Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical

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Paper 7: An Investigation of Steady Compressible Flow through Thick Orifices

B. E. L. Deckker and Y. F. Chang
Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Conference Proceedings 1965 180: 312
DOI: 10.1243/PIME_CONF_1965_180_307_02

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312

Paper 7

AN INVESTIGATION OF STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW

THROUGH THICK ORIFICES

By B. E. L. Deckker* and Y. F. Chang*

A thick orifice of a given diameter is one in which the length-diameter ratio exceeds that of a British Standard
sharp-edge orifice of the same diameter. Thick orifices are important technically but little systematic work
appears to have been performed on them. Sharp-edge orifices are treated as limiting cases of thick orifices.
This paper describes a carefully controlled investigation into the behaviour of the steady flow of air through
thirty-eight orifices ranging in diameter from +
to in and of length-diameter ratios, Z/d, of 2.0, 1.0, and 0.5
and of sharp-edge orifices. These orifices have been calibrated against a range of sharp-edge orifices according
to the British Standards code. The maximum possible instrument error over the experimental range (maximum
pressure 150 lb/in2 absolute, maximum temperature 940R) is estimated to be less than 0.1 per cent. The
greater part of the overall error is attributed to the use of the code and may be as high as 1.6 per cent in some
cases. About seven hundred experimental measurements have been made during the course of this investigation
from which new relationships between the geometrical and physical parameters have been derived. The
existence of a hysteresis phenomenon in a compressible flow through an orifice has also been measured for the
first time. The main conclusions are :
(1) When the ratio of the orifice diameter, d, to that of the cylinder cross-section is small the air expands
from a state of virtual stagnation at a distance of one orifice-diameter from the plane of entry to the orifice.
The ambient pressure is attained at the plane of exit only in the case of orifices for which Z/d 2 2.
(2) In the range of Reynolds numbers between lo4and lo5the dimensionless mass flow, G = riz( To)1Z/d2po,
and the coefficient of discharge, c d , are independent of the Reynolds number.
( 3 ) For a given Z/d ratio G, or c d , is a function only of the overall pressure ratio.
(4) The Z/d ratio is an important parameter in thick orifices because of the possibility of jet attachment.
The observed behaviour of thick orifices may be explained on this basis.
(5) For Z/d = 0.5 there is a clearly delineated hysteresis in the flow near the threshold of choking, the
lower branch corresponding roughly to the behaviour of a sharp-edge orifice and the upper branch attaining
a value of c d of nearly 0.9 for the choked regime.
(6) Within the limits of accuracy of measurement, eccentric location of the orifice has no effect upon either
G or c d .
Finally, the experimental results are compared with published theoretical and experimental work on
compressible steady flow through orifices.

INTRODUCTION
A THICK ORIFICE is found where both the strength of the
containing walls and positive control of the flow pattern
through the orifice are important considerations. Despite
the widespread use of these orifices, little systematic work
on their behaviour appears to have been carried out.
The MS. of this paper was first received at the Institution on 25th
October 1965 and in its revised form,as accepted by the Council for
publication, on 15th December 1965.
* The University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada.
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1965-66
Wallace and Mitchell (I)t and Benson (2) have derived
expressions for the discharge coefficients of ported engine
cylinders from experiments under the transient conditions
obtaining during exhaust blow-down. Their work is
relevant in the wider context of the authors research
which is aimed at elucidating the differences between
steady and non-steady flows through orifices. The experi-
ments reported in this paper are concerned only with the
steady flow of air mainly through concentric circular
t References are given in Appendix 7.1.
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 AN INVESTIGATION OF STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH THICK ORIFICES 313

orifices at the end of a cylinder. I n these experiments the

area ratio, that is the ratio of the orifice area to the area of
the cylinder, was always made small enough so that the
velocity of the air approaching the orifice was negligibly
small. Thus, in a geometrically similar configuration, the
effect of wave action in a transient flow would also be
negligibly small. It is anticipated that under the conditions
obtaining in both steady and slow transient flows in
11 SETTLING TANK
I
geometrically similar configurations, the distribution of
the dynamic variables in the cylinder would be similar.
I TEST ORIFICE 1

