608
2, JUNE 2006
Simulation Model for Discharging a Lead-Acid
Battery Energy Storage System for Load Leveling
Igor Papic, Member, IEEE
AbstractA battery energy storage system (BESS) stores energy
at lower demand and sends saved energy back to the system during
peak load. It thus represents a good solution for daily load leveling.
The evaluation of the Ampere-hour capacity of the battery needed
for load leveling during a period of several hours is of great im-
portance when using BESS as an active power peaking station. A
battery simulation model that was developed for this purpose is
presented in the paper. The model takes into account the battery
voltage dependency on the capacity and current, and is based on
the performed battery measurements at constant discharging cur-
rents. By using this model, which should prove to be a very effective
tool for BESS capacity planning, the simulation of the character-
istic load leveling was performed and compared to the measured
voltage and current profiles.
Index TermsBattery energy storage system (BESS), discharg-
ing, lead-acid batteries, load leveling, simulation model.
I. INTRODUCTION
N electrical power systems it is desirous to level daily load
I diagrams as much as possible, and to adapt them to the
economically optimal operation of installed capacities, which
leads to cheaper energy of better quality. One of the possible
methods for load control is to store energy when there is less
demand, and to inject the stored energy back into the network
during peak load periods. The solution to the given problem
could be a battery energy storage system (BESS). Such equip-
ment with rated power of several tens of MW is used around the
world [1], [2]. A smaller BESS with lead-acid batteries and an
insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) converter is installed at
the battery factory TAB Mezica in Slovenia [3]. This unit has
been successfully in operation since 1998.
The tariff system plays a decisive role when evaluating the
economic viability of BESS in an electric power system for peak
load leveling. When BESS is used in a classical tariff system,
savings are made in two ways. First, the peak power is reduced,
and second, the share of more expensive energy; i.e., energy
that would be charged according to the critical tariff, is replaced
with the less expensive one stored during low tariff periods. It
should be emphasized that savings in the classical tariff system
are much greater due to the reduction of peak power (95%) in
comparison with the use of less expensive electric power (5%).
When consuming less expensive electric power, the efficiency of
the battery system in the range from 75 to 85%, depending on the
operating method, should be taken into consideration. Hence,
Manuscript received December 29, 2003; revised January 27, 2005. This work
was supported in part by TAB Mezica, Slovenia, under Grant S-549. Paper no.
TEC-00372-2003.
The author is with the Faculty of Electrical Engineering, University of Ljubl-
jana, Ljubljana SI-1000, Slovenia (e-mail: igor.papic@fe.uni-lj.si).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TEC.2005.853746
0885-8969/$20.00 2005 IEEE
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 21, NO.
practically all savings are achieved by reducing peak load. Under
the electricity market conditions, the viability assessment of an
investment in BESS is much more complex, especially with
respect to load leveling. At this stage, it is important to point
out the other possibilities of battery system usage and related
savings, in particular for solving different problems in utility
and industry distribution systems, as well as in railway supply.
In comparison with other available sources, the operating
time of BESS is limited; i.e., it can send to the network only an
exactly defined quantity of energy with respect to the operating
method. This results in a complex control of BESS that has
to be computer-aided. All physical magnitudes are nonlinear,
time variant, and affected by various factors. An algorithm is
required to monitor the consumption of electric power, and in
case of excess consumption, switch on BESS or, during reduced
consumption, charge the battery cells. An algorithm usually
consists of three parts. The first one is responsible for the col-
lection and processing of data, and forecast of consumption at
the end of a 15-min interval. If the anticipated consumption
exceeds the desired maximum value, the second part is carried
out in order to control the supply of power from BESS to the
network, otherwise the third part that controls the process of cell
charging is put into operation. In the BESS planning phase, and
later every time prior to connecting BESS to the network, the
consumption of electric power must be anticipated and battery
system capacity checked.
In this paper, the simulation model for discharging lead-acid
batteries is presented. The behavior of a battery cell during the
