Discourse Volume I 2014

Discourse:
The Journal of the Speech Communication

Association of South Dakota
Volume 1
Fall 2014
From the Editor

Welcome to Discourse
Invited Articles
So, Youre a New Forensics Coach?:
Establishing an Oral Interpretation Program and Culture of Success
Overcoming Public Speaking Anxiety:

Practical Applications for Classroom Instruction
Research Articles and Theoretical Perspectives

Connection and Avoidance in Campus Spaces:
A Student Cell Phone Uses and Gratifications Study
Interpersonal Rhetoric:
An Approach to Bettering Oneself and Others
G.I.F.T.S. (Great Ideas For Teaching Students)

Explaining Theory-Guided Research through the Television Series The Big Bang Theory
Practicing Critical Research: Applying a Feminist Textual Analysis to the Film 300
Using Video Clips to Illustrate How Paralinguistic Variation Communicates Emotion
Facing Our Racial Biases Via the Implicit Association Test
I don't always look at memes, but when I do, it's for a class: Using Memes to Demonstrate
Language Rules
Exploring the Canons of Rhetoric through Phil Davisons Campaign Stump Speech
Improving Interviewing and Conversational Skills using "Speed Interviewing"

Discourse: The Journal of The Speech Communication Association of South Dakota
Volume 1, Fall 2014
Editor Associate Editor

Karla M. Hunter Anthony M. Wachs
South Dakota State University Northern State University
Editorial Consultants
Shane M. Semmler Nikki Mann
University of South Dakota South Dakota State University
Editorial Assistants
Annamarie Trevett Joshua Hartelt
South Dakota State University South Dakota State University
Discourse Executive Advisory Board

Elizabeth Tolman, Laurie Haleta,
South Dakota State University South Dakota State University
Kelly McKay-Semmler, Lisa Sparks,
University of South Dakota Chapman University
James Wood, Michael Nitz,
South Dakota State University Augustana College
Jesse Weins, Ryan Clark,
Dakota Wesleyan University Black Hills State University
Jill Tyler, Shane M. Semmler,
University of South Dakota University of South Dakota
Joshua Frachiseur, Joshua Westwick,
Northern State University South Dakota State University
SCA of SD Elected Officers

President President Elect
Elizabeth Tolman, Leo Kallis,
South Dakota State University Yankton High School
Secretary/Treasurer
Anna Michaelson,
Dakota Valley High School
Executive Committee
Andrea Carlile, Anthony Flores,
South Dakota State University St. Thomas More Middle School
Travis Dahle, Anthony M. Wachs,
Washington High School, Sioux Falls Northern State University
Appointed Positions
Historian
Donus Roberts, Watertown High School
Discourse Vol. 1, Fall 2014 3
If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.

-Sir Isaac Newton
This volume is dedicated to the memories of two remarkable scholars,

teachers, and mentors whose South Dakota roots are still fruitful. We are
grateful for your legacies, Dr. James C. McCroskey, and Dr. Michael Pfau.
Copyright 2014
TABLE OF CONTENTS
FROM THE EDITOR
Message From the Editor
Karla M. Hunter.8
INVITED ARTICLES
Barbara Kleinjan..9

Joshua N. Westwick...15
RESEARCH ARTICLES AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Rick Malleus..20
Interpersonal Rhetoric: An Approach to Bettering Oneself and Others

Anthony M. Wachs32
G.I.F.T.S. (GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHING STUDENTS)

Explaining Theory-Guided Research through the Television Series The Big Bang Theory
Brittnie Peck, Scott Christen & Stephanie Kelly...45
Practicing Critical Research: Applying a Feminist Textual Analysis to the Film 300
Tatjana M. Hocke-Mirzashvili, Stephanie Kelly,
Darrel Blair & Hoyoung (Anthony) Ahn..51
Using Video Clips to Illustrate How Paralinguistic Variation Communicates Emotion

Shane M. Semmler.57

Stacey A. Peterson.62
"I Don't Always Look at Memes, But When I Do, It's For a Class":
Using Memes to Demonstrate Language Rules
Jocelyn M. DeGroot and Hanna Coy.....69
Joshua N. Westwick & Kelli J. Chromey..74

Colleen Arendt...79
DISCOURSE MISSION STATEMENT
Discourse: The Journal of the Speech Communication Association of South Dakota

publishes original articles from academics and professionals of all levels in
communication, rhetoric, forensics, theatre and other speech-related or theatre-related
activities. As such, the journal embraces the interdisciplinary nature of the field of speech
communication. The journal accepts articles with the diverse range of concerns of the
theoretical to the applied, from the humanities to the social sciences, and from the
scholarly to the pedagogical. The journals primary audience is constituted of teachers of
communication, theater, and English; and coaches of speech, debate and theatre
performance activities.
A part of the vision of this journal is the education of all people involved in the journal
experience: the reader, the author, the reviewers, and even those involved the editorial
process. Works considered for publication will be of high quality and contribute to the
knowledge and practices of the SCASD community. While manuscripts should be written
with clear, efficient, and readable prose, our educational philosophy for the journal
underpins our requesting constructive critique for all reviews. Reviewers should strive to
provide professional, productive, and civil feedback to the editor and author. For insight
into the review process, we request that all of our reviewers please consult the following
article on peer review: http://www.theguardian.com/higher-education-
network/blog/2013/sep/27/peer-review-10-tips-research-paper.
CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS VOLUME 2, FALL 2015
Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD is seeking original manuscripts

for Volume 2, to be published Fall 2015. The journal is generalist in
scope and nature. As such, we seek theoretical, applied, and
pedagogical (Great Ideas for TeachingGIFT) articles from the various
interest areas of the fields of communication, rhetoric and theatre.
Submissions are welcome from either in-state or out-of-state scholars.
Manuscripts are accepted from academics and professionals of all
levels in communication, rhetoric, forensics, theatre and other speech-
related or theatre-related activities. Please indicate whether the
manuscript is being submitted to either (1) the theory and research or
(2) the GIFT section of the journal. Research or GIFTs grounded in
communication or theatre theory are encouraged.
All submissions will undergo a review process, and select manuscripts

will be shortlisted for blind review by at least two peer scholars.
Shortlisted authors must commit to a timeline for revision,
resubmission and potential publication.
SUBMISSION GUIDELINES
All manuscripts should be double-spaced Word documents, using 10-
12-point font (Times, Courier, or Calibri type). Manuscripts must follow
the current APA or MLA style guidelines. Theory or research
submissions should be no more than 7000 words in length. GIFT
submissions must be 2000 words or less if they report on a one-time
class activity, and may be up to 2500 words if they are about a
semester-long project. Manuscripts should contain no material that
identifies the author (Remove all identifiers in the properties of the
document (go File | Properties | Summary and delete your name and
affiliation. Then re-save the document prior to submitting).
Authors should submit a separate title page that includes an
abstract of no more than 125 words, authors name/s, job title/s,
institutional affiliation/s, educational affiliation/s, and the
physical mail address, telephone number and e-mail address of
the main contact for the submission.
A separate cover letter must also accompany the submission.
The cover letter must contain the following information: (1) the
title of the manuscript; (2) the authors name/s and institutional
affiliation/s; (2) the first authors/contact persons mailing
address, e-mail address, and telephone number and (3) A
statement attesting to the authors adherence to ethical
guidelines, as they apply to the submitted work.
These guidelines include those set forth by of the National

Communication Association Code of Professional Ethics
for Authors (See NCA website or write NCA, 1765 N Street NW,
Washington, DC 20036), which are as follows:
1. The manuscript is original work and proper publication credit

is accorded to all authors.
2. Simultaneous editorial consideration of the manuscript at
another publication venue is prohibited.
3. Any publication history of the manuscript is disclosed,
indicating in particular whether the manuscript or another
version of it has been presented at a conference, or
published electronically, or whether portions of the
manuscript have been published previously.
4. Duplicate publication of data is avoided; or if parts of the
data have already been reported, then that fact is
acknowledged.
5. All legal, institutional, and professional obligations for
obtaining informed consent from research participants and
for limiting their risk are honored.
6. The scholarship reported is authentic.
Manuscripts submitted to Discourse must conform to these

guidelines and include language that is inclusive and non-
defamatory.
DEADLINE
The deadline for all submissions for Volume 2 of Discourse: The

Journal of the SCASD (published in Fall 2015) is February 1st,
2015, by midnight. All submissions are to be E-mailed to Karla
Hunter, Editor, Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD,
sdspeechcomm@gmail.com
For more information or assistance with the submission process,

contact the editor by telephone at 605.212.0894, or through the above
email address.
FROM THE EDITOR
Message from the editor

Karla M. Hunter
Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood.

