Communication in IP-based Networks

Communication in IP-based Networks

Contents
1 Review of the OSI model 3
1.1 Why a model? 4
1.2 Communication between layers 6
1.3 The concept of encapsulation 8
1.4 The OSI reference model 10
1.5 OSI model and other Items 12
2 LAN definitions 15
2.1 Local area networks 17
2.2 Unicast - multicast - broadcast - unknown unicast 18
2.3 LAN Devices 20
2.4 How does Switches learn MAC addresses 22
3 Router 25
4 Glossary 28
5 Exercises 31
6 Solutions 35

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1 Review of the OSI model

Fig. 1 Review of the OSI model

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1.1 Why a model?

Understanding, designing, and building a computer network would be too difficult a
task unless the problem were partitioned into smaller subtasks, traditionally by
dividing the problem into layers.
The idea behind layering is that each layer is responsible for providing a service to
the layer above by using the services of the layer below.
Another opportunity of layering is that it would be possible to exchange an
implementation of one layer through another implementation without changing the
implementations of the other layers.
Thinking about IP as an implementation of the network layer it is possible to change
IPv4 with IPv6. The basic idea was that there are no changes of the other layers. But
in reality you have to check the layers. E.g. with IPv6 your IP address range has
extended, this means that other protocols, transferring the IP address needs a bigger
address range and therefore a new version.

Layer
Layer

Communication Layer
Layer

in
in a computer network Layer
Layer

Layer
Layer

Layer
Layer

would be
be too
too difficult Layer
Layer

Layer
Layer

Fig. 2 Communication

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service
using
the services of service
the layer below
service

service

service providing a service

to the layer above
service

service

SAP:
SAP:
service access
access point
point

Fig. 3 Layer and services

Layer
Layer

Layer
Layer

Layer
Layer

Layer
Layer

IPv4
IPv4 IPv6
IPv6

Layer
Layer

Layer
Layer

Fig. 4 Opportunity of layering

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1.2 Communication between layers

Horizontal communication
Each layer communicates with its peer layer (the layer of the same level) in another
node through the use of a protocol. Because only in the lowest layer there is really a
physical connection, nearly in all the cases these peer-to-peer connections are only a
virtual connection.
This communication is accomplished through the vertical connections and at least
through the direct communication of the lowest layer.

Vertical communication
The communication between layer n and layer n-1 is known as an interface. The
connection points between the different layers are called service access points
(SAP). Between two layers there are normally more than one SAPs. With the help of
a SAP the layer above have access to a special service, laying in the layer below. In
the other direction a service can offer its result (service) to the higher layer with the
help of this SAP.

Data Units
In the vertical communication let us assume that layer n want to give information to
the layer below. This information is called service data unit (SDU). The layer below
adds to this given SDU its own information. Then you will have the SDU of the lower
layer and so on. To determine of which SDU you are spoken simple the name of the
corresponding layer is preadded. For example you speak of NSDU - meaning the
network SDU when you means the SDU of the layer with the name network.

In the horizontal communication you have in the most cases (excluding layer1) a
virtual communication between the peers. This information are called protocol data
unit (PDU).

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node 1 node 2
Communication
Vertical

peer
peer peer
peer

Horizontal
Communication

Fig. 5 Communication

node 1 node 2

protocol data unit

Communication

Layer
Layer n Layer
Layer nn
(PDU)
Vertical

SDU SDU

Layer
Layer n-1
n-1 protocol data unit Layer n-1
(PDU)

Horizontal
SDU...
SDU... service
service data
data unit
unit Communication
Fig. 6 Data units

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1.3 The concept of encapsulation

Data transfer across layers
When using the services of a subordinate layer, the higher layer transfers its data to
the subordinate layer. The lower layer adds layer-specific information mostly in the
form of a header and, if necessary, transfers the data further down.
We must keep this principle in mind when we look at the communication between two
different partners.

Connecting two systems

When connecting two end systems, the data is first transferred downwards from layer
7 to 1 in the sender, then upwards in the reverse direction in the receiver.
In each layer, the data receive a header (cell header) and, if necessary, a trailer
(information at the end of the frame). By packing the user data layer-by-layer, i.e.
adding new information in each layer, the data packet increases in size.

