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Institute of Concrete Technology

Briefing Note BN03/05


High-volume fly ash concrete

Bryan Marsh, Arup Materials Consulting

Introduction
Fly ash (aka pulverised-fuel ash or pfa) has been used successfully in concrete since it was
first employed in dams in the 1930s to reduce the heat of hydration. Although still used for
heat reduction, recognition of the benefits of its pozzolanic reactivity has led fly ash to be
used in vast quantities of structural concrete worldwide, typically as 1530% by mass of the
total cement content. Nevertheless, usage at proportions greater than about 40% has been
largely restricted to specialist applications (e.g. grouts and soft secant piles). This is due to
perceived problems with high bleed, low rate of strength gain, and low ultimate strength. This
note describes a relatively new development, high-volume fly ash concrete (HVFAC).

HVFAC is the term given to concrete in which the fly ash proportion is at least 50% by mass
of the total cement, and commonly 5560%. After some limited early use in the UK(1) as
HFCC (high fly ash content concrete) it was independently developed by the Canadian
Centre for Mineral and Energy Technology (CANMET) to achieve the objective of a structural
concrete with adequate early-age strength and workability, low temperature rise and high
later-age strength. More recently, many other institutions world-wide have investigated its
properties and potential. Current interest in HVFAC particularly results from its attractive
sustainability credentials when used to replace conventional concrete in common structural
applications. These credentials are primarily twofold, involving both the reduction in demand
for Portland cement and the use of a coal combustion by-product produced during power
generation that might otherwise be dumped or put to low-value use.

The key to the successful use of high proportions of fly ash in HVFAC is strict control of free
water/cement and free water content to very low levels by the use of superplasticisers.
Typical mix designs are given in Table 1(2). This results in low bleed and a rate of strength
gain that is adequate for most practical purposes. Indeed, the gain in compressive strength
from the common 28-day compliance date to ultimate, in ideal continuous moist conditions,
can be as high as 100%. Cube strengths of over 100MPa have been recorded in laboratory
specimens after a year of continuous water immersion. Although this would be significantly
lower in most real structures, it clearly shows the potential of HVFAC.

The chemistry of HVFAC

The low proportion of Portland cement compared to the high proportion of fly ash in HVFAC
results in the generation of insufficient calcium hydroxide for complete reaction of all the fly
ash. The morphology of well-cured HVFAC is thus characterised by a high proportion of high-
modulus, unreacted fly ash particles in a matrix containing little evidence of calcium hydroxide
(Portlandite). At early ages, a porous zone exists between the fly ash particles and the
hydration and other reaction products. Continued moist curing leads to densification of this
zone until it becomes undetectable. This unusual structure can probably explain some of the
characteristic properties of HVFAC listed below, such as the high modulus of elasticity and
good sulfate resistance. It can also help to explain the dependence of some properties on
good curing or moist exposure conditions.

Some of the main potential beneficial properties include:


very low permeability
good sulfate resistance
excellent resistance to chloride ingress
low long-term shrinkage and creep
effective mitigation of alkali-silica reaction
particularly good resistance to early age thermal cracking in large sections, owing to
the combined effect of low hydration heat, slow rate of early strength gain and high
early creep.
Setting time may be increased by, typically, two hours at standard testing temperatures, e.g.
20C, but the low bleed should mean no problems are encountered with plastic settlement
although this increases the potential for plastic shrinkage. It may, however, be possible to
finish slab surfaces soon after placing, using methods other than power-trowelling, so the
increased setting time may not be a significant disadvantage and allowing curing measures to
be put quickly into place.

Further research

There is, however, still a need for further research into some aspects of HVFAC performance,
such as resistance to carbonation under realistic curing and exposure conditions. Despite
this, there are many applications where HVFAC can already be adopted with confidence.
Indeed, it has been used in a relatively small number of projects, so far mainly in Canada and
California, but this number is increasing with the increasing demand for greener concrete.
Typical uses to date include foundations, a 973m block where micro-cracking was
undesirable, and structural elements in various building structures. HVFAC has been used in
drilled caisson piles for a 22-storey office tower, in sprayed concrete, and for the foundations
slabs of a Hindu Temple in Hawaii, intended to last for a somewhat ambitious 1000 years.

References:

1 DUNSTAN, MRH. Development of High Flyash Content Concrete, Proceedings of the


Institution of Civil Engineers, Part 1, Vol. 74, August 1983, pp. 495-513.

2 MALHOTRA, V. High-performance, high-volume fly ash concrete: materials, mixture


proportioning, properties, construction practice and case histories, Supplementary
Cementing Materials for Sustainable Development Inc., Ottawa, Canada, 2002.

Medium strength High strength

Fly ash (mass of total 5560 5560


cement) (%)

Portland cement (kg/m) 9.68155160


pcf - 9.99 pcf 180200

Fly ash (kg/m) 215220 220225

Sand (kg/m) 75010


9.68 pcf - 9.99 pcf75010
Coarse aggregate (kg/m) 120010 111010

Free water (kg/m) 115125 115120

Superplasticiser Essential Essential

Free water/cement ratio 0.33 0.28

Slump (mm) 150200 150200

28-day cube strength (MPa) ~37.5 ~50

Table 1: Typical HVFAC mix designs.


Note: Lower strength HVFAC (~25MPa) using around 50% fly ash by mass of cement can be
made without superplasticiser at about 300kg/m total cement content and 0.37 free
water/cement ratio.

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