Make big plans, aim high in hope and work,
-Daniel H. Burnham (1846-1912),
principal architect and urban designer
for the cities of Chicago, Manila, and
downtown Washington, D.C.
This premier volume represents the revitalization of South Dakotas journal after a
20-plus year hiatus. It also represents the work of dozens of professionals whose
creative and professional research, writing, critique, editing, consulting and/or
mentorship efforts combine into something greater than any of us could have
created alone. Why did we go to all this trouble?
Pragmatism. Heightened pressure for publication and for graduate and

undergraduate research makes state journals an increasingly attractive outlet for
dissemination of high quality, competitive scholarship; yet only 12 states currently
have active communication journals. By creating another academic outlet and
ensuring that NCAs ethical standards as well as systematic methods of blind peer
review are upheld, we aspire to add both magnitude and value to the body of work
published in our discipline, as a whole.
Service. Of those to whom much is given, much is expected. Our state has a strong
heritage of scholarship that has led many to promising and fulfilling careers. Prolific
communication researchers like James C. McCroskey and Michael Pfau had strong
South Dakota ties in their early scholarly careers. In fact, McCroskeys (1958) first
publication appeared in South Dakotas original journal, and many of Pfaus
adviseesboth undergraduate and graduatepublished their first works under his
mentorship. We are indebted to carry forward the time, talent and tools they gave to
us and to the field of communication.
Impact. Beyond serving as an additional outlet for industrious scholars as well as an

advancement of a powerful legacy of scholarship in our state, it is our hope that the
work in this journal makes a difference. The journal, representative of the
organization that created it, can help bridge gaps that may exist between scholars
and educators in PreK-12 and higher education settings, between speech and
theatre disciplines, and among various theoretical and methodological perspectives.
Discourse strives to connect meaningful content with scholars and teachers of
speech, communication, and performance in a way that will serve each of us
directly, but might also reveal greater symbiosis among us, enhancing our service to
one another and empowering us to strengthen our positive impacts for our
students, our institutions, our communities and beyond.
Invited Article

Note: While this article was written expressly for high school coaches in South Dakota, when viewed
generally, it contains valuable insights and experience that can aid new coaches in any state and at
multiple levels.
Barbara Kleinjan1
Instructor
South Dakota State University
barb.kleinjan@sdstate.edu
As many new English and Speech instructors quickly realize, their first teaching
contract will most certainly include forensic extra-curricular activities. By the simple
virtue of training to become fine arts teachers, administrators and principals may assign
the coaching of Debate, One Act Plays or Oral Interpretation to their contracts, even
though the individual may have had no experience in any of those activities. In my first
secondary school contract, I was required to coach Oral Interpretation, three One Act
Plays and the spring All School Play. My drama background consisted of a knowledge
and appreciation for Shakespeare, yet with no performance experience at all. However,
after my first precarious year of coaching, I became addicted to directing the Oral
Interpretation program. I now look back on my 30 years of coaching Oral Interp as the
most rewarding and memorable experience of my entire teaching career. Oral
Interpretation provides the students the chance to 1) showcase their artistic expression, 2)
learn control over physical and facial expressions, gestures, voice and movement, 3)
better understand literature and the authors purpose and intent, 4) indulge in unlimited
creative possibilities, 5) be competitive by practicing until the character becomes perfect
(or real) and 6) achieve individual and team success. Directing the Sioux Valley High
School (SVHS) Oral Interpretation team in Volga, SD, has been a blessing in disguise
and afforded me with memories of hundreds of outstanding performances.
Setting Up a Program
1Barb Kleinjan coached Oral Interpretation and One Act Plays at the high school level for over 30 years,
beginning at Arlington High School and then for 28 years at Sioux Valley High School in Volga, SD.
During that tenure, her forensic students won 256 State Superior trophies at State Interpretation Festivals,
placed first as a team in the Region Contest for 15 years running and won every team Class A tournament
championship in which they competed for 18 consecutive years. Dozens of her students later starred in
Midwest collegiate forensic or theatrical performances. Presently, Barb is a Communication and Studies
Instructor at South Dakota State University where she continues to teach interpretation and readers
theater in her Honors Communication courses. She has received the Honors College Teacher of the Year
award and has also been selected as Alpha Lambda Delta Teacher of the Year. Just recently her Honors
Readers Theatre teams returned from the National Collegiate Honors Conference after receiving Drama
Master Class Showcase awards.
The following steps form a brief introductory guideline for establishing an Oral
Interpretation program in your school district. Most importantly, read every word of the
South Dakota State High School Activities Association (SDHSAA) Speech Handbook or
similar materials provided by your state carefully. If you have questions, immediately
contact the SDHSAA office in Pierre, SD, (or similar associations within your state
departments of education) or feel free to call or email any coaches listed in the
handbook.
#1 Go to the South Dakota High School Activities website or the equivalent site for
your state site and print the entire Speech handbook. If your state does not have
such materials, please feel free to utilize our resources and contact our
organization to help you get started in setting up your own.
http://www.sdhsaa.com/finearts/speech/speechmain.asp
Read every explanation, by-law and rule in the Oral Interpretation section.
Make a copy and keep in a binder during practices until you have the rules
memorized. Otherwise, your lack of knowledge, understanding, or abiding by of
the state regulations may force judges to disqualify your students during a
tournament.
#2 From the same website print the contest dates section, district or regional
alignments, general rules of participation, and all online forms.
#3 Check with your school administrators to confirm scheduled contests and budget
limitations (setting up these processes will be discussed more fully in a later
section). Also, be sure to schedule school busing/transportation on the contest
dates.
#4 Attend a state scheduled and sanctioned rules meeting. The list of available sites
and dates are found in the Speech handbook.
http://www.sdhsaa.com/finearts/speech/speechmain.asp
Head coaches must attend or the school will be assessed a fee. Take your rules
binder with you to the meeting as certain guidelines and expectations will be
clarified.
#5 Attend the Speech Communication Association of South Dakota (SCASD) or your

states equivalent state meeting. SCASDs annual meeting is usually held the
second Friday and Saturday of September. Two rules meetings will be held
during the convention and many excellent workshops on coaching forensic
activities will be available. http://www.scasd.k12.sd.us/speecon.html
#6 Organize an Oral Interpretation sign up meeting for your students. At that

meeting review significant rule/guideline changes, announce when practices will
begin and available time slots, review team goals, fill out individual information
and goals sheets, select performance categories, formulate readers theatre teams
and hand out a schedule of all tournaments and contests.
#7 Contact the SDHSAA http://www.scasd.k12.sd.us/speecon.html or your states

high school activities association for the name of your district or region
chairperson. Then email that person and introduce yourself. The chair will need
your contact information to keep you updated on the district or region contest
preparations.
#8 Return necessary forms by given deadlines. In South Dakota, this means returning
the Intent to Participate form to the SDHSAA in Pierre, SD, by the deadline
listed on the schedule. Be sure to indicate participation in all seven categories of
Interp. Failure to do so will affect the number of students allowed to compete at
the State Oral Interpretation Festival in December. Study the formula used to
advance students to the state tournament provided in the Speech handbook.
#9 Note the deadline dates for entry in the various contests. All approved
tournaments are listed in the Speech handbook. Generally, all entries must be
submitted a week in advance of the contest. Read all tournament rules carefully.
Each interper may enter only two events. Entries may be sent in via fax, email,
mail or through the Joy of Tournaments website.
http://www.joyoftournaments.com/. Most invitational directors include pages of
specific instructions on all details of the contest. Read and follow all directions
carefully to avoid causing a situation which could harm your teams chances of
success.
#10 Carefully calculate all students entry fees and judging fees. These must be paid
upon arrival at the tournament. Most high schools require a signed purchase order
with all costs detailed at least a week in advance. At every contest you will need
to hire judges (1 judge per 5 entries) from the tournament director or from within
your own system. Be sure to include all judging costs. Graduated interpers,
parents, former coaches, drama teachers and college forensic team members may
all be excellent judges. However, give them each a copy of the interpretation
rules and especially note any recent changes. Finally, the best judge is yourself!!
Dont sit and correct papers at a tournament; go out and judge as many categories
as possible. That is the best way to learn, listen to outstanding performance
selections, follow new trends in style and set goals for your own students to
achieve. Judging is one of the best ways to become a good coach.
#10 Begin selecting material, cutting pieces to 10 minutes, writing memorized

introductions and working on understanding characters, movement, vocals,
gestures facial expressions and poise. Oral Interpretation includes the following
categories: Plays, Prose, Non Original Oratory, Duo Interp (two interpers),
Poetry, Humorous, and Readers Theatre (3 to 6 interpers). Each interper may be
in three categories provided that one is Readers Theatre. KNOW THE RULES
AND LIMITATIONS FOR EACH PERFORMANCE CATEGORY. Always
select challenging literature of good literary merit and be aware of your
community standards to avoid possible controversies.
#11 Encourage students to practice with the coaches and at home. Ideally, I want my
interpers to practice 2 to 3 half-hour slots per category per week with the coaches.
Sioux Valleys practice schedule runs from 7:15 to 8:15 each morning and 5:00 to
10:00 each night and from 9:00 to 6:00 every free Saturday. I have an assistant
coach and usually have 40 interpers on the team. Almost every SVHS interper
performs in at least two events.
#12 Attend as many tournaments as possible before the elimination contests. At each
tournament, the students will perform their selections three times to three different
judges through Rounds 1, 2, and 3. At the end of Round 3, results are tabulated
and the top six interpers from each category will enter Finals. Those interpers will
then perform one more time in front of three judges for the final placing. At the
end of the tournament, the coach will receive the judging sheets and individual
rankings for each round. It is very important to carefully review the comments
and rankings with each interper to promote growth and improvement. Also,
encourage your students to share their evaluations with their parents.
#13 Proper attire helps performance rankings. While the students may not gear
specific costumes to their characters, dressing professionally impresses judges and
lets them know that you have prepared all aspects of your presentation. Do not
wear blue jeans, tennis shoes, flip flops, sandals or tight or ill-fitting clothing.
Most importantly, your attire should not detract from your performance (wildly
colored hair, extreme nail polish, extreme make-up, excessive jewelry, hair in
eyes, dark glasses, etc.) Many interpers wear dark colored clothing to minimize
distractions for the judge. Care about your appearance and understand that it
reflects your poise and self-confidence. In Readers Theatre the students may
dress in similar colors or fashion, but still may not costume.
#14 None of the seven categories of Oral Interpretation may be memorized

