482 Analysis and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits

12.4 Voltage and Current-Controlled Oscillators

12.4.1 Introduction
The voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) (or current controlled oscillator,
CCO) is an important subsystem in many electronic devices and systems. It
is an important component system in the phase-lock loop, as well as in
certain communication and instrumentation systems. VCOs and CCOs can
have sinusoidal, triangular, or TTL outputs of constant amplitude. The fre-
quency of a VCO or CCO in its linear range can be expressed by:

fo = KV VC + b Hz (12.21A)

fo = KC IC + b (12.21B)

The frequency constants, KV and KC, can have either sign, as can the
intercept, b. It is desirable that a VCO have a wide linear operating range =
[(fomax - fomin)/(fomax + fomin)]; low noise (phase and amplitude); low tempco
(Dfo DT)(1/fo); and a high spectral purity (low THD) if it produces a sinusoidal
output. (Many VCOs produce TTL outputs, or triangle wave outputs.)
There are many architectures for VCOs. The first examined is a linear
amplifier oscillator in which fo is tuned by two variable-gain elements that
can be analog multipliers or multiplying digital-to-analog converters
(MDACs).

12.4.2 An Analog VCO

Figure 12.15 shows the schematic of an electronically tuned VCO based on
the use of linear circuit elements connected in a positive feedback loop
(Northrop, 1990). The block diagram below the schematic illustrates the
transfer functions of the two minor loops whose poles are set by the dc
voltage VC input to the two analog multipliers. After the two minor loops
are reduced, the oscillators loop gain can be written as:

+ s k VC (10 RC)
AL ( s) = (12.22)
s + s 2VC (10 RC) + VC2 (10 RC)
2 2

From Section 5.5 on oscillators in Chapter 5, it can be seen that the root-
locus diagram for this oscillator is a circle centered on the origin. The locus
branches for the closed-loop poles begin at s = -VC (10RC) r/s, cross the jw
axis in the s-plane at s = jwo when k = 2, and hit the positive real axis at s =
+wo. Then, one branch approaches the zero at the origin while the other
branch goes toward + as k increases.

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Examples of Special Analog Circuits and Systems 483

R R + V4

R C kR
V1 R AM1 R R
V2 V3 V4
+

VC > 0

V7 R
+
C R
AM2
R V5
V1 C
V6

VC /(10RC)
V4 V5
V1 s + VC /(10RC) k

V1 s
s + VC /(10RC)

FIGURE 12.15
Schematic of a voltage-tuned oscillator using positive feedback. The tungsten filament lamp is
used to limit and stabilize oscillation amplitude. A systems block diagram of the linear part of
the oscillator is shown below the schematic. See text for analysis.

Using the venerable Barkhausen criterion (Millman, 1979) for oscillation

on this oscillator:

jw o k VC (10 RC)
AL ( jw o ) # 10" = (12.23)
-w + V (10 RC) + jw o 2VC (10 RC)
2 2 2
o C

Clearly, the real terms in the denominator must sum to zero. This condition
gives the radian oscillation frequency,

w o = VC (10 RC) r s , (12.24)

2004 by CRC Press LLC

484 Analysis and Application of Analog Electronic Circuits

and the minimum gain for oscillation, k = 2. Thus, VC can set wo over a wide
range, e.g., 0.01 VC 10 V, or a 1:1000 range. For practical reasons, make
k > 2 and use a PTC tungsten lamp instead of the input R to the third op amp.
Now the overall gain of this stage is:

V5 kR
=- = -2 (12.25)
V4 R + aV4

If k = 4 is set, then the steady state, equilibrium value of V4 is found to be

R/a for any wo. Making k = 4 allows the oscillations to grow rapidly to the
equilibrium level.

12.4.3 Switched Integrating Capacitor VCOs

Certain VCOs can simultaneously output TTL pulses, a triangle wave, and
a sine wave of the same frequency. An example of this type of VCO is the
Exar XR8038 waveform generator, which works over a range of millihertz
to approximately 1 MHz with proper choice of timing capacitor, CT. A newer
version of the XR8038 is the Maxim MAX038 VFC, which can generate
various waveforms from 1 mHz to 20 MHz.
Figure 12.16 illustrates the organization of a generic switched integrating
capacitor VCO. Assume that Vin > 0. At t = 0, the MOS switch is in position
u and the capacitor is charged by current GmVin, so VT goes from 0 to VT =
f+ when the output of the upper comparator goes HI, which makes the RS
flip-flop Q output go HI, causing the MOS switch to go to position d. In
position d, the capacitor CT is discharged by a net current, -GmVin, causing
VT to ramp down to f- < 0. When VT reaches f-, the output of the lower
comparator goes high, causing the RSFF Q output to go LO, which switches
the MOS switch to u again, causing the capacitor to charge positively again
from current GmVin, etc.
Vin is the controlling input to the two VCCSs. Note that the capacitor CT
integrates the current:

VT = (1 CT ) iC dt
(12.26)

Thus, from the VT triangle waveform, it is easy to find the frequency of

oscillation:

GmVin
f =1T = Hz (12.27)
4 CT f

In Equation 12.27, f = f+ = -f- > 0 was assumed.

2004 by CRC Press LLC

Examples of Special Analog Circuits and Systems 485

sin(*) NL
Sine out

Triangle out

1 Buff
+
Vcc

VCCS Comp.
RSFF
GmVin
VT R Q TTL out
Vin VT
S
1 Buff
CT
d Comp.
u
<0
MOS SW
VCCS 2GmVin

VT MOS SW to d
+

0 T/4 T t

MOS SW to u

FIGURE 12.16
Block diagram of a switched integrating capacitor VCO.

Note that this VCO produces simultaneous sine, triangle, and TTL outputs.
The sinusoidal output is derived from the buffered capacitor waveform, VT,
by passing it through a diode wave-shaper, sin(*) NL. This type of VCO is
often used as the basis for laboratory function generators.

12.4.4 The Voltage-Controlled, Emitter-Coupled Multivibrator

Figure 12.17 illustrates the simplified schematic of another popular VCO
architecture. This astable, emitter-coupled multivibrator (AMV) derives its
frequency control from the transistors Q5 and Q6, which act as VCCSs and
control the rate that CT charges and discharges and, thus, the AMVs fre-
quency. This architecture is inherently very fast; versions of it using MOSFETs
have been used to build a VCO with an 800-MHz tuning range that operates
in excess of 2.5 GHz (Herzel et al., 2001).
The heart of this VCO is the free-running, astable multivibrator (AMV),
which alternately switches Q1 and Q2 on and off as the timing capacitor
charges and discharges. Detailed analysis of this circuit can be found in

2004 by CRC Press LLC