performance standards; the
context in which the job is performed; and the personal requirements necessary to perform a job,
such as personality, interests, physical characteristics, aptitudes, and job - related knowledge and
skills. Each position is also analyzed in terms of its relationship to other positions in the
organization.

However, before discussing the concept of a job, it is necessary to first understand what are those
elements that make-up a job. A Job consists of a group of Tasks which form the basic
element of any job and these are also distinct work activities which are carried out with a specific
purpose. They may also be performed by one or many persons. For example,

i) There may be a number of Sweepers in a hotel doing different tasks like dusting,
sweeping, but they all do the same job.

ii) A salesman in a departmental store may be arranging the merchandise after the days
sales are closed so that stock-taking can be done. Therefore arranging merchandise is a task
and there are several other such tasks (like actual stock-taking tallying actual physical inventory
with goods-sold), which he are included in his job.

iii) Similarly a clerk in the purchase department may be entering the invoices in a register
so that a report can be generated. There may be other clerks in the office who may be engaged

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in different jobs like ledger posting, maintaining and updating files, liaising with other
departments etc which may consist of different sets of Tasks.

1.2 These variations in the jobs (different machines, doing jobs in different places,
different types of jobs etc) are absorbed in Position. This includes a family (or collection) of
tasks and responsibilities performed by one person. This means that every employee in an
organization is enjoying a Position

For example, in a work-group consisting of a Supervisor, two Senior Clerks and four
Word Processing Operators, there are three jobs (that of a Supervisor, a Clerk and that of a Word
Processing Operator) and seven positions . So a position is a specific set of tasks and
responsibilities, performed by an individual, and there could be many such positions in an
organization.

2. What is Job Analysis

2.1 Job Analysis essentially refers to the process of collecting information about the job
and it provides management with an idea of what the job contains and what facilities (both
mental and physical) are required to perform it. This is done by a systematic exploration of all
the activities contained within a job so that information regarding the following areas is known.

These are:-

1. Job Identification: The title of the job and its code number (as given by the organization).

2. Significant Characteristics: Supervision, hazards or discomforts (if any).

3. What the Workman Does: Specific physical and mental tasks that make up the assignment,
routine or complex nature of the job, responsibility for men, material and machinery.

4. Materials and Equipments Used

5. How the Job is Performed: Description of all the tasks, including when (i.e the sequence) and
where the job is performed as well as WHY the job is needed to be performed.

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6. Required Personal Attributes: Experience, prior training, physical strength requirement,
dexterity of limbs and mental capabilities.

Thus job analysis is like an anatomy of a job which gives the full details about what the
job includes, what the incumbent does, what attributes and qualifications he (or she) should have
and the responsibilities that are associated. It also gives the relationship with other jobs.

3) When is Job Analysis done

It is performed in three situations which are as follows:-

i) When the organization is set-up and there is a need to know who will do what

ii) Done when a new department or new jobs are added

iii) When jobs change significantly - introduction of new machinery, or new methods

4) Need for Job Analysis

HR Plnng
Tasks Responsibilities Duties

Recruitment

Job
Descriptions Selection
Job
Analysis
Job
Specifications Trng & Dev

Perf Apprsl

Knowledge Skills Abilities


Compensation

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Since any job is made-up of many tasks (or small work-units), an analysis of these tasks
along with the physical and mental facilities required to complete it, reveals a wealth of data
regarding the job as well as the qualities and attributes that the incumbent should have. Thus Job
Analysis primarily leads to activities related to human resource planning which are i) selection ii)
recruitment, iii) transfer & promotions iv) career planning v) laying the foundation for a proper
wage and salary system through job evaluation and vi) training and development.

Apart from this, it also helps the management in better utilization of human resources as
those unproductive elements which are embedded within a work (or job) can be identified and
eliminated. Furthermore it helps in drawing-up of the Job Description and Job Specification
of the different jobs in the organization.

Recruitment and selection Job analysis identifies the KSA required for each position. It
identifies the minimum education, the essential tasks and responsibilities of the job. A job
analysis is critical when an organization uses preemployment examinations for selection and
promotion. Tests must be job related; the knowledge, skills, abilities, personality variables, and
constructs to be tested need to be identified through an up- to- date job analysis. An organization
does not know what knowledge, skills, and abilities to test for unless it knows what
competencies are required for successful performance.