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Data Transfer Across Layers

Send Receive

Layer n+1
n +1 n +1
n + 1 Data n + 1 Data
Header Header

Layer n

n n
n Data n Data
Header Header

Fig. 7 Transfer of data across layers

Sending and Receiving Data in the Layer Model

Send Receive
Data Data
5-7 Data 5-7 Data
4 5-7 Data 4 5-7 Data
3 4 5-7 Data 3 4 5-7 Data
2 3 4 5-7 Data 2 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2
1 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2 1 2 3 4 5-7 Data 2

Fig. 8 Sending and receiving data in the layer model

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1.4 The OSI reference model

The OSI (Open Systems Interconnection) Reference Model defines seven layers, as
shown in the figure. There is nothing magic about the number seven or the
functionality in the layers. The reference model was designed before the protocols
themselves, and then committees were set up to design each of the layers.
Many of the layers were subsequently subdivided into further layers. (e.g. by IEEE
the Data Link Layer was subdivided into Logical Link Sublayer (LLC) and the media
control sublayer (MAC) ).

Layers defined by ISO:

Physical Layer:
The physical layer transmits bits of information across a link. It deals with such
problems as size and shape of connectors, assignment of functions to pins,
conversion of bits to electrical signals, and bit-level synchronization. It is usual for
several different types of physical layers to exist within a network and even for
multiple different types of physical layers to exist within a node, because each
technology requires its own physical layer.

Data Link Layer:

The Data Link Layer transmits frames across a link. It deals with such problems as
checksumming to detect data corruption; according the use of shared media, as in
LAN (local area network); and physical addressing (when multiple systems are
reachable, as in LAN). Again, it is common for different links to implement different
data link layers and for a node to support several data link layer protocols, one for
each of the types of links to which the node is attached.

The Network Layer:

The main task of the network layer must find a path through a series of connected
nodes, and nodes along the path must forward packets in the appropriate direction.
The network layer deals with such problems as route calculation, packet
fragmentation and reassembly (when different links in the network have different
maximum packet sizes), and congestion control. On this layer you will find the logical
address.

Transport Layer:
The Transport layer establishes a end-to-end connection, a reliable or non reliable
communication stream between a pair of systems. It deals with errors that can be
introduced by the network layer, such as lost packets, duplicated packets, packet
ordering, and fragmentation and reassembly (so that the user of the transport layer
can deal with large size messages and so that less-efficient network layer can deal
with larger-size messages and so that less-efficient network layer fragmentation and
reassembly might be avoided). The transport layer can react to congestion in the
network by sending more slowly in response.

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The next three Layers are in the most cases not separately implemented. They are
often integrated in the application. However, here are the different tasks:

Session Layer:
It deals with dialog control (enforcing a particular pattern of communication between
systems) and chaining (combining groups of packets so that either all or none of the
packets in the group gets delivered).

Presentation Layer:
The goal of this layer is to agree on representation for data so that people defining
structures don't have to worry about bit/byte order or what a floating point number
looks like. ISO standardized on ASN.1 (Abstract Syntax Notation 1).A lot of the IETF
(Internet Engineering Task Force) standards use it.

Application Layer:
Applications include file transfer, virtual terminal, Web browsing, and so on. It is
common for multiple applications to be running concurrently in a node.

Application
Application Layer
Layer

Presentation
Presentation Layer
Layer

Session
Session Layer

Transport
Transport Layer
Layer

Network
Network Layer
Layer

Data
Data Link Layer
Layer

Physical
Physical Layer
Layer

Fig. 9 OSI reference model

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1.5 OSI model and other Items

Up to layer 3 you are inside the network. Transport layer and higher layers are inside
the station.
That means a station is addressed via its logical address (e.g. IP@). Up to here the
information was running over a network (could be the whole world e.g. the Internet).
In the network information is transmitted over several devices such as repeaters,
hubs, bridges, switches and routers.
As to see in the figure on the next page depending on the layer they are working the
devices have different names.
A repeater or a hub has no knowledge about physical addressing or layer 2
information. These devices are only working up to layer 1.
A bridge or as the vendors named these devices a switch is only working up to layer
2. These devices have no knowledge about anything that have to do with upper
layers.
A router is working up to layer 3. It is handling the routing, finding the best way
through the network.
A gateway is a device inside the network, which is working up to the highest layer.
However, it can translate from one application into another (e.g. X.400 to SMTP).
Reaching the destination station now the transport layer and higher layers are asked.
Remembering the task of the transport layer it will give the higher layers a end-to-end
connection. With the help of the port number the information will reach the
application.