These conditions must be satisfied as far as possible if a

comparison is to be made between the discharge coeffici-
ents for steady and transient flows through a given orifice.
A thick orifice is defined as one in which the ratio of the
length of the orifice to its diameter, I/d, exceeds that of a
standard* sharp-edge orifice of the same diameter. A
sharp-edge orifice, therefore, may be regarded as the
limiting case of a thick orifice of the same diameter. At the
other end of the scale, the distinction between a thick
orifice and a pipe orifice is not defined although the experi-
ence gained in the present investigation suggests a limiting
value of the l/d ratio equal to 2.0. -1 I
Notation
CLi Discharge coefficient, m/mtheo = GIGcheo.
1 - 24" 1-
D Diameter of cylinder.
d Diameter of orifice.
G Mass flow number, m( To)1'2/d2p,.
Gtheo Theoretical mass flow number.
kld Relative roughness factor.
I Thickness (length) of orifice. Fig. 7.1. Arrangement used to reproduce conditions in
M Mach number. cylinder-orifice configuration for steady flows
m Mass flow rate.
P Pressure. A five-hole static pressure probe, 12 in long, of stainless
Po Stagnation pressure. steel tubing 0.035 in outside diameter and suitably
R Characteristic gas constant. stiffened, was mounted on a slide with micrometer adjust-
Re Reynolds number. ment in two perpendicular directions. The tip of the
T Temperature. probe was aligned on the centre-line to within 0.001 in by
To Stagnation temperature. means of a cathetometer. The difference between the pres-
Ratio of the specific heat. sure in the plenum chamber and at the measuring station
Y
Coefficient of viscosity. was measured by a 'Vessen' manometer with a resolution
P
P Density. of 0.001 in water. The arrangement of the orifice and
probe is shown in Fig. 7.2.
I n all, six traverses were made corresponding to I/d
PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENTS ratios of 2.0, 1.0, 0.63, 0.50, 0.25, and a standard sharp-
The arrangement shown in Fig. 7.1 was used to provide edge (l/d = 0-05). I n each traverse more than fifty mea-
( a ) geometrical similarity of the cylinder-orifice configura- surements were made on either side of the upstream face
tion and (b) a steady flow with a negligibly small approach of the orifice for a total distance equal to about fifteen
velocity to the orifice for given stagnation conditions in the orifice diameters. In that region where the fall of pressure
plenum chamber. Qualitative information about the flow inside the cylinder was first detected and on either side of
pattern near the orifice was obtained by a longitudinal the station of minimum pressure, the probe was traversed
static pressure traverse along the centre-line, for one value in steps of 0.010 in. The results are shown in Fig. 7.3 in
of the stagnation pressure. Orifices of 0-50in nominal which the curves have been drawn through each of the
diameter and of six different l/d ratios were used in this experimental points. A single traverse occupied from 10 to
investigation. 12 hours, because of the relatively long response time
(about 10 min) of the probe and manometer, during which
* A standard orifice of given diameter is one whose dimensions, in par- the ambient pressure varied. Since a low stagnation pres-
ticular the Ild ratio, arefixed by the British Standards Specification
on Flow Measurement, B.S.S. 1042: 1943. sure was used, the variation in the ambient pressure was
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314 B. E. L. DECKKER AND Y. F. CHANG

significant and it was necessary to express the results in
terms of the gauge pressure. The ambient temperature
was held to within 2 degF by air conditioning.
It is evident from the results shown in Fig. 7.3 that,
under the given experimental conditions, any significant
motion of the air in the cylinder occurs only within a
distance equal to one orifice diameter from the upstream
face of the orifice. Therefore, it may be assumed that the
air expands from a virtual state of stagnation and it is
thought that the distribution of the dynamical variables
would be similar to that obtaining in a slow transient flow
at the same instantaneous overall pressure ratio.

Fig. 7.2. Arrangement for static pressure traverse

Stagnation pressure p o = 250 mm water (gauge).