discharging process can be described with different mathemati-
cal models [4], [5] based on certain parameters that have to be
experimentally determined. The model derived here uses a more
direct approach; it is based on the interpolation among lead-acid
battery characteristics obtained by measurements during the dis-
charging process. The model was used during the planning pro-
cess for the battery energy storage system at TAB Mezica in
Slovenia, and later for checking the overall performance of the
system when covering different load diagrams. The aforemen-
tioned installation is briefly described in Section II, followed by
a description of the simulation model derivation. The simulated
and measured results are compared. Simulations are performed
covering different patterns of daily load diagrams.
II. LOAD LEVELING AT TAB MEZ ICA
Since TAB Mezica produces lead-acid batteries and global
trends show an increase in the use of batteries for leveling the
power consumption diagram, this factory decided to install its
own pilot device. Their main objective was to level the daily di-
agrams of electric power consumption. TAB receives its power
 SIMULATION MODEL FOR DISCHARGING
PAPIC:
Fig. 1. Voltage characteristics of OPzS battery discharging, depending on rated
capacity.
Fig. 2. 300 kW IGBT converter at TAB Mezica.
from the electric power network over two lines. The 20/0.4 kV
transformation is conducted through two transformers, each 1
MVA. Based on analyses of the network and operations of ma-
jor consumers (converters, mills, etc.) it was established that
peak power is exceeded by 200300 kW due to actions arising
from uncoordinated loads. Out of 22 production days, only 35
contributed to an unwanted increase in peak load. Furthermore,
the conclusion was reached that peak power leveling must be
planned for at least 45 h a day. First, sample analyses of the
fluctuation in daily load were carried out and voltage measure-
ments were made on OPzS lead-acid batteries exposed to the
loads according to a certain current profile. Voltage characteris-
tics of OPzS battery discharging, depending on rated capacity,
are shown in Fig. 1.
Second, a pilot battery system with a 300 kW IGBT converter
shown in Fig. 2 was put into operation in 1998. A detailed de-
scription of the installation is given in [3]. Energy reserves to
be used during load leveling, the desired life cycle, and battery
maintenance costs were taken into consideration when deter-
mining the properties of the battery. The calculation of the re-
quired battery capacity considering the given pattern and load
609
Fig. 3. Battery system consisting of 274 cells at TAB Mezica.
duration, together with the forecast of the load diagram, enables
the determination of the capability of load leveling with respect
to the necessary energy input and maximum load. The config-
uration of 274 OPzS cells in series with rated voltage of 548 V
and ten hour capacity of 2500 Ampere-hours (Ah) was selected.
The battery installation is shown in Fig. 3.
A monitoring system for the consumption of electric power
with an algorithm for forecasting 15-min peaks was developed.
This monitoring system calculates reference values for the bat-
tery system and controls its operation. During battery system
discharge, the converter is controlled by a closed loop active
power control system. When batteries are charged under the
given I-U characteristic, the converter is controlled by a current
closed loop control system.
As previously mentioned, the proper planning of the bat-
tery system capacity is crucial for full utilization of installed
equipment. Also, later in the operation planning phase, battery
capacity must be permanently checked prior to covering certain
patterns of load diagrams. In Section III, the battery discharging
simulation model that can fulfill this task is described in detail.
III. SIMULATION OF DISCHARGING BATTERY
ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM
A. Model of Battery Energy Storage System for Load Leveling
Modeling and simulation of the battery energy storage sys-
tem operation were performed in the stability mode of the NE-
TOMAC (Network Torsion Machine Control) digital program
system that offers a wide range of options for simulating various
electromagnetic and electromechanical phenomena in electri-
cal power supply systems. The BESS and load model, repre-
sented as controllable impedances, are connected to the slack.
As depicted in Fig. 4, the two supply transformers mentioned in
Section II are modeled with a single equivalent transformer
model from the program system library. The load model can
represent an arbitrary load diagram pattern.
Development of this BESS model is based on the fact that the
Ah of the battery are constant, irrespective of which trajectory in
the diagram of the battery cell voltage characteristics is followed
610 IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 21, NO. 2, JUNE 2006