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inside the station

gateway
gateway Application Layer
Layer

application
application
Presentation Layer

Session Layer
Layer port

Transport
Transport Layer

Router ,L3
,L3 switch Network Layer using logical addresses
network

Bridge, L2 switch
switch Data using physical addresses
Data Link
Link Layer

Repeater,
Repeater, Hub
Hub Physical
Physical Layer
Layer

Fig. 10 Corresponding items

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2 LAN definitions

Fig. 11 Introduction

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2.1 Local area networks

A LAN is a high-speed, fault-tolerant data network that covers a relatively small
geographic area. It typically connects workstations, personal computers, printers, and
other devices.
The early purpose of a Local Area Network is to connect NEs within the same
physical location.
Most of todays LANs are wired - mostly twisted pairs and fibers.
LAN protocols where designed to give a high bandwidth and low latency
infrastructure for the computing environment.
LAN are mostly formed by switches which, from a protocol point of view, are located
on the lower two layers of the OSI model, i.e. on the physical layer (medium) and the
data link layer (secured transfer, physical addressing). To interconnect Layer2 LANs,
routers are used which operate at OSI layer 3 (network layer).
LAN devices generally are plug and play devices that need little or no configuration.
They run protocols that enable them to acquire all the necessary information for data
forwarding. The forwarding is based on pre-installed addresses, the MAC addresses.
Thus, a simple Ethernet LAN could be operated with very little human intervention.
LANs are nowadays extended into the Metropolitan Area to form MANs, also called
city networks as they provide a data transport system in a wider city area. A carrier
grade Metropolitan Network will have to address issues like security, costs and
quality of service. All of them need careful planning and a considerable amount of
configuration.

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2.2 Unicast - multicast - broadcast - unknown unicast

Unicast
An Ethernet Switch forwards frames according to MAC addresses. Every Ethernet
port has its individual unique MAC address. An Ethernet frame that is bound for an
individual MAC address is called a unicast frame.
A switch will try to forward a unicast frame exactly on the link that lies on the path to
the destination device. This can be done if the individual MAC address has already
been learnt by the switch.

Multicast
In addition to individual MAC addresses, multicast MAC addresses can be defined.
More than one device will be prepared to receive a frame that is bound for a multicast
address. A switch will forward a multicast frame on every link that lies on any path
towards a destination within a multicast group. To achieve this it needs to have
knowledge about multicast groups.

Broadcast
Within the range of MAC addresses, there is one well defined Broadcast address.
Ethernet frames bound for this address will be received by every Ethernet device on
that network. A switch will forward a broadcast frame on all links.

Unknown Unicast
A switch that is to forward a unicast frame and does not yet have the knowledge
about a path to that destination will treat this unicast frame like a broadcast frame.
That is, it will forward it on all links.

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Unicast Broadcast Multicast - Unknown Unicast

E
E + some
D D

A A
B

some
C C

Unicast B Multicast B + some

E E
D D

A A ?
all C B C

Broadcast B Unknown B
Unicast
Fig. 12 Unicast, Broadcast, Multicast, Unknown Unicast

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2.3 LAN Devices

2.3.1 Hub
Hubs are Layer 1 devices. They take any incoming signal and repeat it on all ports.
They do not interpret addresses and therefore cannot send information towards a
specified destination.

Ethernet hubs are used in star topologies, allowing several point-to-point links to be
joined into one network.
A network with Hubs is called a "shared Ethernet," meaning that all members of the
network transmit data onto a single 'collision domain'. The network devices have to
consider the possibility of collisions and take measures against them that are part of
the Ethernet protocol (CSMA/CD). Each individual member of a shared network will
only get a percentage of the available network bandwidth. Links attached to a hub
can only be operated in half duplex mode (see below).
Hubs are not used any longer, unless there is a specific need to access single port
from more than one side like e.g. for sniffering or external management, debugging
etc.