Ambient temperature = 85F.
Fig. 7.3. Steady flow static pressure distribution on centre-line of cylinder-orifice
configuration for different Ild ratios
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 AN INVESTIGATION OF STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH THICK ORIFICES
a b C d e vary only between 1.0 and 0.8333. If the group m / ( p o d )is
a Ild = 2.0; b lld = 1.0; c Ild = 0.5; d sharp-edge;
e Ild = 20.
Fig. 7.4. Typical set of orifces of different l / d ratios for a
constant diameter
The relative positions of the pressure minima for the
six different l / d ratios, in particular the lld ratio of 0.50,
and also the extent of the pressure recovery where this
occurs within the length of the orifice, are of interest.
Subsequent measurements with orifices of different
diameters for this value of the l / d ratio revealed the exist-
ence of a hysteresis phenomenon near the region where
choking would be expected to occur. Lichtarowicz, Dug-
gins, and Markland (3) refer to the possibility of hysteresis
occurring in incompressible flows through orifices with
l/d ratios between 0.5 and 1.5 although its existence has
not been verified.
DIMENSIONAL ANALYSIS
A dimensional analysis of the problem of flow through an
orifice yields a large number of independent groups, thus :
.- TO)ll2-
ti?(
d "0
-4 [(') P -,
2~ 4, -k, R , y, My-y
D d d
p' -,
T' -,
P'
P o P o To Po
M , Re'
1
where the prime (') denotes local properties at the upstream
face of the orifice. The characteristic length in the Rey-
nolds number group is the diameter of the orifice. Under
suitably chosen experimental conditions some of these
groups will be eliminated. For example, if the velocity of
approach is made small enough, the area ratio, (d/D)2,and
the approach Mach number, M yare not significant. The
relative roughness, kid, may be regarded as being constant
if the orifices are carefully manufactured and afterwards
examined, under magnification, for quality of finish. The
local thermodynamic properties, viz. p', T', and p', and the
local Mach number, M y are functions of the overall pres-
sure ratio, p / p o , since, in principle, it is always possible to
derive relationships between p i p o and each of the ratios
p'/po, T'/To,and M yrespectively, that will take account of
the internal losses in the expansion from the stagnation
pressure, p o , to the ambient pressure, p . Thus, the dimen-
sionless groups corresponding to these local properties
may be represented by the single group p / p o .
The Reynolds number, Re', may also be reduced to a
more tractable form in the following manner. If the
temperature dependence of the viscosity is given by
Proc h s t n Mech Engrs 1965-66
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315
Sutherland's equation (4), the viscosity at the temperature
T' may be written approximately as:
p = p0(T'/T0)3'2 for air
Therefore, the Reynolds number may be expressed in the
form :
in which the numerical value of the temperature ratio can
regarded as being a nominal Reynolds number, Re;, the
true Reynolds number differs from the nominal Reynolds
number by a constant which has a value between 1.0 and
1.3, depending on the value of the overall pressure ratio.
Thus, the final form of the functional equation is :
where G is the mass flow number and Re' is the nominal
Reynolds number at the upstream face of the orifice.
From an experimental viewpoint it would be expedient
first of all to examine the effect of the nominal Reynolds
number on the mass flow number, keeping the other two
groups constant. If it is found that the Reynolds number
has no effect on the flow, the subsequent experiments will
be straightforward. On the other hand, difficulties will be
introduced if it is found necessary to hold the Reynolds
number constant while varying the pressure ratio, since
changes both in the mass flow and in the diameter of the
orifice will be involved simultaneously.
EXPERIMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
Four l/d ratios were used in the design of the experiments.
Of these, three ratios equal to 2.0,1*0, and 0.5 were selected
arbitrarily while the fourth corresponded to standard
sharp-edge orifices for which lld = 0.05. Altogether,
thirty-eight geometrically similar orifices were calibrated
against standard metering orifices according to the British
Standards Specification 1042: 1943. The nominal dia-
meters of the test orifices varied between 3 and $?in,
small diameters being necessary to achieve a stagnation
pressure of 150 lb/in2 absolute and to eliminate the effect
of the approach velocity. The leading dimensions of these
orifices are given in Table 7.1 and the design of a set of
orifices of constmt diametx comprising the different lid
ratios is shown in Fig. 7.4. A pipe orifice (lid = 20) which
is shown in Fig. 7.4 was not, however, tested systematically.
Five standard metering orifices ranging in diameter from
0.500 in to 1.000 in were used to calibrate the test orifices.
This was the minimum number required to keep the back
pressure on the test orifices to within 10 in water (gauge),
and at the same time to provide Reynolds numbers
greater than 2 x lo4 in the metering orifice when the mass
flow was varied. Considerable care was taken in the manu-
facture of both test and metering orifices which were of a
medium carbon steel. In particular, the upstream face of
each orifice plate was ground to the required thickness and
the bore was lapped until it showed a uniform finish when
Vol 180 Pt 33
316 B. E. L. DECKKER AND Y. F. CHANG