UI 10 = 2.01 1.45 103 Cp2500

+ 2.38 105 Cp2500
2
2.54 107 Cp2500
3

UI 5 = 2.00 9.46 104 Cp2500

+ 1.39 105 Cp2500
2
3.03 107 Cp2500
3

UI 3 = 1.99 8.81 104 Cp2500

+ 1.97 105 Cp2500
2
5.05 107 Cp2500
3

UI 1 = 1.94 1.25 103 Cp2500

1.10 105 Cp2500
2
4.16 107 Cp2500
3

UI 0.5 = 1.89 2.24 103 Cp2500

+ 2.27 105 Cp2500
2
1.24 106 Cp2500
3

Fig. 4. Simplified simulation model of supply network with BESS.

UI 0.33 = 1.86 1.88 103 Cp2500
+ 1.25 105 Cp2500
2
1.78 106 Cp2500
3

UI 0.25 = 1.84 3.74 103 Cp2500

during discharging. This property was confirmed also by on-site
measurements. BESS is modeled as the controllable source of
active and reactive power, and is based on measured voltage
characteristics of the OPzS batteries as a function of the capacity
at different constant discharging currents.
Temperature dependency of the battery voltage is an impor-
tant aspect of BESS modeling. The battery system at TAB
Mezica is installed inside the production hall where the am-
bient temperature does not vary significantly. As previously
mentioned, the battery model should be primarily used for de-
termining the active power reference value when reducing peak
load of a certain load diagram that has to be determined by a
forecast. It is believed that the uncertainty of the forecast has
stronger influence on overall accuracy than the voltage temper-
ature dependency. Therefore, we decided to exclude the temper-
ature dependency of the battery voltage from the model.
Charging of the battery system is another important issue.
At the start of simulation it is assumed that the battery is fully
charged, since discharges are never more frequent than on con-
secutive days, providing adequate time for full recharge.
As seen in Fig. 1, the battery manufacturer, TAB Mezica, gave
battery characteristics in a nonstandard manner. The battery ca-
pacity is given on the abscissa-axis expressed as percentage
of the rated capacity (2500 Ah) at 10 hour discharging cur-
rent (250 A). Voltage characteristics are normally given as the
function of discharging time. The reason for this kind of repre-
sentation of the battery characteristics lies in the possibility of
easier determination of the already removed capacity at a certain
point of discharging. After that, the remaining capacity of the
battery can be determined for the next period of the discharging
process. We can establish with certainty either that the battery
can still be discharged under a certain current, or that this is
not possible due to battery exhaustion. On the abscissa-axis, the
battery removed capacity percentage is given.
Voltage characteristics at constant discharging currents, given
in Fig. 1, are interpolated by the third-order polynomials as
follows:
+ 9.46 105 Cp2500
2
3.88 106 Cp2500
3
(1)
where
UI 10 battery voltage at constant discharging current 250 A
and 10-h discharging time as a function of the per-
centage value of rated capacity;
UI 5 battery voltage at constant discharging current 430 A
and 5-h discharging time as a function of the per-
centage value of rated capacity;
UI 3 battery voltage at constant discharging current 625 A
and 3-h discharging time as a function of the per-
centage value of rated capacity;
UI 1 battery voltage at constant discharging current
1300 A and 1-h discharging time as a function of
the percentage value of rated capacity;
UI 0.5 battery voltage at constant discharging current
2050 A and 0.5-h discharging time as a function
of the percentage value;
UI 0.33 battery voltage at constant discharging current
2700 A and 0.33-h discharging time as a function of
the percentage value of rated capacity;
UI 0.25 battery voltage at constant discharging current
3100 A and 0.25-h discharging time as a function of
the percentage value of rated capacity; and
Cp2500 percentage value of rated 10-h capacity; for given
batteries 100% means 2500 Ah.
It is evident from Fig. 1 that at currents higher than 250 A, the
actual capacity of the battery is lower than the rated capacity.
Maximal capacities for different discharging currents are given
in Table I. In the last column the percentage values with regard
to the 10 hour capacity (2500 Ah) are presented.
By multiplying voltage characteristics with the constant dis-
charging currents and the number of battery cells, power char-
acteristics as a function of capacity are obtained:
PI 10 = ns UI 10 I10
PI 5 = ns UI 5 I5
 SIMULATION MODEL FOR DISCHARGING
PAPIC:
TABLE I
MAXIMAL BATTERY CAPACITIES FOR DIFFERENT DISCHARGING CURRENTS
PI 3 = ns UI 3 I3
PI 1 = ns UI 1 I1
PI 0.5 = ns UI 0.5 I0.5
PI 0.33 = ns UI 0.33 I0.33
PI 0.25 = ns UI 0.25 I0.25 (2)
where
PI 10 power of the battery system at constant discharging
current 250 A and 10-h discharging time as a function
of the percentage value of rated capacity;
PI 5 power of the battery system at constant discharging
current 430 A and 5-h discharging time as a function
of the percentage value of rated capacity;
PI 3 power of the battery system at constant discharging
current 625 A and 3-h discharging time as a function
of the percentage value of rated capacity;
PI 1 power of the battery system at constant discharging
current 1300 A and 1-h discharging time as a function
of the percentage value of rated capacity;
PI 0.5 power of the battery system at constant discharging
current 2050 A and 0.5-h discharging time as a func-
tion of the percentage value of rated capacity;
PI 0.33 power of the battery system at constant discharging
current 2700 A and 0.33-h discharging time as a
function of the percentage value of rated capacity;
PI 0.25 power of the battery system at constant discharging
current 3100 A and 0.25-h discharging time as a
function of the percentage value of rated capacity;
and
ns number of series connected battery cells.
The active power that should be covered by batteries is the
input value. On the basis of this power, with linear interpolation
between the appropriate two power and voltage characteristics,
the magnitude of the battery current and voltage in a certain in-
tegration step can be determined. To better illustrate the method
of linear interpolation, let us assume the following numerical
input values at the integration step k:
1) P k = 274 kWdemanded power from the battery system
at the integration step k;
k
2) Cp2500 = 50%capacity of the battery cells at the inte-
gration step k;
3) ns = 274.
611
With (1), we obtain the voltage values for the two charac-
teristic points at a given capacity of 50%: UI 5 = 1.950 V and
UI 3 = 1.932 V. After calculating power characteristics with (2)
at the same capacity value, the demanded power of 274 kW
ranges between PIk5 = 229.75 kW and PIk3 = 330.86 kW. Now,
the battery cell voltage and current can be calculated as follows:

 P k PIk5
U k = UIk5 UIk5 UIk3 = 1.942 V
PIk3 PIk5
Pk
Ik = = 514.93 A. (3)
ns U k
For different input power values, the appropriate closest
higher and lower power and voltage characteristics should
be used. By integrating the current during the simulation, online
corrections to the battery capacity are made:
k k 1 I k t
Cp2500 = Cp2500 + 100%, (4)
2500 Ah
where t represents a time integration step; I k is the magni-
tude of the battery current in a certain integration step. It is
assumed to be a constant value for the time integration step,
which should be small enough to avoid numerical instability;
generally, it depends on the time constants of the phenomena
being simulated.
This new battery capacity now serves as a basis for the calcu-
lation of power characteristics for the next integration step. As
previously mentioned, at the start of simulation it is assumed
that the battery is fully charged.
The limitations of the possible operation of the battery are
included in the model. If the load current at a given capacity is
too high, the inherent logic progressively reduces the loadin
so doing, the operating point follows the boundary line of the
possible operating area. Without the mentioned logic, the bat-
tery should be disconnected from the system, but in our case
the battery is being further discharged at the reduced current in
order to use the whole rated capacity (Table I). Under practi-
cal operating conditions, there are two mechanisms for limita-
tion of the battery current at given capacity. The first limitation
represents the rated power of the converter. Additionally, dur-
ing battery discharging, the converter operates in active power
control mode; the algorithm for the calculation of the power
reference value observes the dc voltage and appropriately re-
duces the reference value in case the dc voltage is too low.
This algorithm is applied at the upper control level outside the
converter hardware.
By assuming that the battery is connected to the network over
an IGBT converter, BESS also generates or absorbs reactive
power. It is assumed that the active power exchange with the
system has priority, and that only the power difference, which
can be calculated from the instantaneous active power demand
and rated power of the converter, is available for the compensa-
tion of the reactive power. The reactive power reference value is
the input value in the model and is supposed to be determined
at the upper control level, which observes the conditions at the
point of the connection to the network where the power factor
should equal one.
612
Fig. 5. Flow chart of the BESS-model operations under the conditions of
digital simulation in an arbitrary integration step.
According to Fig. 5, the resumed operations with the BESS
model under the conditions of digital simulation in an arbitrary
integration step are as follows.
1) Active and reactive power demand determination on the
ac side of the system with BESS;
2) Load current calculation of the battery by taking into ac-
count power and voltage characteristics at a given battery
capacity;
3) Consideration of the battery operation boundaries and pos-
sible load current reduction;
4) Calculation of the battery capacity change with regard to
the actual load current and determination of the battery
capacity for the next integration step;
5) Calculation of available power for the reactive power com-
pensation; and
6) Actual covering of the active and reactive power by con-
sidering the stated limitations and battery condition.
B. Comparison of Simulation Results With Measured Data
The purpose of the first set of simulations performed by the
derived battery-discharging model is to compare the simulated
results with the measured ones. When BESS at TAB Mezica
was put into operation, the measurement data were available.
Therefore, it was possible to test the derived simulation model
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 21, NO. 2, JUNE 2006
Fig. 6. Comparison between the simulated and measured characteristic quan-
tities of BESS during load leveling operation.
used during the planning stage. The rated power of the converter
was 300 kW, with the battery system consisting of 274 series
connected OpzS battery cells.
Fig. 6 shows the operation of the system during the load
leveling operation. The presented case reflects the characteristic
load diagram of TAB Mezica. The measured values of the active
power on the network side and the load power are presented
in the first graph. The reference power of 1.348 MW is set
considering the peak power forecast during the peak daily tariff
for a certain day. During the higher daily tariff, the reference