performances. All students must use a selection either placed in a binder or on
black paper or upon a music stand. There are no size restrictions; however the
physical manuscript of the selection must be referred to, yet not distracting.
#15 Local Elimination Contest. This process may vary from school to school. Since
the District and Regional contests only allow one entry per the seven categories of
Oral Interp, Sioux Valley hosts an in-house showcase/contest for our competitors
parents and our community, while also hiring judges to select which performance
in each category will advance to the Class A regional contest. We normally have
4 to 5 interpers in every category (sometimes up to 12 in Duo Interp) who have
been competing all season together at the invitational contests which permit
several entries per category. While that multiple entry process ensures team
success and sweepstakes trophy points, it certainly makes this contest a pressure
filled event. Once the final region entries are selected, the students name,
category, selection, author, and all publishing information (except Readers
Theatre which may be scripted by the students) must be sent to the region chair
and to the SDHSAA by the listed deadline in the Speech Handbook. Your local
contest must be scheduled before that deadline. Read the rules carefully.
#16 From the District contest through the Region, the competition format changes.
During these contests the students will perform only once before three judges
(who are all either highly respected high school coaches or college drama and
interp directors). The students are given a rank by each judge (but no rating),
which is then placed in a formula to announce which contestants will advance to
the state festival. (During the invitational tournament season, the performers are
given both a numerical rank and a rating: superior, excellent, good or fair.)
At the State Festival, the students again perform once before three judges, but are
now given a rating, but not a rank. If the interper is granted two superior ratings,
he or she will receive a Superior trophy and recognition during the final awards.
The region chairperson will inform you a few days in advance about contest costs
for both the region and state level.
#17 Post Season Awards. We host an awards night for our Oral Interpers and give out
over 50 plaques which include the following: Most Outstanding Interper, MVPs
per category, Most Improved, Tournament Finalists (which can sometimes be
over 30 plaques), Double Event State Awards, Readers Theatre plaques, Four-
Year Interp awards and team awards. This ceremony not only recognizes the
diligence, effort and talents of your team, but allows parents and community
members to see how successful your students have been as individuals and as a
team. As a coach this is one of the most important items to complete if you wish
your program to grow and attract other talented students within your school
district.
#18 Budgeting for the Next Year. First, determine which contests your team may
participate in without scheduling conflicts with other activities. At Sioux Valley
our budgets and purchase orders are usually due to our principals in March of the
preceding year. Here is how our budget is listed.
a. New plays, novels, poetry and script material as needed: $300

b. Binders for manuscripts: $60
c. Supplies for the Local Contest: $75
d. Award plaques and trophies: $550
e. Drama pins: $30
f. Speech Convention expenses for 2 coaches:
hotel, meals, dues, mileage $337
g. Student entry fees for 7 contests x 40 students: $1250
h. Judging Fees for 8 contests (includes Local Contest): $2375
i. Meals for coaches and students at the State Festival: $488
j. Hotels for the State Festival: $948
k. State entry fees: $110
l. Gas money and van rental for State Festival: $500
m. Busing costs: To be determined by the Business Manager

n. Coaching salaries To be determined by contracts
Our average budget is approximately $7700 for the program per year (without
coaching salaries)
*The budget is largely based on the size of your team. This is a 40 member team
budget. If you have fewer participants, the actual expenses may be reduced
significantly.
#19 Attend the spring Speech Advisory committee meeting or your states equivalent
(South Dakotas is held in Pierre each April). At that meeting you will learn about
possible rule changes, selection of judges for the State Festival, potential
controversies and be allowed to give your input on any suggested changes. Stay
informed and good luck!
Invited Article

Joshua N. Westwick2
Assistant Professor
Joshua.Westwick@sdstate.edu
During the 2013 Speech Communication Association of South Dakota annual

conference, there was a lively discussion surrounding students Public Speaking Anxiety
(PSA). During the dialogue, numerous strategies on how to help reduce students
speaking anxiety were discussed. However, I was surprised at the number of suggestions
that refuted tested and proven strategies for PSA reduction. Moreover, I was startled and
dismayed to hear comments such as I have just given up and allowed my students to
read from a manuscript or the only way I can get [my students] to stay calm is when I
allow them to write as many keywords on multiple notecards as they need. These
instructors felt strongly that these were the most effective procedures to help their
students cope with their speaking anxiety.
I share a different perspective; based on the abundance of literature on PSA
reduction and successful strategies used within the curriculum at my institution, I posit
that the tactics referenced above are not necessarily the best practices for helping students
cope with their PSA. The aforementioned instructors, while certainly well-meaning, were
not necessarily helping their students cope with their anxiety. Rather, they suggested
strategies that overlooked PSA reduction and/or prohibited an opportunity for students to
reduce their anxiety and increase their public speaking competency. I sympathize with
these instructors as their methods were similar to those that I used early in my teaching
career. Yet, through the years, I have utilized numerous strategies which have proven
successful in reducing my students anxiety about speaking in public. Grounded in
instructional implications and empirical research, this essay offers practical strategies for
new and seasoned public speaking instructors to help their students face their speaking
fears head-on and reduce their PSA.
Public Speaking Anxiety
Public Speaking Anxiety is a construct which extends from communication

apprehension. McCroskey (1977) defined Communication Apprehension (CA) as an
individual's level of fear or anxiety associated with real or anticipated communication
2 Joshua N. Westwick, Ed.D., is an Assistant Professor of Communication Studies and Theatre and
Director of the Basic Communication Course at South Dakota State University. In addition to teaching the
basic course, he teaches General Communication, Small Group Communication, and Instructional
Methods. His research interests include instructional communication, communication apprehension, and
the basic course. His research has been published in Communication Education, the Basic Course Annual,
and several state journals.
with another person or persons (p. 28). Communication Apprehension can take many
forms including its most common component-- PSA (McCourt, 2007). Bodie (2010)
defined PSA as a situation-specific social anxiety that arises from the real or anticipated
enactment of an oral presentation (Bodie, 2010, p. 72). Research has suggested that 20
to 30 percent of students experience debilitating levels of speaking anxiety (McCroskey,
1977). Despite the significant presence of speaking anxiety, a vast amount of research has
focused on mechanisms designed to reduce individuals PSA. Below, I will describe three
of the most common treatment methods and provide practical implications illustrating
how PSA reduction can be incorporated into public speaking instruction.
Coping with Anxiety in the Classroom
Exposure Therapy
According to Finn, Sawyer, and Schrodt (2009) graduated exposure involves

presenting [students] with a threatening stimulus for short periods of time ranging from a
few seconds to a few minutes, depending on the noxiousness of the stimulus (p. 95).
This type of anxiety treatment can be infused into course design by creating increasingly-
challenging speaking experiences throughout the course. This type of exposure therapy
is a critical element in building competence as well as confidence in public speaking
(McCroskey, Ralph, & Barrick, 1970). Thus, structuring assignments which increase in
length and difficulty over the semester can help reduce students fear of public speaking.
Start with short speeches using limited research requirements and build to more lengthy
presentations with numerous resources. This technique allows students to progressively
build their confidence over the course of a semester. Moreover, each time a student
delivers a speech or discusses his or her topic, ideas, or source material with the
instructor or other students, the student is utilizing this type of repeated exposure
therapy. On presentation days, save enough time at the end of the lesson to allow the
students to provide positive comments and critiques of one another. This type of exposure
helps to diminish the negative connotations associated with public speaking. Exposure
therapy is effective, and its impact can be maximized if used in conjunction with other
techniques for reducing PSA, such as cognitive modification and skills training.
Cognitive Modification
Cognitive modification is based on the assumption that PSA manifests itself from
negative or unfounded thoughts about public speaking (Allen, Hunter, & Donohue,
1989). Bodie (2010) asserts that [cognitive modification] procedures attempt to replace
problematic public speaking cognitions with more positive views of public speaking and
the self as a public speaker (p. 87). Although traditional cognitive modification requires
a trained therapist (Glogower, Fremouw, & McCroskey, 1978), elements of this treatment
technique can be included within a public speaking course. For example, instructors can
teach their students to self-identify negative or irrational feelings about speaking anxiety
and encourage the students to replace those thoughts with positive attitudes. Additionally,
strengths-based instructor feedback on speech presentations can help eliminate students
negative perceptions of public speaking. Moreover, reading and discussing public
speaking anxiety can offer the students a new, positive perspective on public speaking.
These elements of cognitive modification were successfully tested by Fremouw & Scott
(1979). Additionally, Booth-Butterfield & Booth-Butterfield (2004) asserted that students
should engage in realistic thinking that acknowledges the existence of anxiety and
encourages students to view anxiety issues through a strengths-based perspective. For
example instructors might say although you indicated you were nervous, you were able
to cope with your nervousness by providing clear organization and fluid delivery.
Cognitive modification can be extended through instructor feedback by providing
positive, supportive feedback with the performance evaluation. By identifying two or
three strengths for each constructive comment or limitation, instructors can help build
student confidence and increase students perceptions of PSA.
Skills Training
Whitworth and Cochran (1996) posited that skills training reduces the ambiguity
of the public speaking situation by providing knowledge and techniques necessary for
effective public speaking (p. 308). Skills training is the most commonly used form of
PSA treatment (Robinson, 1997); yet this type of anxiety treatment is not as effective as
exposure therapy or cognitive modification in terms of anxiety reduction (Allen et al.,
1989). Nonetheless, developing speaking competence through skill development within
the public speaking course is important to the reduction of PSA (Adler, 1980; Kelly,
1997). To decrease students anxiety in the classroom instructors should utilize structured
and unstructured assignments to allow flexibility for anxious and non-anxious students
(Booth-Butterfield, 1986). Other skills-based techniques suggest the use of numerous
short assignments (Beatty, 1988), dedicated work periods for speech development
(Behnke & Sawyer, 2000), and creating opportunities for post-speech reflection (Witt et
al., 2006). Moreover, I have found success through classroom discussion, textbook
readings, and incrementally-increasing the level of difficulty for the assignments
presented. The skills training techniques described above can provide significant
assistance in increasing students competence and decreasing their speaking anxiety.
When utilized together, exposure therapy, cognitive modification, and skills
training can have a significant impact on anxiety reduction. Hunter, Westwick, and
Haleta (2014) assessed the impact of this triangulated anxiety treatment and found a 10
percent decrease in students PSA from the beginning of the course to the end of the
course. Their findings illustrated that, through careful course development and design, it
is possible to provide students with positive and challenging classroom experiences
which aid in competency development and the reduction of speech anxiety. The PSA
treatments described above have proved beneficial to public speaking instructors who
sought to decrease their students PSA through course design and meaningful student-
learning experiences. For more information on the study by Hunter et al. (2014) visit
http://www.natcom.org/CommCurrentsArticle.aspx?id=5014.
Assessment
Assessment is a critical component in measuring the effectiveness of our