Developing Compensation systems Compensation is typically related to a job s


requirements, such as education, the skills and experience needed to perform the job, and
whether the employee is working in hazardous conditions. A job analysis provides a standardized
procedure for systematically determining pay and other benefits across the organization. It
provides all employees with a basis for gaining a common understanding of the values of each
job, its relationship to other jobs, and the requirements necessary to perform it.

Human resources planning, career development, and training Job analysis information can
help employers design training and career development programs by identifying the skills
required for different jobs. Identifying the knowledge, skill, and responsibility requirements of
each job makes it possible to train and develop employees for promotional opportunities.
Available information helps all employees understand promotion and transfer requirements and
recognize career opportunities.

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Performance evaluation Performance standards should be derived from what employees
actually do on the job. A job analysis identifies the tasks and responsibilities that employees
perform in the course of their jobs. Areas of accountability can be identified and evaluation
standards developed.

Risk Assessment A job analysis can be used to identify job hazards such as exposure to
flammable materials or complicated machinery. Employers should use this information to
develop training programs to alert employees to possible dangers. Included in this are health,
safety, and security issues.

Job design Jobs are arranged around a set of work activities designed to enable the
organization to carry out its mission. External and internal changes, however, often force
organizations to rearrange or restructure work activities. The traditional tasks associated with a
particular job change over time; a job analysis is necessary to identify and accommodate these
changes.

4. Constituents of Job Analysis

Job Analysis consists of two sections a) Job Description and b) Job Specification and these
are described below:-

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Job Analysis
Process of obtaining all Pertinent Job Facts

Job Description Job Specification

Job Title Education

Job Summary Experience

Duties Training

Location Initiative

Materials/Forms Used Judgment

Machines/Tools Used Physical Skill/Effort

Supervision Responsibility
Received/Given
Communication
Working Conditions
Emotional
Hazards Characteristics

Job Description: It is a factual statement of what the job-holder does, (in terms of the duties,
and responsibilities), how it is done and other physical parameters like supervision
received or given. It also includes the conditions under which the job is performed and
also how the accessories used (machines, tools, measuring gauges etc).

6. Steps Involved in Conducting a Job Analysis

1) Collecting Factual Information: Different techniques like observation, interview, and


questionnaire are utilized to obtain a correct picture of not only the job (and its different aspects),
but also regarding the characteristics of the person performing the job. Thus the following
information is collected :-

a) About the Job

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* physical environment - temperature, noise, dust, hazards etc

* social environment - whether the job is performed in teams, or alone

* financial aspects - wages, incentives, bonus and other fringe benefits

b) About the Person

* physical demands (muscular energy , hours of work, travel etc)

* intellectual demands (educational qualification, technical & professional knowledge,


problem-solving abilities, experience and other personality factors).

2) Writing Job Description: From the details obtained , the Job Description form (as applicable to
the particular organization), is completed showing full details regarding the job as well as the
personal characteristics of the person doing the job.

3) Writing the Job Specification: Similar to the drafting of the Job Description, the information
collected is used to write the Job Specification also which contains the personal qualities, skills,
knowledge and abilities required for performing the job.

4) The completed draft of the report is first presented to the immediate supervisor for his
comments and review for incorporating modifications as suggested. This corrected report is then
presented to the management for approval.

5) The approved draft from the management now becomes an official document.

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An example of a job description is given below:-

Job Description of a Clerk in the Purchasing Department

JOB TITLE: Record Clerk (Purchase) JOB CODE: 19571


REPORTS TO: Stores Supervisor JOB NO: 05 ; GRADE: M5
SUPERVISES : Khalasis Date : 20/08/2011

FUNCTIONS
i) Receives incoming materials from suppliers, directs khalasis to unload material and checks
quantity and price from incoming challan (invoice).

ii) Posts all details (quantity received, date of receipt, supplier details, price per unit and total
price as quoted in challan) in incoming register manually, and recalculates the value of
the material received by using calculator.

iii) Updates stock position of that material in computer as well as the unit rate and total value.
Also updates the stock-card of that material manually.

iv) Directs khalasi to arrange incoming material in respective bins and outgoing materials in
trolleys for despatch to different user departments.

v) Records manually in individual stock-cards all receipts and issues to various user
departments and also updates in computer.

vi) Tallies the theoretical stock position of each material with actual inventory at the end of the
week.
vii) Answers queries from superior officers regarding stock position, price of particular
materials or other material details.
viii) Maintains separate register giving all material details (quantity, price etc) for inspection by
Excise officials.

ix) Interacts with various user departments regarding shortage/availability of materials.