Table 7.1. Leading dimensions of orifces lb/in2 and 60-1201b/in2. The accuracy in the smaller
+
range was t lb/in2 and in the higher range lb/in2. In the
Nominal Measured diameter, in range of pressure between 0 and 151b/in2 a mercury
diameter, manometer was used, the resolution being 0.05 in. The
in Ild = 2 lld = 1 Ild = 0.5 Sharp-edge
stagnation temperature at two points in the flow was
0.0983 0.0983 0.0930 0.1004 measured by calibrated thermocouples which were accur-
0.1283
0.1595
0.1250
- 0.1250
0.1596
0.1247
0.1547 +
ate to degF.
0.1928 0.1928 - - T o extend the range of the nominal Reynolds numbers
0.2220 - 0.2220 0.2203 it was necessary to increase the stagnation temperature.
0.2530 0.2530 - - Temperatures up to a maximum of 480F (940"R) were
0.2854 - 0.2833 0.2827
0.3145 0.3145 - - obtained by installing four slab-type electric heaters of
0-3487 - 0.3488 0.3425 1 kW between the plenum chamber and the test orifice.
0.3770 0.3770 - -
0.4168 - 0.4173 0.4085 Since in some of the experiments the air velocity was quite
04425 04425 - - small, adequate safeguards had to be provided in the event
0.4738 - - 0.4688
0.5015 0.5015 0.5023 - of a 'flash-back' from the incandescent surfaces of the
heaters to the plenum chamber which could arise from
contamination of the air supply by lubricating oil. The
examined under a low power microscope. The diameter of arrangement of the heating section and ofthe safety devices
the bore was then carefully measured. In this way a used in the high temperature experiments is shown in
measure of control over the relative roughness and the Fig. 7.6. Before systematic testing was begun it was
sharpness of the upstream edge was achieved. established that the presence of the heaters did not affect
Fig. 7.5 shows the arrangement used to calibrate the the flow pattern near the test orifice, by traversing the
test orifices at stagnation temperatures near to the ambient cylinder-orifice configuration axially with the static pres-
temperature (about 85F). An expansion chamber of sure probe. The arrangement shown in Fig. 7.5 was also
large diameter was used to simulate atmospheric condi- used during calibration of the test orifices at the higher
tions downstream of the test orifice. It was found that with temperatures.
a chamber of 24 in diameter, pressure recovery in the jet
was completed in a distance of about 60 in. The recovery
of pressure was measured at the wall of the chamber to EFFECT O F T H E REYNOLDS NUMBER
within 0.001 in water. The pipe upstream of the metering T o investigate the effect of the nominal Reynolds number
orifice was 83 in long and that downstream was 36 in long. on the mass flow, the group of fourteen orifices with a
Both pipes were 2.0 in internal diameter and were polished l/d ratio of 2.0 was selected (see Table 7.1). The range of
internally. The metering orifice was located concentrically orifice diameters permitted only a limited variation in the
between the two pipes and corner taps were provided Reynolds number while the pressure ratio p/po was held
according to the British Standards code. At the metering constant and the required change in the Reynolds number
orifice, the upstream and downstream pressures and the was effected, essentially, by increasing the stagnation
differential pressure were measured to an accuracy of temperature. In this way, measurements were made for a
0.001 in water. The stagnation pressure was measured by number of pressure ratios between 0.98 and 0.30 and the
precision Bourdon gauges in two ranges, namely 15-60 results are shown in Fig. 7.7. It may reasonably be con-
cluded from Fig. 7.7 that for nominal Reynolds numbers
'p---60'- above lo4,the mass flow number, and, therefore, the dis-
charge coefficient, are independent of the Reynolds num-
ber. The dashed line in Fig. 7.7 represents the location of
the experimental points for pressure ratios less than 0.60
since they cannot be clearly separated for the scale used.
Each point in Fig. 7.7 is the mean of three values of the
pressure ratio taken close to the desired value and cal-
culated from the Lagrange interpolation formula. It was
necessary to adopt this technique because of the difficulty
in adjusting the stagnation pressure exactly to the required
pressure ratio after a change had been made in the diameter
of an orifice or in the stagnation temperature.
A- SETTLING TANK
6 - EXTENSION PIECE T o check the results obtained with orifices of l/d ratio
C-TEST ORIFICE equal to 2.0, the group of eight standard sharp-edge
D- EXPANSION CHAMBER orifices were investigated in a similar manner. A corre-
E-METERING ORIFICE
spondingly smaller number of measurements were made in
Fig. 7.5. Arrangement used in calibration of test orifices at this series of experiments but the results which are shown
low stagnation temperatures in Figs 7.8a and 7.86 confirm those obtained earlier.
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 AN INVESTIGATION OF STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH THICK ORIFICES 317

) \PRESSURE RELIEF DEVICE AUTO-ENC INE PLUG

7 iPRESSVRE

ASBESTOS END PLATE

FLOW PASSAGE

SECTION A-A

Fig. 7.6. Heating section and safety devices for high stagnation temperatures

REYNOLDS NUMBER x 1ii4

Fig. 7.7. Effect of Reynolds number on mass flow number for different pressure ratios, lid = 2.0