instructional practices (McCroskey, 2007) and can assist instructors who seek to improve
their instructional methods (Morreale, Backlund, Hay, & Moore, 2011). Regardless of the
pedagogical choices you make regarding student PSA reduction, it is necessary to assess
and evaluate the effectiveness of those choices. There are numerous useful resources for
assessing student growth and development related to public speaking and communication
skill development. Hunter et al. (2014) utilized McCrokseys (1970) Personal Report of
Public Speaking Anxiety (PRPSA) which measures levels of speaking anxiety through a
34-item Likert-type instrument. There are many other instruments which can be utilized
to measure PSA. Bodie (2010) provided a meta-analysis of PSA research, treatments and
assessments. Many of these instruments described in the meta-analysis allow instructors
to assess changes in speaking anxiety. Lastly, Morreale and Backlund (2007) reflected on
many different types of assessment measures in Large Scale Assessment in Oral
Communication: K-12 and Higher Education. Each of these resources will prove useful,
not only to those with a vast amount of assessment experience, but to those who are
looking to begin assessment of their course and student learning outcomes.
Conclusion
Helping students cope with their speaking anxiety remains a critical concern for
K-12 and higher education communication instructors. Although there are many different
strategies which can be used to reduce students anxiety through a public speaking
course, exposure therapy, cognitive modification, and skills training have proven to be
successful through tested and validated empirical research. By incorporating these
anxiety-reduction strategies into course design, instructors at all levels of instruction can
provide a positive learning experience which reduces public speaking anxiety and
develops students communication competency. Regardless of whether you are new to
the communication classroom or have many years of experience, the practical strategies
discussed within this essay offer a refreshed lens through which instructors can extend
opportunities for student success in their courses.
References
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female public speakers. Communication Education, 49, 187-195.
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RESEARCH ARTICLES

Rick Malleus, PhD3

Assistant Professor
Seattle University
malleusr@seattleu.edu
Abstract
This study explored student campus cell phone use by asking What are students on
campus doing with their cell phones? One hundred and ninety-one student volunteers
completed a qualitative questionnaire. Viewed through a uses and gratifications lens,
results suggest student cell phone use on campus meets several different needs.
Respondents reported that cell phones make their lives easier, but their attitudes toward
campus cell phone use mix positive and negative valence. They stated that being
connected in various campus spaces to friends, immediate family, and university
personnel was important to gratifying their needs. Nearly half of the respondents reported
faking communication on cell phones helps meet the need for avoidance. The
implications for these findings are discussed.
Keywords: cell phone, student, uses and gratifications, college campus, mobile phone
Introduction
By 2004, texting and mobile phone use had already overshadowed traditional
voice calls (Ling, 2004; Avidar, Ariel, Malka & Levy, 2013) and the use of cell phones
including smart phones has continued to rise, with approximately 46 billion smart phone
apps downloaded in 2012 alone (PortioResearch, 2013). On college campuses today, cell
phones have moved beyond being a mere technical device to becoming a key social
object present in every aspect of a users life (Srivastava, 2005, p. 111). There has been
tremendous growth in the number of cell phone users and in the technological advances
of cell phone capabilities over the last decade (Bakke, 2010). Cell phones, it can be
argued, are now part of the American culture (Engel and Green, 2011), with texting
having been found to be a major communication activity of young Americans (Rosen,
Chang, Erwin, Carrier and Cheever, 2010). As such, it is important for communication
researchers to examine how this rapidly developing technology is being used.
3 Rick Malleus (PhD, University of Minnesota) is a Zimbabwean serving as an assistant professor in the
Communication Department at Seattle University. His specialization is in Intercultural
Communication. He teaches a variety of courses in his department as well as for the Global African
Studies program at Seattle University, including Intercultural Communication, Foundations of Social
Interaction, Africa and Communication and a Communication Research Seminar. Malleus research and
publishing interests include a focus on mediated communication in the Southern African region,
intercultural reentry and cross-cultural comparison in technology use.
Literature Review
Uses and Gratifications Perspective
The uses and gratifications perspective asks the basic question Why do people
become involved in one particular type of mediated communication, and what
gratifications do they receive from it? (Ruggiero, 2000, p. 29). Katz, Blumler and
Gurevitch (1974) emphasized the role of the individual in media use as being critical to
the uses and gratifications perspective, examining what people do with media. They
suggested that there are four main assumptions of the uses and gratifications perspective:
1) Individual media use is active and goal-directed; 2) Motivated choices are based on
previous media experience; 3) Media choices are purposive in order to satisfy felt needs
and desires; and 4) Media compete with other sources of individual need satisfaction.
This perspective allows for the discovery of how an individual uses a particular
medium (McQuail, 1994). A uses and gratifications analysis can help explain what user
desires and needs a given medium is capable of meeting (Anderson & Meyer, 1975) and
helps provide a framework for understanding the motivations for a mediums use in order
to gratify user needs, allowing for recognition of both positive and negative consequences
of the use of each different form of media (Rubin, 1994).
Media use of increasingly complex telecommunication technology at the turn of
the twenty-first century had already revived the application of and interest in the uses and
gratifications perspective (Ruggiero, 2000). This perspective is useful for application to
dynamic technologies, like smart phones. A dynamic technology is one in which new
products enter the market in rapid succession, and the competitive situation changes
almost daily (Bridges, Yim & Briesch, 1995, p. 61). The uses and gratifications
approach to scholarship provides an insight-provoking lens through which to view smart
phone use because goal-directed behaviors (behaviors with specific, intended outcomes)
are inherent in such media.
The uses and gratifications view gains further utility given the varied potential
audiences possible with smart phone technology, which range from interpersonal to mass
communication, depending upon whether one is texting, emailing, posting to a social
media site or website, blogging, or even writing and submitting a story for the news
media. Since current cell phone technology presents users with more choice and
potentially more motivation for use/satisfaction from use than any previous technology
(PortioResearch, 2013), it provides a ripe area for analysis through the lens of the uses
and gratifications paradigm (Avidar et al., 2013).
Campus Cell Phone Research
Previous research has explored cell phone use in the classroom (Campbell, 2006;
Campbell & Russo, 2003; End et al., 2010; Gilroy, 2004; Hammer et al., 2010; Wei &
Leung, 1999). Kelly et al. (2012) discussed uses and rationales for texting on campus,
and scholarship has investigated further the influence of texting on writing skill (Rosen,
et al., 2010), and on perceptions of safety on campus (Nasar, Hecht & Wener, 2007).
Particularly positive uses for on-campus texting such as to aid smoking cessation (Riley,
Obermayer & Jean-Mary, 2008) and to support student transitions to university life
(Harley, et al., 2007) have also been explored.
Much campus cell phone research has focused on interpersonal communication.
Decades prior to the inception of cell phone usage, seminal interpersonal scholarship by
Schutz (1966) stated that inclusion, affection and control were the three basic human
needs fulfilled by interpersonal communication, in general. Of those three, affection and
inclusion were found to provide major interpersonal motivations for students to call and
to text (Jin & Park, 2010). Katz and Aarkus (2002) examined how cell phones actually
created the potential for new forms of interpersonal intimacy and distancing, as well as
different ways to cooperate and engage in conflict. Romantic college partners cell phone
use was investigated (Jin & Pena, 2010) with Duran, Kelly and Rotaru (2011) examining
their autonomy-connection tension.
Lee, Meszaros, and Colvin, (2009) identified three kinds of cell phone users on
campus and their attachment to parents. Walsh and White (2006) reported that students
often interrupt face-to-face conversations to answer a call or read a text, but less often to
reply to a text message. Turkle (2010) claims current cell phone users would rather text
than make a voice call because texting is more efficient and less risky.
Rationale and Research Questions
Few studies investigate with whom students are communicating on their cell
phones (Lee, Mesaros & Colvin, 2009). Questions about the ease and level of
connectivity, different role enactment in various spaces, and the influence of the
portability of cell phones (Rosen, 2004; Rule, 2002; Turkle, 2008; Leung &Wei, 2000)
all remain to be further explored on campus. Kelly et al. (2012) called for further research
on American student cell phone use that focuses on channel choice and uses diverse
samples. These authors added that relatively few cell phone studies are published in
communication journals (Kelly et al., 2012).
Through a uses and gratifications study of student cell phone use on one
American college campus, this research adds to the available knowledge on student cell
phone use and addresses some of the gaps and concerns identified above. The
overarching question guiding this work is as follows: What are students on campus
doing with their cell phones? To answer this question, four specific research questions
guided the study:
RQ1: How prevalent is student cell phone use on campus?
RQ2: How are individual students using their cell phones to communicate on
campus to meet their needs?
RQ3: Who are students communicating with on campus using their cell phones?
RQ4: What are students perceptions of how cell phone use on campus is meeting
general student needs?
Method
Instrument
A 21-item questionnaire was administered to the study participants. The