_____________________________________________________________________________

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Job Specification: This statement gives the minimum acceptable qualification that the person
must have in order to carry out the job properly (as per requirement). Therefore
essentially this document captures the education, experience knowledge, skill, and effort
that is required for the effective functioning of that position. This means that those
individuals who possess those qualifications (as required), would be expected to function
in a much better manner than those individuals who do not possess those qualifications.
This concept is further clarified through the following example:

Job Specification of a Clerk in the Purchasing Department


JOB TITLE: Record Clerk (Purchase) JOB CODE: 19571
REPORTS TO: Stores Supervisor JOB NO: 05 ; GRADE: M5
SUPERVISES : Khalasis Date : 20/08/2011

EDUCATION
i) Minimum Qualification : Graduate (preferably in the Commerce Stream) with additional
degree/diploma/certificate in computers.

ii) Desired Knowledge: Familiarity regarding stores procedures, calculation of material prices as
per LIFO/FIFO and valuation of stocks, stores accounting procedures using computers
and reconciling figures with Accounts Department. Should also have some knowledge
about general office administration.

iii) Physical Characteristics: Must have sound health and ability to work under stressful
conditions.

iv) Mental Abilities: Must be good with figures and able to handle computer-aided systems.

v) Previous Work Experience: Minimum 1 year, preferably in a manufacturing organization

vi) Desirable Skills: Compiling data, preparing periodic computer-generated reports and
managing workmen in stores area.

vii) Maturity: Should be capable of assuming additional responsibility within the next two yrs.

Therefore the job specification sheet acts as a guideline to the selectors while interviewing
prospective applicants.

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7 Difference Between Job Description and Job Specification

Although both Job Description and Job Specification are parts of the Job Analysis, there are
differences between the two which has been explained below.

Job Description Job Specification

1) Job Description is the summary of the 1) Job Specification is a statement regarding


duties, responsibilities and other the necessary qualification, qualities and
characteristics of the job attributes of the person performing the job.
2) It is a statement describing what the 2) It is a statement describing the human
job contains and it helps the incumbent characteristics that are required for doing the
to understand the job-requirements. job.
3) Forms the basis for Performance 3) Forms the basis for Selection, Recruitment
Appraisals of the job-holder. and identifying training needs

8. Problems with Job Descriptions & Job Specifications


In actual practice, the following difficulties may arise while implementing the Job
Description and Job Specification and these are described below:-

i) It is difficult to convert all the components of a job into a clear and precise document.

ii) Job Descriptions need to be constantly updated to include changes from the previous.

iii) The incumbent may sometime refuse to do jobs which are not written in his/her Job
Description. Thus the written document can also reduce organizational flexibility in some cases.

iv) While specifying the human resource requirements of a job (the Job Specification
document), opinions may differ (even among the committee framing the document), as it is
largely a question of subjective judgment. Therefore it is advisable to list only those Skills,
Knowledge and Abilities (SKAs) which are essential for performing the job.

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9. Methods of Job Analysis

Different methods are adopted to analyse jobs and some of these are as follows:-

1) Observation : This involves watching how an employee performs a job and this could
either be through direct observation by the analyst or watching indirectly where a film of the
employee performing the job is made and the analyst watches it. This method works primarily
for jobs in which activities or behaviors are readily observable. This method would not work
well for intellectual or cognitive processes.
i) Diary or log . Employees are asked to keep track of and record their daily activities and
the time they spend on each.
ii) Critical incident technique . Job experts generate a list of good and poor examples of
performance that job incumbents exhibit. The purpose is to gather information regarding specific
behaviors that have been observed, not develop judgmental or trait - oriented descriptions of
performance. These behaviors are then grouped into job dimensions. The final list of job
dimensions and respective critical incidents provides information about a job and the behaviors
associated with success or failure.
A critical incident should possess four characteristics: it should be specific, focus on
observable behaviors that have been exhibited on the job, describe the context in which the
behavior occurred, and indicate the consequences of the behavior.
The critical incident method differs from direct observation and work methods analysis in
that observations of behavior are not recorded as the behavior occurs, but only after the behavior
has been judged to be either particularly effective or ineffective in terms of results produced.
This means that a person using the critical incident method must describe a behavior in
retrospect, or after the fact, rather than as the activity unfolds. Accurate recording of past
observations is more difficult than recording the behaviors as they occur.
iii) Combination of all methods . Depending on the purpose of the job analysis and the
targeted jobs, it may be necessary to use a combination of all of the methods introduced here.