Strictly, the l/d ratios for standard sharp-edge orifices are
not constant for different diameters because of the toler-
ance allowed by the code. The orifices used in these experi-
ments conformed to the upper limit of the tolerance of the
code for which lid = 0-05and can, therefore, be treated
validly as a single group.
Three further experiments were carried out with the
object of obtaining information about the effect of an
adjacent wall on the flow through an orifice. In these
experiments the orifice was located eccentrically so that
its periphery was tangential to the inside wall of the
cylinder. Three orifices were used of which two had a lld
ratio of 2.0 and diameters of 0.3790in and 0-2160in
while the third was a standard sharp-edge orifice of
0-4681 in diameter. Over the whole range of pressure
ratios that could be obtained with these orifices, no differ-
ences in the mass flow numbers were found within the
limits of error of the experimental measurements.
From the results of this and the two earlier experiments
it may be concluded that viscous effects are not important
Proc Insrn Mech Engrs 1965-66
in the expansion of air through the overall pressure ratio
and that, in an engineering sense, changes in the thermo-
dynamic state of the air in the jet are isentropic. This would
imply that the discharge coefficient is equal to the product
of the contraction coefficient and a velocity coefficient.
But, as Jobson (5) has pointed out, it would be more
appropriate to regard the velocity coefficient as a correc-
tion both for the defect of velocity and for the effects of
viscosity. The measurements made by Stanton (6) lend
considerable support to these conclusions.
It may be argued that the independence of the mass
flow number from the Reynolds number could have been
predicted without recourse to experiment since, on the
basis of the measured flow rates and orifice diameters, the
calculated nominal Reynolds numbers are of the order of
lo4. However, it would be fair to state that experimental
verification was prompted by the fact that both Wallace
and Mitchell (I) and Benson (2) have implied that the
Reynolds number is a factor that determines the numerical
value of the discharge coefficient through engine ports.
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318 B. E. L. DECKKER AND Y. F. CHANG

REYNOLDS NUMBER x 10"

REYNOLDS
a Mass flow number.
Fig. 7.8. Effect of Reynolds number on mass flow number and on discharge
coeficient f o r different pressure ratios, sharp-edge
Before leaving the topic of the Reynolds number it is
pertinent to refer to the difficulty of obtaining low Rey-
nolds numbers and compressibility effects simultaneously
in jets under steady conditions in the laboratory. I n the
authors' experiments an increase in the stagnation tem-
perature from 85F to 480"F, resulted in a reduction in the
Reynolds number by about one-half its value at the lower
temperature, or from about 8 x 10" to 4 x lo4, in the middle
range of Reynolds numbers. With the smallest orifice used,
and at a pressure ratio of 0.95, a temperature of the order
of lOOO'F would be required to reduce the Reynolds
number to lo3. At a pressure ratio of 0.50, for which com-
pressibility effects would be important, the required tem-
perature is a little over 2500'F.
EFFECT O F T H E LENGTH-DIAMETER RATIO
A N D T H E P R E S S U R E RATIO
Elimination of the Reynolds number as a significant
independent parameter simplified the design of the sub-
Proc Instiz Afcclt Engrs 1965-66
NUMBERX I e4
b Discharge coefficient.
sequent experiments considerably. The variation in the
mass flow number with the pressure ratio could now be
investigated readily for each of the four lid ratios. The
arrangement shown in Fig. 7.5 was used in these experi-
ments, since the stagnation temperatures were about 85F.
The results obtained with thirty-eight orifices with l / d
ratios of 2.0, 1.0, 0.5 and with standard sharp-edge
orifices are shown in Figs 7.9a, b, c, and d . Included in
these figures are the results obtained at the higher stagna-
tion temperatures in the earlier experiments. The leading
dimensions of the orifices used are given in Table 7.1.
It is evident that, for a given Z/d ratio, both the mass
flow number and the discharge coefficient are strongly
affected by the pressure ratio in the range 0.5 < p / p o < 1.0.
For sharp-edge orifices, Fig. 7.9d,the effect of the pressure
ratio continues well beyond the lower limit of 0.5. This
behaviour is characteristic of sharp-edge orifices and was
observed first by Hartshorn and confirmed by later
investigators (7). Since the greater part of the expansion
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 AN INVESTIGATION OF STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH THICK ORIFICES 319

06

a W
W z
g0s
=I
9
u
z
??
n
4
Lr
04
B
In
Cn t
I-
2 03 wu

02
k8
01

10 09 01) 07 06 05 04 03 02 01 00
PRESSURE RATIO PRESSURE RATIO

PRESSURE RATIO PRESSURE RATIO

a Ild = 2.0; b Ild = 1.0; c lld = 0 5 ; d sharp-edge.

Gtheois the mass flow number calculated from isentropic flow with C , equal to unity.
Fig. 7.9. Effect of pressure ratio and length-diameter ratio on mass flow number and discharge cozficient