questionnaire had both open and close ended questions, with questions arranged to
establish cell phone use in general, then cell phone use that was campus-specific--open
ended questions first to get respondents answers without overtly biasing them--and then
Likert-type questions that asked for rankings. The last question collected demographic
data. Four examples of open-ended questions are given below:
Q7. Who do you communicate with on your cell phone while on campus? Please be
specific, but do not provide peoples names (e.g., classmate, librarian, etc.).
Q8. What functions/capabilities do you use on your cell phone while on campus? Please
be specific.
Q9. What is the least useful function on your cell phone for campus use? Please explain
your answers clearly.
Q19. Overall, do you see student cell phone use on campus as positive, negative, or
neutral? Please explain your answer clearly.
This article reports the analysis of qualitative data collected from the open-ended
questions.
Sample
The questionnaire was administered as a pen and paper survey to a convenience

sample of 191 student volunteers from 27 majors. One-hundred-twenty-six respondents
were female, 65 were male. The average age of respondents was 21.26 years with a
range of twenty years (17-37). Ninety of the students self-identified as white, 36 as
Asian, 16 Bi-racial, 10 Black, 10 Hispanic, 16 Other and 13 did not provide information
with regard to their race.
Coding Procedure
Two independent coders (the researcher and a trained undergraduate student)

engaged in inductive thematic analysis with the desired outcome of reaching data
saturation from the answers to the nine open-ended questions. In other words, each of the
coders went through every piece of data to identify categories and group the data by those
themes or categories until all data were gone through and no new categories were
observed. For example, in response to question seven, students listed many different
types of people they communicated with on campus using their cell phones, and the
coders independently grouped those data into eighteen categories, differentiating, for
instance, immediate family from extended family. Then, in multiple face-to-face coding
sessions, the coders compared their results. When coding data with regard to question
nineteen (about the valence students placed on campus cell phone use overall) data could
be coded into one of three predetermined categories: negative, neutral, or positive. Once
coding was completed by each individual, differences in coding themes or categories
were resolved by revisiting the disputed data and the coding instructions to determine
optimal answers through discussion.
Results
The trends that were identified for each research question are presented here, and
respondent quotations that support reported trends are provided as examples.
RQ1: How prevalent is student cell phone use on campus? Extremely high use of
cell phones by students was found, with 189 students using and two not using cell phones
on campus. Cell phone use was reported all over campus, for example, between classes,
in the classroom, at meals, in dorm rooms, on campus grounds, and waiting for professors
or for other meetings.
RQ2: How are individual students using their cell phones to communicate on
campus to meet their needs? Students reported sending and receiving texts, making and
receiving calls, social networking, web surfing, and emailing. Texting was the function
most used by students (87%) as well as the most useful (61%) for campus
communication.
Forty-nine percent of students reported pretending to communicate on their cell
phones. Four reasons were identified for this pretense: avoidance, safety, face saving, and
boredom. Avoidance was the only reason reported with substantial frequency (43%).
Respondents used the device to avoid interacting with people they did not want to talk to
on campus, like professors, strangers, strange people, acquaintances, and homeless
people: If I see someone I dont want to talk to approaching in the distance, I might
pretend to be texting to keep my head down or pretend to be on the phone to look busy,
or Awkward situations like riding in an elevator with strangers.
RQ3: Who are students communicating with on campus using their cell phones?
There were 18 different categories of people students reported communicating with on
campus. Friends, university personnel (professors, tutors, department staff), and
immediate family were categories reported by majorities of respondents. Romantic
partners, work personnel, coaches, doctors/dentists, roommates, extended family, and
teammates were other less frequently reported categories.
RQ4: What are students perceptions of how cell phone use on campus is meeting
general student needs? The average respondent estimated the number of students on
campus they perceived as using cell phones was 94%. Students thought cell phones made
their lives easier (61%), with little agreement on the 47 other different ways they
perceived cell phones influence students campus lives (e.g. convenient, better,
faster/more hectic, efficient, fun, more complete, organized and accessible.)
Students perceived multiple uses for the device, with a total of 34 different
categories reported. Of those categories, respondents had some agreement that students
used cell phones on campus to stay connected (34%), to communicate (31%), and to
make their lives easier (30%): We are the generation of technology and we wont give
up the connections technology offers in class or on campus. Our generation has an
obsession with staying connected. Its easy to contact others and easy to get a hold of
someone quickly with a quick text, and They are convenient, its so easy and quick
everyone is on their cell phones.
When asked to place a valence on student campus cell phone use, 51% reported a
neutral evaluation, and tended to provide a mix of positive and negative ideas that
balanced out to an assigned neutral valence: Neutral. If students use the phone as a tool
it is fine. But when people are walking and talking, and not paying attention to their
surroundings, it is annoying. Neutral. I see it in many lights. Overall, I think that cell
phones are distracting and keep people from experiencing what's around them, I also
think they are useful as a means of keeping in touch with family and friends.
Forty-one percent of respondents perceived campus cell phone use as positive,
and frequently mentioned the ease of communication and the idea of connectedness to
people in their lives: Positive. Mobile communication makes life easier, keeps people in
contact with each other no matter where they are, makes life safer, and allows for multi-
tasking. Positive. It co-ordinates social action and allows for more effective time
management and balancing of personal relationships.
Five percent perceived a negative valence to student campus cell phone use, and
reported the idea of distraction as the main drawback to cell phones: Negative. Although
there are certainly benefits to cell phone use, cell phones ultimately distract us from our
studies, and Negative. Because it makes people obsessed with knowing, even
impatient and distracting.
(Three percent of respondents did not place any perceived valence on cell phone use.)
Discussion
Prevalence of Cell Phones
Using cell phones to meet student communication needs is clearly a campus

norm. The data suggested a commonly-held expectation among students that their peers
will use cell phones to communicate with friends and family, but also increasingly with
university personnel and their workplaces while on campus. The implications for students
who do not use cell phones to meet their communication needs on campus are that they
will become an increasingly small, easily identifiable out-group, who will not be able to
connect easily with peers and others, potentially to their detriment socially and perhaps
even academically.
The prevalence of cell phones also poses questions as to how they might be used
for academic purposes. Institutions can be certain that all but a few students will have
access to cell phones on campus. However, their current common use in the classroom
(62%) also poses challenges for instructors as student use of cell phones in the classroom
is not always toward learning-related needs, with other gratifications being satisfied that
detract from learning.
Staying Connected
The cell phone as a means to gratify the need to stay or become socially
connected was seen as key to understanding how students used the medium. This finding
resonates with the aforementioned findings of Jin and Park (2010) who found that
students used cell phones to obtain inclusion and affection, resonant of two of Schutzs
(1966) theory of the three basic human needs fulfilled by interpersonal communication,
in general (inclusion, affection and control). Of those three, affection and inclusion were
found to provide major interpersonal motivations for students to call and to text (Jin &
Park, 2010). Texting was the most preferred channel for meeting this need for
connection. Campus social lives were, in part, maintained by cell phone communication:
making plans with friends, keeping in touch with assigned classroom project small
groups, getting information from their families, and arranging dates.
Can there be too much connection in student lives? Rosen (2004) suggested a
terrible irony if being connected required or encouraged a disconnection from
community life (p. 45). Is using cell phones to stay connected a negative movement
away from real interpersonal communication? Perhaps cell phone use affords students
fulfillment of the third interpersonal needcontrolbut to a level higher than optimal.
Perhaps the level of choice in whether and when to interact that cell phone use (as
opposed to face-to-face encounters) affords, has unintended consequences. The evidence
is not clear. This study builds support for the idea that staying connected through cell
phones and exploring those implications is hard to valence as there are complex layers to
explore.
Cell phones have the characteristics and possibilities of the technologies of
perpetual contact (Rule, 2002, p. 242). The idea of a device used to make contact easy
and constant makes the use of cell phones and their influence on campus communication
worth further exploration. As social scientist Sherry Turkle put it: When technology
brings us to the point where were used to sharing our thoughts and feelings
instantaneously, it can lead to a new dependence, sometimes to the extent that we need
others in order to feel our feelings in the first place (Quoted in Else, 2006, p. 48).
Cell Phones and Campus Spaces
Cell phones, used when students are on the move, allow for the need to
communicate with multiple people in multiple campus spaces to be met. This studys
finding that portability is important to college students supports Leung and Weis (2000)
result that mobility and immediate access were two gratifications gained from cell phone
use. Students in the current study also reported ease of communication as imperative to
them, supporting Rosens (2004) finding that convenience is a powerful reason for their
cell phone use.
Cell phone use seems benign in some campus spaces, for example waiting outside
an office for a meeting. However, is it problematic that more than a third of the
respondents report using cell phones during meals? Do students use phones when they eat
alone, when they eat with friends, or both? Is it acceptable campus communication
behavior to text while eating with friends? Is it a problem that students eating alone
need technological company? Is it an efficient use of communicative time for students
to multi-task? Further investigation of cell phone communication norms developing in
different campus spaces to meet various needs and provide different gratifications is
important to grasp fully their impact on communication and social interaction.
Cell phones allow people to enact roles in spaces that they would not have
enacted before (Turkle, 2008). Respondents implicitly reported that they enact different
roles by reporting on the different people they communicate with on their cell phones in
different spaces on campus. Cell phones allow students to switch roles, in multiple
places, instantly (e.g. a student working in a small group in the library becomes a
roommate when replying to a text from his roommate; a son replies to a text from his
mother, before returning his attention to the group discussion and enacting the student
role again). Further, what needs are tied to each role(s) a person is playing? And whether
or how those needs are gratified in one campus space versus another while on a cell
phone? These are questions the answers to which are unfolding as cell phone use grows
and technological capabilities develop.
Valence
Students clearly articulated their perceptions of how cell phones impact