value may be increased by 15%. The second graph shows the
measured power supplied from BESS; this power diagram was
used as the input in the simulation model. The simulated and
measured values of battery voltage and current are presented in
the third and fourth graph in Fig. 6. It is evident that the simulated
and measured data are in good agreement. The relative value of
the remaining battery capacity and the energy supplied by the
batteries are shown in the last graph in Fig. 6.
Further comparison between the simulated and measured data
was performed and the results were always similar to the ones
represented in Fig. 6.
C. Simulation of Supplying Different Load Patterns
In the next stage, the simulation of supplying different load
patterns was performed. The trace of the battery capacity during
discharging with variable load current depends on the type or
pattern of the load that should be covered by BESS. For the four
different examples, it is assumed that BESS is used to supply the
same amount of energy (1.125 MWh), but in different operating
regimes. In the time frame of 4.5-h, the system consisting of 274
series connected battery cells follows different active power
 SIMULATION MODEL FOR DISCHARGING
PAPIC:
Fig. 7. Characteristic quantities of BESS when supplying different load patterns.
patterns while being discharged; we assumed that there is no
reactive power exchange with the system.
Results of the simulation with the developed BESS model
are shown in Fig. 7. The actual and reference values of the
time dependent load diagrams covered by BESS are given for
different cases in the top graphs, followed by the battery voltage
and current traces. In the bottom graphs, the relative values
of the remaining battery capacity with regard to the rated 10
hour capacity (2500 Ah), and the energy being supplied by the
batteries, are shown.
In the first case, the batteries are discharged by constant
power; by decreasing the battery capacity progressively, the
battery voltage drops and the current increases. In Fig. 7(a) we
can see that BESS at the interval between points A and B oper-
ates on the boundary line, which means that the load current is
partly reduced. At the end of the 4.5 hour interval, the energy
613
supplied from BESS equals 1.112 MWh and the remaining ca-
pacity amounts to 10.8% of the rated value. In the second and
third case, BESS operates without restrictions; at the end of the
operating cycle the supplied energy amounts to 1.125 MWh. In
both cases, the remaining capacity equals approximately 14%
of the rated value. The results are represented in Figs. 7(b) and
(c). In the fourth case, shown in Fig. 7(d), at the interval be-
tween points A and B the load current has to be reduced again;
with reduced load the system returns to the allowed operating
area. The supplied energy in this case amounts to 1.109 MWh
at 15.5% of the rated capacity.
Considering the required power of the converter, the first case
of discharging is preferable, but BESS in this case supplies less
energy than required and the remaining capacity is the lowest.
For the batteries, it is certainly most convenient if the load is
reduced toward the end of the discharging cycle, which can be
614
Fig. 8. Characteristic quantities of BESS during load leveling operation for different active power reference values. (a) 1.3 MW. (b) 1.4 MW.
observed in the second and third example of the discharging
pattern.
D. Simulation of Supplying Characteristic Peak Load
The BESS model was also used for the simulation of a char-
acteristic peak load supply. In the load model, the characteristic
measured load diagram at the factory site between 7:00 and
15:00 was implemented. The task of the fully charged BESS
was to cover the load above the given reference value of the
active power. The rated power of the converter was assumed
to be 300 kW, with the battery system again consisting of 274
series connected OpzS battery cells.
The simulation of the battery discharging was performed for
the two different reference values of the active power. The traces
of some characteristic BESS quantities are shown in Fig. 8. In
both cases, the load active power and the same active power
reduced by the amount contributed by BESS are shown in the
top graphs. The actually supplied and demanded power from
BESS are presented in the second graphs, followed by the battery
voltage and current traces. The relative value of the remaining
battery capacity with regard to the rated 10 hour capacity Cp2500 ,
and the energy W being supplied by the batteries, are shown in
the bottom graphs.
BESS covers the load above the active power reference value
that is, in the first case, set to 1.3 MW; this value is at 13:00