occurs outside the orifice (see Fig. 7.2), it is clear that
area choking cannot arise, except, probably, at very low
values of the ratio p / p o , although this does not exclude the
existence of the sonic velocity locally at the plane of
minimum pressure. When the stagnation temperature is
held constant and the stagnation pressure increased, the
density is also increased at that plane and may account for
the larger part of the increase in the mass flow. However,
an increase in the area of contraction has been predicted
theoretically (5) for decreasing values of the pressure ratio
between 1.0 and 0-5283, for air, and it is quite likely that
the area of maximum contraction continues to increase as
the pressure ratio is decreased further. It is also known
that this plane regresses towards the orifice as the stagna-
tion pressure is increased (6). Therefore, it is probable that
the combination of the last two factors, namely, the in-
crease in area and the regression of the plane of maximum
Prof Instii Mesh Engrs 1965-66
contraction, eventually leads to area choking at sufficiently
low pressure ratios. The behaviour of sharp-edge orifices
at very low pressure ratios (p,/po< 0.01) does not appear
to have been investigated.
In contrast to the sharp-edge orifices, those with l / d
ratios of 2.0 and 1.0 (Figs 7.9a and 7.9b) clearly exhibit the
existence of area choking since in both cases the jet can
form its own nozzle within the length of the orifice. For
the l/d ratio of 2.0, the threshold of choking is at a slightly
smaller pressure ratio than the theoretical value of 0.5283
and is due to the recovery of pressure beyond the plane of
minimum pressure in the jet. The effect is not as clearly
discernible in the case of a l[d ratio of 1.0 although some
pressure recovery may also be expected to occur (see
Fig. 7.2).
The behaviour of orifices with a Z/d ratio of 0.5 is of
particular interest because of the existence of the hysteresis
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320 B. E. L. DECKKER AND Y. F. CHANG
in the flow, Fig. 7.9~.When the experimental measure-
ments obtained in the usual manner were plotted, a scatter
was found in that region bounded by the two branches of
the hysteresis loop. Because the scatter was in the region
near the pressure ratio corresponding to the onset of chok-
ing and, also, because the minimum pressure in the jet
was known to occur close to the downstream plane of the
orifice, it was thought that a phenomenon such as hystere-
sis might arise. The orifices were, therefore, recalibrated
but care was taken to make only uni-directional changes in
the pressure ratio. The results obtained in this way gave
the well-defined branches of the hysteresis loop shown
in Fig. 7.9~. It is certain that a hysteresis phenomenon
exists for a lld ratio of 0.5. I n a separate series of experi-
ments using only one orifice, a closed loop formed by a
large number of points over the same range of pressure
ratios has been obtained.
Although the behaviour observed in these orifices is
attributed to phenomena associated with attachment of
the jet to, and detachment from, the wall of the orifice, it
is not possible, at present, to give any precise details of the
processes involved. However, the following tentative
explanation is being used as a basis for further investiga-
tion into the behaviour of these orifices.
A comparison of Fig. 7 . 9 ~with Figs 7.9b and 7.9d
shows that the mass flow number, G, is well behaved up
to a value of the pressure ratio of about 0.65, the variation
in G with p/po being intermediate between that for a I/d
ratio of 1.0 and for a sharp-edge. When the pressure ratio
is reduced below the value of 0.65, it is possible that the
fringe of the jet attaches itself to the wall of the orifice so
that, at this stage, the attachment is sensitive to changes in
the upstream pressure, hence the need for uni-directional
changes in the pressure ratio. As the pressure ratio is de-
creased further, part of the jet apparently becomes firmly
attached to the wall thus isolating the remainder, or con-
vergent part, of the jet from the ambient medium. Condi-
tions within the orifice will now be much the same as those
obtaining in the orifices with I/d ratios of 1.0 and 2-0 and
the value of the mass flow number increases quickly to a
maximum, or choked value. However, it is not understood