communication on campus. Cell phones might generally be perceived as positive in
helping students meet their needs on campus. The data reveal, however, that 56% of
students reported that cell phone use overall had either a neutral (51%) or negative (5%)
impact on campus life. Students rating cell phone use as neutral came to this conclusion
by balancing positive and negative consequences of campus cell phone communication as
a result of students meeting their needs in different ways. In other words, there was clear
recognition from a majority of respondents that both positive and negative consequences
result from some cell phone behaviors on campus, as students use the cell phone to obtain
different gratifications. For example, one respondent suggested: It can be positive
(helping students get in touch with each other for studies, catching up with each other),
but also distracting (texting in class, preoccupied). Another respondent wrote: The
effectiveness and benefits wash out the annoyingness and the need to be with a phone as
a form of status.
Is it a positive, negative, or neutral use of a cell phone when a student can call her
mother while walking up the stairs on her way to a classroom to take a difficult exam?
Some might argue that it is good that she can gain support from her mother; others that it
is bad as she should be gaining the need for social support from her classmates who are
walking up the stairs beside her. Still others might suggest that it does not matter how she
gets the need for support gratified. As Rubin (1994) points out, media uses have positive
and negative consequences. It is sometimes difficult to define just how to apply a valence
to cell phones being used to stay connected on campus.
Students also often explicitly discussed the disruptive aspect as the primary
negative attribute to campus cell phone communication. This is an interesting finding that
deserves further exploration as cell phone use on campus continues to show a pattern of
increasing. It would seem important to understand more about what gratifications are
being met that make cell phone use perceived as negative and to find out if the negative
perception of cell phone use was still directly tied to inappropriate needs being met in the
classroom environment as found by Campbell (2006), or if this perception is tied directly
to cell phone use in other campus environments as well.
Avoiding Face-to-Face Communication
Nearly half of the respondents agreed that fake texting or fake calling was a
communicative strategy on campus. Forty-three percent of students pretend to be on the
phone as a means of gratifying the need to avoid communicating with certain people. As
one respondent put it: I always pretend Im texting when I walk by someone I dont
want to talk to, or have small talk with or even acknowledge.
Does this matter? It could be argued that students have been avoiding each other
and their professors for years by avoiding eye contact or turning a corner when they see a
person coming they do not want to talk to. Avoidance of interpersonal communication on
campus might always have been part of the communicative norm for some students. It
can, however, be argued that given the ubiquity of student cell phone use, those who
might not have avoided interpersonal communication in the past might now do so
because it is easier with a cell phone as a tool to achieve that need for avoidance. This
question again raises the issue of Schutzs (1966) concept of the human need for
interpersonal controlis this level of control over interaction, or even the possibility of
interaction, serving students well, poorly or both? Some insight can be shed into that
question when considering the finding that students did not identify friends or family as
those that they avoided by pretending to use their cell phones. Therefore, insofar as
students report in this study, faking communication on the phone was not used to avoid
interpersonal communication with significant people in their lives.
Limitations
Having considered the implications of the results, there are some limitations to the
study that need to be recognized, and one limitation is the methodology used. There is a
limit to the richness of questionnaire data. Other methodologies, like focus groups, might
yield a richer qualitative data set. A second limitation is the gender skew in the sample.
With females making up 66% of the sample, there were substantially more women than
men surveyed, which may have influenced results. A final limitation is that the data was
collected on one campus only; collection of data on multiple campuses in different
geographic settings would identify a fuller range of student cell phone use experiences.
Conclusion
Almost all students use cell phones on campus, in many campus spaces, to satisfy
felt needs and desires. Texting is the primary communicative function used and
considered most useful in meeting students needs. Students perceive having an easy
method of communicating and the idea of being connected as important in meeting their
needs. Some also use cell phones to meet their felt need to avoid communication. Over
half of the students in this study recognized a blend of positive and negative contributions
cell phones make to their lives in providing gratification of their needs, with the majority
agreeing cell phones have a neutral impact on campus communication, overall.
Turkles (2010) words are worth considering as communication researchers strive
to understand the complex layers of how cell phones are used on the college campus to
meet needs and provide gratifications: were really at the very beginning of learning
how to use this technology in ways that are the most nourishing and sustaining. Were
going to slowly find our balance, but I think it is going to take time (p. 24). This study
supports this idea, suggesting complex implications of how students use cell phones to
meet their needs. This complexity is worthy of further investigation toward finding
greater balance in using a device to meet interpersonal needs, while avoiding unintended
negative consequences.
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Interpersonal Rhetoric: An Approach to Bettering Oneself and Others
Anthony M. Wachs, PhD4

Assistant Professor
Northern State University
Anthony.Wachs@northern.edu
Abstract
Although interpersonal interaction is predominantly studied through the lens of

communication studies, the field was originally studied primarily by scholars of rhetoric.
Though this paradigm was instrumental in the founding of interpersonal communication,
interpersonal rhetoric has largely been ignored by the discipline. However, throughout
the last few decades, a few scholars have attempted to reinvigorate the study of
interpersonal communication through the lens of rhetoric. This paper explores the several
key concepts and perspectives within the history of the rhetorical approach to
interpersonal communication, i.e., interpersonal rhetoric.
Key Words: Conversation, Rhetoric, Interpersonal Rhetoric, Interpersonal

Communication, Intrapersonal Communication, Rhetorical Situation, Identity,
Identification, Self, Satisfying Others, Personal Responsibility, and Persuasion
Introduction
The formal study of interpersonal communication is a relatively young academic

pursuit. In spite of its youth, sundry perspectives concerning interpersonal
communication exist. Interpersonal communication has been studied through the lenses
of positivistic social science, symbolic interaction, dialogic philosophy, and theories of
dialectics. However, interpersonal communication is rarely studied from a rhetorical
perspective. This situation is interesting given that interpersonal communication was
primarily studied in its foundations by rhetoricians (Ayres, 1984, p. 418). Eventually, the
rhetorical approach to interpersonal communication began to be neglected by scholars,
and interpersonal interaction would be studied using the methods of positivistic social
science. Eventually, it redeveloped as an alternative to approaches grounded upon
behaviorism and humanistic psychology, though interpersonal interaction has yet to truly
become a viable paradigm of the study of interpersonal communication. This is
regrettable since the approach provides valuable insight into interpersonal
communication and relationships. Harden Fritz (2005) summarized interpersonal rhetoric
as being orderly, goal-directed, strategic, reciprocal, responsive, situationally-sensitive,
identity-implicative communicative exchange (p. 38). In other words, the approach is
concerned with advocating personal responsibility for the bettering of oneself and society
4
Anthony M. Wachs (PhD, Duquesne University) is an Assistant Professor of Communication Studies at
Northern State University. He has taught Introduction to Speech, Persuasion, Rhetoric of Technology,
Small Group Communication, Organizational Communication, and Intercultural Communication. His
research interests focus on rhetoric, the classical and medieval trivium, aesthetics, philosophy of
communication, and media ecology.
through intentionally influencing others rhetorically. In order to understand this approach