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The function of a Hub

B
I am not aware of adresses
A frame for me!
and such things -
I just forward bits.
To everywhere - what else B

can I do?

B Hub

Dont want
that frame
Dont want
that frame
C A D

Fig. 13 The function of HUBs

function of HUB

3 Collision
Domains

IED
S
NMO
IX NF
E
RS S
IED
N M
IXER
ON
S
F SIX
N IE
M
DE
ONF
RS ID
SM
EO
IN
X NF
E
RS

Hub

SIX
N IE
M
DE
ONF
RS ID
SM
EO
IN
XNF
E
RS SIX
N IE
M
DE
ONF
RS ID
SM
EO
IN
X NF
E
RS

Hub

Switch SIX
N IE
M
DE
ONF
RS ID
SM
EO
IN
X NF
E
RS IS
IM
NE
DN
E
RS
XOF SIX
N IE
M
DE
ONF
RS

Hub

Fig. 14 Replacing a hub with a switch

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2.4 How does Switches learn MAC addresses

2.4.1 Transparent bridging
Switches learn about destinations by analyzing the frames that they have to relay.
They analyze the source address and assign it to the link they received it from. This
assignment is included into the Forwarding Information Base (FIB).
For forwarding a frame they consult their FIB. Through the learning process switches
will have entries in their FIB for the majority of the traffic shortly after their start up. If
they have to relay a frame to a destination yet unknown they forward it to all attached
links ('Unknown Unicast', see below).
The FIB entries age out after a short period of time.

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The function of a Switch

B
Oh- a Layer 2 frame! Let me
A frame for me!
look up my FIB* for that
MAC address... See: port
1...and off you go! B

L2-Switch
Bridge

C A D
* Forwarding Information Base

Fig. 15 The function of a switch

Transparent Bridging:
MAC Address Learning and Unknown Unicast
B
Oh- a Layer 2 frame! Let me look up
my FIB for that MAC address...
A frame for me!

B
...too bad, no entry!
Id better forward that frame on all
ports.
B
L2-Switch
Bridge
B
B

Dont want and Ill include the source MAC

that frame and port in my FIB.Dont want
that frame
D learning...
... never stop
C A

Fig. 16 Transparent Bridging

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2.4.2 MAC Address learning

A bridge controls the flow of traffic between Ethernet segments with the automatic
traffic forwarding mechanism described in the IEEE 802.1D bridging standard. Traffic
forwarding is based on the address learning, and bridges make forwarding decisions
based on the addresses of the Ethernet frames. To do this, the bridge learns which
stations are on which segments of the network by looking at the source addresses in
all of the frames the bridge receives. When transparent bridges are powered on, they
learn the network's topology by analyzing the source address of incoming frames
from all attached networks.

Forwarding Information Base (FIB)

Through this process, transparent bridges build a table, called forwarding information
base (FIB). Aging of learned entries keeps the FIB small and actual. The bridge uses
its table as the basis for traffic forwarding.
When a frame is received on one of the bridge's interfaces, the bridge looks up the
frame's destination address in its internal table. If the table contains an association
between the destination address and any of the bridge's ports aside from the one on
which the frame was received, the frame is forwarded out the indicated port.
If no association is found, the frame is flooded to all ports except the inbound port.
Broadcasts and multicasts are also flooded in this way. The algorithm used by
transparent bridges is called backward learning.

M A C A d dres s L ea rn in g

FIB
FIBoof f AA
00
0000.
00 0.0cc04.
04 0.040b
40b pport
ort33
00
00 00 .0 c 04 0.040f
00. 0 c 04. 40f pport
ort11
00
0000.
00 0.0cc04.
04 0.040a
40a pport
ort33
00
0000.
00 0.0cc04.
04 0.040e
40e pport
ort11
M AC: M A C:
0 0 00 .0 c 04 .0 4 0a 00
0000.
00 0.0cc04.
04 0.040c
40c po
port2
rt2 00 0 0. 0c 0 4. 04 0f