why the maximum value of G is higher than that attained
in orifices with I/d ratios of 1.0 and 2.0, although it might
be attributed to pressure conditions within the orifice
when the jet first becomes firmly attached to the wall. The
hysteresis which is observed when the pressure ratio is
increased is a natural consequence of the viscosity of the
air, an effect which has been exploited in other fluid
applications. It is also difficult to explain satisfactorily the
existence of the sloping branches of the loop since it is
reasonable to expect discontinuous changes in the value
of the mass flow number G, if attachment, or detachment,
of the jet alone is responsible for the observed behaviour.
It is not definitely known for what other values of the Ild
ratio hysteresis effects will be encountered. Lichtarowicz,
Duggins, and Markland (3) suspect the occurrence of
hysteresis effects in incompressible flow through orifices
of Ild ratios between 0.5 and 1-5, although there does not
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1965-66
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appear to be strong evidence of such a disturbance in their
experimental results for I/d ratios of 1.0 and 1.5. It has
certainly not been found for compressible flow through
orifices with a l/d ratio of 1.0 in the present experiments.
I n fact, from the experience gained in this investigation,
the authors would venture the opinion that measurable
hysteresis effects would not occur in compressible flows
through orifices other than those for which the I/d ratio is
0.50.
COMPARISON WITH PREVIOUS W O R K
From time to time attempts have been made to predict
theoretically the discharge coefficient of orifices under
steady flow conditions. Recently, Jobson ( 5 ) derived an
expression for sharp-edge orifices in terms of a force
defect coefficient and the one-dimensional equations for
isentropic flow. In essence, his method corrects the known
contraction coefficient for incompressible flow through an
orifice for the effect of compressibility. Jobsons results are
in good agreement with those values predicted theoretic-
ally by Howarth, using the hodograph method attributed
to Chaplygin, in the range of pressure ratios between 1 and
0.5283. They also agree with the experimental results of
Perry (7) for sharp-edge orifices as well as those obtained
by the authors.
Bragg (8) extended Jobsons treatment by taking com-
pressibility upstream of the orifice into account. His
analysis allows two predictions to be made, depending on
the data available. In the first, if the contraction coefficient
for incompressible flow through a given orifice is known,
the discharge coefficient in a compressible flow through
the same orifice could be predicted for any pressure ratio.
I n the second, if the discharge coefficient at any pressure
ratio were known, the variation in the discharge coefficient
with the pressure ratio could also be predicted. For circu-
lar sharp-edge orifices, values of the discharge coefficients
calculated by the above two methods have been found to
be in satisfactory agreement with those predicted by
Jobsons method and with the experimental results of
Perry and of the authors as shown in Fig. 7.10.
Braggs analysis does not distinguish between orifices of
different I/d ratios and of different shapes and it was dis-
concerting, at first sight, to find a measure of agreement
between his predicted values and the experimental results
of Benson (2) for steady flow through engine ports and of
Callaghan and Bowden (9) for steady flow through non-
circular orifices. However, discharge coefficients calcu-
lated according to the second of Braggs two methods,
using a known value of the discharge coefficient at a given
pressure ratio (called here the matching point), do not
agree with the authors experimental values for thick
orifices, except, perhaps near the matching points. Only
in this restricted region can the agreement between
Braggs predicted values for the discharge coefficient and
the experimental results of Benson and of Callaghan and
Bowden be regarded as tenable. I n Fig. 7.11 three
theoretical curves have been drawn with the values found
in Table I(e) of the paper by Bragg (S), the matching
Vol 180 Pr 33
 AN INVESTIGATION OF STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH THICK ORIFICES 32 1