to interpersonal interaction, the reasons for its lack of use are explored, and then different
perspectives of interpersonal rhetoric are examined.
Unneeded Division
The primary reason rhetoric has not been utilized for studying interpersonal
interaction is because of the methodological disputes within our field of study (Ayres,
1984). One of the results of the disciplinary disputes between rhetoricians and
communication scholars was that communication scholars staked a claim on the
interpersonal area and rhetoricians turned to other pursuits (Ayres, 1984, p. 420). One of
the most recent articles to be written on interpersonal rhetoric, written by Harden Fritz
(2005), specifically explores reasons why rhetoric was largely ignored in interpersonal
communication. In her article, Contributions of Gerald M. Phillips to Interpersonal
Communication, Harden Fritz (2005) offered similar reasons why interpersonal rhetoric
has not prospered in the field. The first reason was that other approaches were moving the
discipline in different directions: the rhetorical approach eclipsed by alignment of the
three coordinates of philosophical, quantitative, and social approaches (Harden Fritz,
2005, p. 38). Second, at the time the approach was developing, much of the discipline
was preoccupied with a debate over methodology (Harden Fritz, 2005, p. 40).
However, the methodological dispute between scholars of rhetoric and
communication was founded upon a false dichotomy. Arnold (1972), in his article,
Rhetorical and Communication Studies: Two Worlds or One, called for an end to the
dispute between rhetoricians and social scientists. Arnold (1972) argued that the dispute
was illogical and [led] to parochialism in thinking about our research (p. 77). The
deliberate focus of attention upon method, instead of theoretical commonality, had begun
to undermine actual scholarship because the focus upon methodology [distracted]
scholars from focusing on what needs discovery and from where one must go to find
out (Arnold, 1972, p. 77). Rhetorical and communication studies should not only be able
to co-exist, but in some ways they can assist one another since their object of study is
relatively the same. Along these lines, Ayers (1984) anticipated the rhetorical approach
would develop a more prominent research profile as scholars in the approach establish
their credentials (p. 422). Contrary to Ayress intuition about interpersonal rhetorics
increased development, it experienced relatively little growth within the discipline.
One additional reason why interpersonal rhetoric may not have flourished can be
found in the interpersonal rhetoric literature itself. Several interpersonal rhetoric scholars
were defensive about the use of rhetoric and the persuasion of other persons. Hart and
Burks (1972) questioned prevalent assumptions by asking:
Is it so shameful in an ordinary human encounter to attempt effortfully to
make the interaction come off, to achieve practical gain, or to strengthen
an interpersonal bond? Is it inappropriate to choose carefully among
alternative strategies so that my words will have the greatest social impact
possible? (p. 90)
Along these lines, Phillips (1976) had to argue against the assumptions of humanistic
psychology. He stated that, whatever happens in the humanistics utopia, it is immoral if
it happens as a result of any human trying to make it happen (p. 13). Concerning goal
centeredness, Phillips and Metzger (1976) stated that, Many people would prefer to
believe that we really do not have any [goals in intimate communication] (p. 14).
Ambrester and Strause (1984) also defended the word rhetoric, against a clear, negative
bias in public perception. They argued that, rhetoric is not a process of deception as it
has been labeled by the press in the United States. . . . The implications of these
statements [made by the press] are that rhetoric is the art/science of deception (p. 26).
Clearly, as witnessed by scholars initial defensiveness in developing their perspectives,
interpersonal rhetoric may have not prospered because of prevailing attitudes against
rhetoric and persuasion. In summary, if scholars and practitioners of interpersonal
interaction are able to move past methodological differences and not be leery of
influencing or persuading others, then interpersonal rhetoric can be an effective approach
to understanding interpersonal interactions. With this in mind, the following sections
present several approaches to interpersonal rhetoric.
Conversational Etiquette as Interpersonal Rhetoric
In one of the first formal examinations of interpersonal interaction within the field
of communication, Ewbank (1964) studied the use of rhetorical principles as a basis for
bettering ones skills in the art of social conversation within etiquette manuals of the
early nineteenth century. Instead of using rhetoric to argue with or persuade others,
rhetoric was a means to advance in society by pleasing the Other (Ewbank, 1964, p.
8). Ewbank (1964) quoted one etiquette manual from 1839, Advice to a Young Gentleman
on Entering Society, as saying:
The ordinary conversation of society . . . should have for its object, in the
mind of every intelligent and well-bred man, mainly, the giving of
pleasure to the individual conversed with, and the imparting of a high
notion and esteem of the party speaking . . . . It becomes, therefore, the
principle study of the man of the world to give pleasure,in the largest
and most comprehensive sense of the word,by his conversation to those
with whom he mingles. (p. 7)
Clearly, the author of this manual is concerned with conversationalists being skilled in
the creation of enjoyable interpersonal interaction through conversation that is pleasing to
others.
More specifically, Ewbank (1964) showed that the etiquette manuals utilized the
five classical canons of rhetoric (invention, disposition, style, delivery, and memory) as
the means to producing enjoyable conversation. Of the five canons, invention, or the
canon of discovering arguments and speech material, was focused upon the most
(Ewbank, 1964, p. 7). Invention had two sources for topics of conversation: reading
books and listening to others. First, the etiquette manuals advised the young to read books
for sources of conversation because books would provide an eminently desirable
alternative to gossip about friends and everyday living which could hardly escape from
violating the laws of charity or of truth (Ewbank, 1964, p. 7). Additionally,
conversation about books was advised because it was an alternative to talking about
oneself, which inevitably makes a person less credible in the eyes of others (Ewbank,
1964, p.9). The second source of invention was listening to superior conversationalists so
as to learn topics of conversation. Young readers were advised about the need to listen
in order to accumulate new information rather than spending lavishly from ones own
meager resources (Ewbank, 1964, p. 8). Listening was also considered to be a
prophylactic of disputes that may arise in conversation because more effort expended in
comprehension and less in advancing ones own arguments would tend to avoid
unwanted disputes (Ewbank, 1964, p. 9). In effect, disputes were considered disruptive
of the social process and the instigators and participants of disputes were not enjoyable
conversationalists. Consequently, sources of dispute were frowned upon because they
hampered a young persons ability to advance socially.
The other four canons were important during this time, but they were not
emphasized as much as invention. Disposition, or the arrangement of ideas, took the
form of suggestions that ones conversation should be adapted to the company and the
occasion (Ewbank, 1964, p. 8). In a sense, disposition in this form is akin to
attentiveness to the rhetorical situation, i.e., recognizing that certain situations call forth
different discourses. Style was one of the surest signs of good breeding, and on account
of this, the youth were cautioned against the use of exaggeration and slang (Ewbank,
1964, p. 9). As for delivery, a pleasant, sincere delivery was encouraged, necessitating
cultivation of the voice, diction, and control over bodily movement (Ewbank, 1964, p.
9). Finally, memorization of poems, extracts from speeches, etc., was commended
because it would not only exercise the memory but improve use of language (Ewbank,
1964, p. 9). In effect, the canons of rhetoric were used as a means to allow a person to
advance in society by making oneself an enjoyable interpersonal communicator.
The use of rhetoric concerning conversation was interpersonal communication
even though it was not formally called such. In the late 1950s and early 1960s,
rhetoricians continued to study interpersonal communication under the guise of
conversation. Scholars at this time focused on formalizing the study of conversation. E.S.
Oliver (1958), in The Art of Conversation, wrote about stumbling blocks in
conversation. He likened the life of conversation to the fragility of plant life and noted
that, In any human situation centering on conversation some one person may so interfere
as to seriously handicap or entirely stifle the normal flow of ideas and the bringing of
mens wit and comprehension to bear upon them (1958, p. 3). Likewise, R.T. Oliver
(1961b) developed several rules that a good conversationalist should follow in order to
promote good conversations. However, he argued that these rules are not to be strictly
followed and that the conversationalist must be cognizant of situations in which the rules
ought to be broken. Though neither of the two Olivers used the classical, rhetorical
language that Ewbank had focused upon, there remains an emphasized concern with
invention, or topic choice, within their analyses of good conversation. More importantly,
they were concerned with understanding how a person could intentionally control a
conversation for the sake of personal betterment. Effectively, interpersonal
communication, under the guise of conversation, was being studied in rhetorical terms
even though the emphasis was not on persuasion.
In addition to understanding how conversation can be used to advance socially,
conversation was studied for its formative effects upon personality. In his article entitled,
Conversation and Personality, R.T. Oliver (1960) posited that conversation shapes who
a person is. He argued that, Conversation is less a technique than a way of life. As you
talk, so you are. . . . Your conversation is you [emphasis added] (pp. 1-2). Olivers
approach to conversation was, interestingly, focused upon an attention to the rhetorical
situation and the Other. He noted that, to converse basically means to turn toward.
Conversation is a process of turning, of adaptation, of fitting in. It requires a flexible
character and a plastic mind (Oliver, 1960, p. 2). Additionally, in his article entitled,
Conversation as a Key to Understanding of Human Nature, Oliver (1961a) referenced
Meads Mind, Self and Society as a basis for arguing that the person does not develop in a
vacuum, but rather through conversation with others (p. 25). He ended the article arguing
that, To describe talk safely as a process of seeking to be understood is to miss many of
its influential characteristics (p. 28). Both of these articles helped to develop the study
of interpersonal rhetoric by moving past concerns of rhetorically influencing others to
showing how the self could be understood rhetorically, or as a product of conversation.
Rhetorical Sensitivity
Similar to the scholars of conversational etiquette, interpersonal rhetoric scholars

focused their attention upon intentional concerns for the Other, adapting ones speech to
specific situations, and the rhetorical construction of identity. Along these lines, Hart and
Burks (1972) developed a comprehensive argument for the need to be sensitive to
rhetorical situations in their article entitled, Rhetorical Sensitivity and Social
Interaction. They argued that it is rhetorical sensitivity that makes effective social
interaction manifestly possible (p. 75). Their most significant contribution to
interpersonal rhetoric was their formulation of the rhetorically sensitive person. The
characteristics of such a person are:
(1) tries to accept role-taking as part of the human condition, (2) attempts
to avoid stylized verbal behavior, (3) is characteristically willing to
undergo the strain of adaption, (4) seeks to distinguish between all
information and information acceptable for communication, and (5) tries
to understand that an idea can be rendered in multi-form ways. (Hart and
Burks, 1972, p.76)
Essentially, the rhetorically sensitive person, like a chameleon, is able to blend into
their rhetorical surroundings. The notion of rhetorical sensitivity, in fact, was influential
enough that Hart, Carlson, and Eadie (1980) offered an operationalization of the concept
from a social scientific perspective.
Additionally, Hart and Burks (1972) based rhetorical sensitivity on an idea of self
not all that different from G.H. Meads social self. Specifically, they understood the
identity of the person as being grounded in rhetoric. They argued that the identity of a
person is not singular, but rather composed of a set of interconnected selves which
acquire their rhetorical definitions in interaction with another (p. 77). The authors went
so far as to argue that if a person continually opts for the same role without regard to
situation or context and does not deal with social interaction on an ad hoc basis, he will
be rhetorically unproductive and interpersonally naive (p. 79).
Interestingly, Hart and Burks (1972) argued that not being rhetorically sensitive to
the situation could be unethical because not doing so fails to regard each persons
individuality. They stated that, the point to be made here is that unless both speaker and
respondent are adapters, a kind of mechanical communication results, which entails an
almost total disregard for the existence and complexity of each other (p. 83). So to not
engage the Other rhetorically is to deny the uniqueness of the Others own self, i.e., the
uniqueness of the Others own personhood. With such an important reason to be