L2- Sw itc h p o rt3 L 2-S w it ch p o rt1 L 2-S w it ch

A
M AC: p o rt 2 M A C:
0 0 00 .0 c 04 .0 4 0b 0 0 00 .0 c0 4 .0 40 e

L 2-S w i tch

M AC: M A C:
0 0 00 .0 c 04 .0 40 c 0 0 00 .0 c0 4 .0 40 d

Fig. 17 Address learning

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3 Router

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A router operates on Layer 3, i.e. it analyzes the Layer 3 address and forwards the
information accordingly.
Because Layer 3 addresses are, as opposed to the Layer 2 MAC addresses, logically
organized, they can be used for global routing. Routers learn about routes to remote
networks using specific Routing Protocols. The Routing Protocols enable the routers
to find the most favorable path, be it in terms of distance, bandwidth or costs, to any
given destination throughout the world.
Each router 'translates' between the Layer 2 protocols used on the attached links.
Routers also block off all broadcasts, which are used widely by Layer 2 protocols.
Thus, routers protect the attached networks from being flooded by unnecessary
information.
Routers are also used to form and protect secluded areas. They can be configured to
perform selective routing, filtering of information, implement firewalls, create Virtual
Private Networks, provide encryption, tunneling etc.

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The function of a Router

ILL STOP THEM!
I AM A ROUTER
We transmit a fair amount of
broadcasts and unknown unicasts... I am a LAYER 3 device. And, besides, I can do a
(and I am the smartest one of all) lot more:
How far should they be forwarded?

Find destinations in
foreign networks all over
the world
Router
Find the shortest path to
other networks
Router
Keep privacy and block
off unwanted traffic
Hub
and many, many other
things

Hub

I keep everything within a broadcast domain.

Thats an IP network of its own

Fig. 18 The function of a Router

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4 Glossary

ASN.1 Abstract Syntax Notation 1

BOOTP Boot Protocol
client A client is a requester of a service.
client/server The client/server model is a form of distributed computing where
model one program (the client) communicates with another program
(the server) for the purpose of exchanging information.
DHCP Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
DNS Domain Name System
FTP File Transfer Protocol
HTTP Hypertext Transfer Protocol
I/O Input/Output
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IETF Internet Engineering Task Force
IMAP Internet Message Access Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
IPv4 IP version 4
Ipv6 IP version 6
ISO International Organization for Standardization
LDAP Lightweight Directory Access Protocol
LLC Logical Link Layer
MAC Media Access Control
MEGACO Media Gateway Control Protocol
MIME Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions
NFS Network File System
NSDU Network Service Data Unit
OSI Open Systems Interconnection
PDU Protocol Data Unit
POP3 Post Office Protocol
RLOGIN Remote Login
RTP Real Time Transport Protocol
SAP Service Access Point

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SDU Service Data Unit

server A server is an application that offers a service to users.
SIP Session Initiation Protocol
SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol
SNMP Simple Network Management Protocol
TCP Transmission Control Protocol
TFTP Trivial File Transfer Protocol

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5 Exercises

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Exercise 1
Title: OSI Model

Task
Please explain the different types of communication within the OSI model.

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Exercise 2
Title: OSI Model

Task
Please name the different layers of the OSI reference model.

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6 Solutions

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 Communication in IP-based Networks

Solution 1
Title: OSI Model

Task
Please explain the different types of communication within the OSI model.

Horizontal communication
Each layer communicates with its peer layer (the layer of the same level) in another
node through the use of a protocol. Because only in the lowest layer there is really a
physical connection, nearly in all the cases these peer-to-peer connections are only a
virtual connection.
This communication is accomplished through the vertical connections and at least
through the direct communication of the lowest layer.

Vertical communication
The communication between layer n and layer n-1 is known as an interface. The
connection points between the different layers are called service access points
(SAP). Between two layers there are normally more than one SAPs. With the help of
a SAP the layer above have access to a special service, laying in the layer below. In
the other direction a service can offer its result (service) to the higher layer with the
help of this SAP.
The kinds of information are called service data units or protocol data units.

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Solution 2
Title: OSI Model

Task
Please name the different layers of the OSI reference model.

7 Application Layer
6 Presentation Layer
5 Session Layer
4 Transport Layer
3 Network Layer
2 Data Link Layer
1 Physical Layer

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