--- --- - JOESON'S PREDICTION FOR Cim.611

'BRAGG'S PREDICTION FOR ~ ~ m . 6 1 1
0 0.5 ERAGG'S PREDICTION FOR Cd m.875 AT: mO.2
* PERRY'S EXPERIMENTAL VALUE -0
I ,

n-. A.
1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
PRESSURE RATIO
Fig. 7.10. Comparison of predicted and experimental values of discharge
coefficients for sharp-edge orifces

l / d = 2.0
------ P / d 1.08

BRAGG'S PREDICTION
0.5 FOR I sI.4

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0.0
PRESSURE R A T I O
Fig. 7.11. Comparison of predicted and experimental values of discharge
coefficients for Ild ratios equal to 1.0 and 2.0

points taken from the authors' results being: ( 1 ) c

d = 0-853,
pipo = 0.55, l/d = 1-0; (2) c d = 0-848, p / p o = 0.70,
l / d = 2.0;and (3) Cd = 0-856,p/p0 = 0.3, lld = 2.0. T h e
experimental curves are for orifices with l / d ratios of 2.0
and 1.0, the lld ratio of 0-5 being excluded because of the
complication introduced by the hysteresis loop. It is
evident that the discharge coefficients of orifices of differ-
ent I/d ratios cannot be correlated satisfactorily by a single
curve. Departures in the behaviour of flows through thick
orifices from that of standard sharp-edge orifices are sum-
marized succinctly in Fig. 7.12.
Estimate of accuracy
In this investigation about seven hundred measurements
of air flow have been made strictly in accordance with the
British Standards code. I n every case corrections were
made for the effects of the Reynolds number, the diameter
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 196566
ratio, the expansion, and for the moisture content of the
air. The maximum possible error of each estimate of the
mass flow was also calculated according to the code. The
large mass of data involved was processed by computer.
T h e average value of the maximum possible error was
found to be 1.6 per cent. This was twenty times as large
as the average estimated value of the instrument and
observational error. These latter errors were obtained
from an analysis of twelve samples taken at random over
the entire range of the experimental measurements.
CONCLUSIONS
For the steady flow of air through square-edge orifices
located at one end of a cylinder whose diameter is large
compared with that of the orifice, the following conclu-
sions apply.
( 1 ) T h e mass flow number, G = (Yi?T0)1'2/d2p0,
and the
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322
PRESSURE RATIO
Fig. 7.12. Percentage deviation in mass flow number and discharge coejicient for
thick orifices from that for sharp-edge orzjices
discharge coefficient, C, = G/Gth,,, are independent of the
Reynolds number, Re = m/pod, when this is above lo4.
For gases of engineering interest this would be of the
order of the Reynolds number in most applications. Rey-
nolds numbers of lo3 and compressibility effects will be
encountered simultaneously with small orifices (< 0.25 in
diameter) and at temperatures of the order of 2500F.
(2) The mass flow number and the discharge coefficient
are functions both of the Ild ratio and the pressure ratio
p/po. For orifices in which l/d is greater than 0.5, choking
occurs although a slight dependence on the lid ratio is
retained, both G and c d decreasing slightly as l/d increases.
For example, experiments with a single orifice for a I/d
ratio of 20 gave a value for C, of 0.850 compared with
0.860 for a l/d ratio of 2.0. The onset of choking also occurs
earlier than the theoretical pressure ratio.
(3) Choking of the flow through an orifice is related to
the extent of the expansion of the jet within the length of
the orifice. In orifices for which the I/d ratios are pro-
gressively smaller than 0.5, it is probable that choking will
also occur to a diminishing extent owing to the delay in the
onset of choking. There is some evidence that orifices with
l/d ratios of 0.25 will exhibit the behaviour characteristic
of sharp-edge orifices so that the range of pressure ratios
for which the flow is choked decreases rapidly between l/d
= 0.50 and l/d = 0.25.
(4) The l/d ratio is important because of the possible
effects of the attachment of the jet to the wall of the orifice.
A hysteresis phenomenon, attributed to these effects, has
been measured for orifices of Z/d = 0.5. Under choked
conditions the performance of these orifices is superior to
that of sharp-edge orifices, although choking is delayed
until a pressure ratio of 0.35 is attained. However, under
the right conditions this value of c d can be extended to a
pressure ratio of 0.55 which is nearly equal to the theoreti-
cal critical value. Although it has not been verified as yet,
Proc Instn Mech Engrs 1965-66
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it is thought that measurable hysteresis effects would occur
only in orifices with a lld ratio of 0.50.
(5) The maximum value of the discharge coefficient in
any orifice has not been found to be greater than 0.90,
at a pressure ratio equal to 0.1. The behaviour of sharp-
edge orifices below a pressure ratio of 0.1 has not been
ascertained with the same accuracy as in the higher range
of pressures, although it is unlikely that a value equal to
unity will ever be attained.
(6) From a design standpoint, the expansion of the air
through the overall pressure ratio, p/po,may be considered
as being isentropic. However, it is appropriate to regard
the discharge coefficient as the product of the contraction
coefficient and a combined velocity coefficient and a loss
coefficient for the effect of viscosity.
(7) When the area ratio, (d/Q2, is small, the flow is
accelerated within a distance only of one orifice-diameter
from the upstream face of the orifice. For practical pur-
poses, the air may be considered to expand from a state of
virtual stagnation. It has also been found that eccentric
location of an orifice does not appear to affect the flow
through it and, in general, all the above conclusions would
also apply.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their thanks to the University
of Saskatchewan for providing the facilities to carry out
this work and to the National Research Council of Canada
for a grant-in-aid during the years 1964 and 1965.
APPENDIX 7.1
REFERENCES
(I) WALLACE,F. J. and MITCHELL, R. W. S. Wave action follow-
ing the sudden release of air through an engine port
system, Proc. Znstn mech. Engrs 1952-53 lB, 343.
VOIiao Pt 3 j
 A N INVESTIGATION OF STEADY COMPRESSIBLE FLOW THROUGH THICK ORIFICES 323

(2) BENSON,R. S. Experiments on two-stroke engine exhaust
ports under steady and unsteady flow conditions, Proc.
Znsrn mech. Engrs 1959 173, 511.
(3) LICHTAROWICZ, A., DUGGINS, R. K. and MARKLAND, E.
Discharge coefficients for incompressible non-cavitating
flow through long orifices, 3. mech. Engng Sci. 1965 7 ,
210.
(4) KAYE,G. W. C. and LABY,T. H. Tables of physical and
chemical constants, 12th edit. 1958,38 (Longmans, Green
and Co.).
(5) JOBSON, D. A. On the flow of a compressible fluid through
orifices, Proc. Znstn mech. Engrs 1955 169,767.
T. E. On the flow of gases at high speed, Proc. R.
(6) STANTON,
SOC.1926 3,306.
(7) PERRY,J. A. Critical flow through sharp-edged orifices,
Trans. Am. SOC.mech. Engrs 1949 71, 757.
( 8 ) BRACG,S. L. Effect of compressibility on the discharge
coefficient of orifices and convergent nozzles, 3. mech.
Engng Sci. 1960 2, 35.
(9) CALLAGHAN, E. E. and BOWDEN, D. T. Investigation of flow
coefficient of circular, square, and elliptical orifices at
high pressure ratios, N.A.C.A. tech. Note 1947, 1949.

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