Limitations
There are however two limitations to this method. The first is that employees become
self-conscious when they come to know that they are being observed and then their performance

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differs from their actual performance. In other words there is a chance of distortions creeping in
within the job being analysed.
The second limitation is that this method is very suitable for repetitive jobs which are of
short duration (for example a machinist producing bolts in a lathe which have a cycle time of a
few minutes only or a clerk making entries in a register). However if the job takes a long time,
say more than 24 hrs then it is difficult to observe the entire job.
2) Individual Interviews: In this method, different job incumbents are selected and the
details about the job done by them is collected after conducting extensive interviews. The results
are combined and a comprehensive job analysis is obtained.
Though this method is quite effective for job analysis, the limitation is that it is quite
time consuming.
3) Group Interviews: This is an extension of the individual interview method and
involves interviewing a group of job incumbents simultaneously. Though this method improves
the accuracy of the job details, group dynamics may prevent this method from being fully
effective.
4) Questionnaire . The questionnaire is a widely used method of gathering data on jobs. A
survey instrument is developed and given to employees and managers to complete. The major
advantage of the questionnaire method is that information on a large number of jobs can be
collected inexpensively in a relatively short period of time. However, the questionnaire method
assumes that employees can accurately analyze and communicate information about their jobs.
Employees may vary in their perceptions of the jobs, and even in their literacy. For these reasons,
the questionnaire method is usually combined with interviews and observations to clarify and
verify the questionnaire information.
Subject matter experts are asked to complete an open - ended questionnaire. The job
incumbent usually is asked to complete the questionnaire first, and then the supervisor is asked to
review it to add anything that may have been neglected or to clarify statements made by the
incumbent.
Examples of open-ended questionnaire items are as follows
http://www.explorehr.org/articles/HR_Planning/Job_Analysis.html:
1. Describe the duties of your job.
2. Describe your daily routine.

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3. What skills do you feel are essential to the performance of your duties?
5) Structured Questionnaires: The job incumbents are sent a structured questionnaire
regarding their job which may have been compiled by the individual or by the supervisor.

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Another example of this questionnaire method is the Position Analysis Questionnaire
(PAQ) which is a behavior oriented job analysis questionnaire which was developed by
McCormick and associates in the early 1970s.It consists of 194 job elements of a work-oriented
nature which are again divided into six major categories. These categories are as follows:-
i) Information Input - From where and how does the employee get the information he/she
uses in performing his/her job
ii) Mental Process What reasoning, decision-making, planning and information-
processing activities are involved in performing the job.
iii) Physical Activities What physical activities are involved in performing the job and
what tools/devices does he use.
iv) Relationship With Other People While performing the job, the people with whom
he/she comes in contact for example a Medical Representative deals primarily with doctors, a
Nurse with patients and a Salesperson with customers.
v) Job Context In what physical (environmental) and social context is the work
performed (for example a Boiler Attendant has to work in a hot and noisy environment, a HR
Manager has to constantly deal with the Union and this can be quite stressful at times which can
also lead to conflict situations.
vi) Other Job Characteristics Those activities, conditions or other factors (other than
those described above) which are relevant to the performance of the job

All the items in the questionnaire are then rated by the job incumbents on a scale from 0 to 5 in
the following manner:-
a) A rating of DNA (rated 0), is given to that particular item which is not applicable to the
position (example, a typist may have very little physical activity related to his /her work as
compared to a machine operator).
b) Factor present in a VERY MINOR degree rated 1;
c) Factor present in LOW degree rated 2;
d) Factor present in AVERAGE degree rated 3;
e) Factor present in HIGH degree- rated 4;
f) Factor present in EXTREMELY high degree rated 5

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4.1 The Management Position Description Questionnaire (MPDQ) is another questionnaire
similar to the PAQ but it is designed to collect information regarding managerial jobs. It contains
274 questions divided into 15 sections and takes about 2 1/2 hours to complete.
The advantage of the Questionnaire method is that it is quite accurate since it is
compiled by persons having direct knowledge regarding the job. Furthermore by giving an
opportunity to the employee to respond to the questionnaire, accuracy of the information
contained in the questionnaire is assured. It also becomes easier for the management to convince
the employee regarding the different elements of work that is required to be performed as the
person himself has filled-up the questionnaire. However because of its length, the administering
of the PAQ is rather difficult and also its success depends upon the individual understanding the
question and responding appropriately.

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