increased by 15%, as seen in Fig. 8(a). Batteries are successfully
supplying the load up to a point A, where the battery current
approaches the boundary of the permitted operating area. At this
point, the current reduction starts, which means that the actual
power at the network side exceeds the set reference value. At
point B, the system returns to the normal operating area, and
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON ENERGY CONVERSION, VOL. 21, NO. 2, JUNE 2006
batteries are further discharging up to point C, where current
reduction starts again. BESS is due to the exhaustion untimely
switched off at point D. At that moment, the actual power at the
network side exceeds the reference value for 203 kW, and peak
load shaving is not successful.
In the second case, shown in Fig. 8(b), the set reference
value equals 1.4 MW. During the whole observation period,
BESS operates in the normal operating area, peak load shaving
is successful, and the active power reference value was not
exceeded. At the end of the discharging cycle, the remaining
capacity equals 40.7% of the rated value. The energy being
supplied from BESS in the first case equals 1.252 MWh, and in
the second equals 0.740 MWh.
IV. CONCLUSION
The evaluation of the Ampere-hour capacity of the battery
needed for load leveling during a period of several hours is
very important when using BESS as an active power peaking
station. The discharging simulation model of the battery that
was developed for this purpose takes into account the battery
voltage dependency on the capacity and current, and is based
on the performed battery measurements at constant discharging
currents. By using the aforementioned model, the simulation
of the characteristic load leveling operation was performed and
compared to the measured voltage and current profiles. As pre-
viously mentioned, practically all savings when using BESS are
achieved by reducing peak load. The simulation results prove
the significance of the proper setting of the active power refer-
ence value for successful shaving of peak loads. The comparison
between the simulated results and the measured ones validated
 SIMULATION MODEL FOR DISCHARGING
PAPIC:
the derived modelvery good agreement between both sets of
results was achieved.
The derived discharging model can also be used for the BESS
capacity planning where the load current profile plays a signifi-
cant role. After determining the required capacity according to
the operating conditions of the system, suitable standard battery
cells available on the market may be selected. At this stage, it
is also important to make allowance for battery aging. For the
integration of the model into a general capacity planning tool,
battery manufacturers should provide voltage characteristics for
different types and sizes of battery cells. These characteristics
could be classified according to the temperature ranges and the
type of positive plates used as building blocks of battery cells.
The usage of BESS under the new conditions of the open
electricity market should be pointed out as another problem. In
this case, it is, on the one hand, very difficult to perform the
viability assessment of the introduction of a new BESS into a
supply network, and on the other hand, the operation of existing
installations requires certain modifications. In addition to the
known planning uncertainties, we have to deal with the uncer-
tainties related to the variable prices of electricity. In particular,
the price of peak power is, under the new conditions, relatively
lower than in the classical tariff system, which means that the
savings are also smaller then before. This new problem arising
from ongoing worldwide deregulation and competition in dis-
tribution systems will be the main subject of our future work in
this field. The devolved simulation model proved to be a very
effective tool for finding optimal operating solutions to existing
and, hopefully, future battery storage systems.
615
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Igor Papic (S97A99M00) received the B.Sc.,
M.Sc., and Ph.D. degrees, all in electrical engineer-
ing, from the University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, in
1992, 1995, and 1998, respectively.
From 1994 to 1996, he was with the Siemens
Power Transmission and Distribution Group in Erlan-
gen, Germany. Currently, he is an Associate Professor
on the Faculty of Electrical Engineering in Ljubljana.
In 2001, he was a Visiting Professor at the University
of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada. His research
interests include control and modeling of FACTS de-
vices and power conditioners.