rhetorically sensitive, Hart and Burks (1972) ended their article with hope in the
interpersonal rhetoric research yet to be done:
Our objective has been to recast traditional rhetorically assumptions into a
more contemporary theoretical framework, for we feel that by continually
attempting to redefine this adaptive animal, this rhetorically sensitive
person, scholars may have an ever-refreshed set of tools with which to
probe interpersonal events. (p. 91)
Gerald M. Phillips Interpersonal Rhetoric
Four years after Hart and Burks postulated the need for rhetorical sensitivity,
Phillips (1976) argued that interpersonal rhetoric could serve as an alternative to common
approaches to interpersonal interaction based upon behaviorism and humanistic
psychology. He argued that the rhetorical posture to interpersonal communication
allows for greater effectiveness in analysis than the two major alternatives, that is, the
behaviorist position and the perspective of the humanistic psychologist (p. 11). He
differentiated the rhetorical perspective from the behavioristic approach by arguing
against its determinism and making will central to the rhetorical position (p. 14). On
the other hand, he argued against humanistic psychology on account of its grounding in
egocentric gratification (p. 17). Essentially, behaviorism negates self, and humanistic
psychology is too centered upon self.
Additionally, Phillips (1976) argued that the behavioristic approach and
humanistic psychology reduce to utopianism and moralism (pp. 13-18). The rhetorical
approach is an alternative to these because it is grounded on utilitarianism. The utilitarian
view differs from these two approaches because it regards people as corruptible and
corrupted but capable of making decisions about his own behavior for which society held
him responsible, though he did not have the right to blame society for what he was (p.
18). Within this statement, we see the centrality of the persons ability to choose how to
act for good or bad. Along these lines, Phillips was able to claim, in concurrence with
Hart and Burks, that interpersonal communication is primarily concerned with self-
building (p. 11). Also similar to Hart and Burks, Phillips understood interpersonal
relationships, and therefore the formation of the self, as being embedded in rhetoric
(Phillips, 1976, p. 21). On account of rhetorics centrality in interpersonal
communication, Phillips was able to argue that interpersonal rhetoric promises to be
productive in both teaching and counseling, as well as the future garnering of information
about relationships (p. 23).
In the same year, Phillips and Metzger (1976) developed a comprehensive theory
of intimate communication based on rhetoric in their book, Intimate Communication. As
in Phillips article discussed above, they offered the rhetorical perspective as an
alternative to the behaviorism and humanistic psychology present during their time.
Specifically, they did not wish to negate either view, but rather to point out that the
rhetorical mode appears to lie halfway between the formality and rigor of operant
conditioning and the casualness of humanistic psychology and encounter grouping
(Phillips & Metzger, 1976, p. 5).
They defined interpersonal rhetoric as the conscious effort to achieve goals in

intimate relationships (Phillips & Metzger, 1976, p. 12). Like the interpersonal rhetoric
scholars before them, Phillips and Metzger (1976) saw the development of society and
the self through rhetoric as the heart of interpersonal communication (p. 12). They argued
specifically for understanding the importance of goal seeking in intimate communication
(p. 13). Their argument was based on the premise that there is purpose and order in
what goes on between people, and the more management that is exerted, the more mutual
the satisfaction with the relationship (p. 14). Essentially, in contrast to the behaviorism
of their time, Phillips and Metzger were committed to the idea that people can choose. In
contrast to the humanistic psychology of their time, they believed that the intentional
influence of others was beneficial to society. In order to make these claims, the scholars
made will and reciprocity essential elements of interpersonal rhetoric.
On account of the persons ability to choose, the concept of will was central to
Phillips and Metzgers interpersonal rhetoric. They emphatically argued: To take a
rhetorical position, WE MUST AFFIRM that, in spite of biology, environment, and
unconscious mind, the individual has options in his interpersonal behavior, and that
through appropriate analysis and selection of strategy he can maximize his success,
whatever his problems may be (Phillips & Metzger, 1976, p. vii). Will must be central if
one comes from a paradigm of persuasion, i.e., a sane person would not try to persuade
someone if the Other does not have the ability to choose. Additionally, because of
Phillips and Metzgers focus on persuasion within intimate relationships, they also made
the idea of reciprocity central to their approach. Reciprocity is the give and take of
intimate relationships. The give and take happens because both parties to the
relationship attempt to manage the other in order to achieve personal goals (Phillips &
Metzger, 1976, p. 6).
Since Phillips and Metzgers (1976) approach was fairly novel, they grounded
their interpersonal rhetoric in existing social theories. They used Murray Davis
Sociology and Intimacy as one of their theoretical foundations for interpersonal
rhetoric. They adapted Davis theory because reciprocity and symmetry existed within his
micropolitics of interpersonal relationships (Phillips & Metzger, 1976, p. 30). They
summarized: Thus, we find in Davis theory a convergence of a sociological and
psychiatric point of view which enables us to support our rhetorical view on sound
theory, at least insofar as we allege that it is orderly and dependent on persuasive
exchanges of communication (p. 30). Essentially, relationships are purposive and
orderly; they are not random behavioral occurrences or public venues of self-discovery.
Likewise, the other theory Phillips and Metzger (1976) relied on allows for an element
of decision and an element of reciprocity (p. 31). They adapted Georg Homans
Social Exchange Theory, which essentially states that people enter into relationships
for mutually beneficial reason and that relationships can be judge on a cost-benefit scale.
They stated that, Homans makes no apology for the admittedly behavioral cast of his
theory, nor do we. We insert only that things do not just happen to human beings
(Phillips & Metzger, 1976, p. 31).
In addition to aligning interpersonal rhetoric with these two theories, Phillips and
Metzger (1976) derived a guiding metaphor of exchange from the theories (p. 40).
Specifically, they believed that transaction, not interaction, is the core of intimate
relationships because transaction carries the connotation of carrying on business,
appears to be a more purposive term, more applicable to individual goal seeking. It would
refer to private behavior or public behavior carried out under the norms enacted in
private. Transaction carries a heavier connotation of exchange than interaction (Phillips
& Metzger, 1976, p. 42). This idea of transaction is wholly congruous with the
interpersonal rhetoric laid out above because it is centered upon goal seeking, choice, and
reciprocity. Essentially, Phillips and Metzger saw intimate communication as a rhetorical
process in which persons enter into in order to accomplish goals with one another.
Phillips (1981) further developed interpersonal rhetoric in his next book, Help For
Shy People. After developing a philosophic account of shyness, he offered the practice of
rhetoric as a form of therapy for shyness. He stated that, rhetoritherapy is a system of
instruction designed to train people to improve their communication skills in particular
situations they face in their lives (Phillips, 1981, p. 43). He grounded this
rhetoritherapy in five main ideas: (1) every act of speech should be goal-oriented, (2)
the goal should be adaptable to others, (3) ideas should be clearly organized, (4) rhetoric
sometimes fails, and (5) relationships can be improved through goals (p. 44). With these
ideas in mind, Phillips developed many practical exercises for the shy person to become
more effective in their relationships. In effect, Phillips utilized principles of rhetoric as a
means for people to take personal responsibility for self-development and creating better
interpersonal relationships.
Burkean Interpersonal Rhetoric
In addition to the more classical approach to rhetoric of Phillips, a Burkean

perspective of rhetoric was developed for understanding interpersonal interactions. In
their book, A Rhetoric of Interpersonal Communication, Ambrester and Strause (1984)
created a theory of the self that was grounded in the rhetoric of interpersonal
communication and relationships. The authors claimed that their approach to
interpersonal communication was rooted in reality, whereas other approaches were based
on ideality (Ambrester & Strause, 1984, p. 20). Additionally, they broadened the typical
definition of interpersonal communication from dyadic situations to a spectrum
between intrapersonal communication and communication within small groups (pp. 20-
22). They justified studying interpersonal communication rhetorically by extending
Watzlawick, Beavin, and Jacksons (1967) dictum, You cannot not communicate to
You cannot not persuade (p. 37). Therefore, interpersonal interaction becomes the
proper study of the rhetorician because the rhetorician is one who examines the various
techniques of persuasion and attempts to explain those techniques (Ambrester &
Strause, 1984, p. 26).
Rhetoric was able to be applied so broadly by these authors because they rooted
their understanding of rhetoric in identification (Ambrester & Strause, 1984. p. 31).
Identification was defined by the authors as the process of symbolically joining with
other human beings at the level of social rules, roles and strategies (p. 30). The authors
summarized the difference between their Burkean rhetoric and classical rhetoric by using
the following quotation from Burke:
If I had to sum up in one word the difference between the old rhetoric
and the new (a rhetoric reinvigorated by fresh insights which the new
Sciences contributed on the subject), I would reduce it to this: The key
term for old rhetoric was persuasion and its stress was upon
deliberative design. The key term for the new rhetoric would be
identification which can include a partially unconscious factor in appeal
(1951, p. 203). (p. 29)
The key here for the authors is that rhetoric is about identification and can take place
unconsciously. Additionally, identification takes place on three levels: the intrapersonal,
the interpersonal, and the societal (Ambrester & Strause, 1984, pp. 30-31). Thus, rhetoric
permeates almost all of human life.
In the book, Ambrester and Strause (1984) discussed existential concerns of
interpersonal rhetoric. The existential concerns are grounded in the ideas of identity
preservation and responsibility. The authors argued for the need to preserve ones identity
or to not lose ones self in society (pp. 42-43). Ambrester and Strause (1984) stated that,
We must rediscover those factors which are genuine concerns for us (p. 43). Society
can be lethal to the self if the person is not true to his or her self, yet one should not
alienate oneself by seeking shallow pleasures for the self (Ambrester and Strause, 1984,
pp. 41-43). Essentially, they argued for a balanced approach between concerns for
oneself and society.
The dialectic between self and society is existential in nature for Ambrester and
Strause because they believed, like Phillips, in the human ability to act: A second major
premise in the existential perspective holds that we are all responsible for our own
decisions (Ambrester & Strause, 1984, p. 44). Therefore, these authors argued for the
need to define ourselves through action:
We are born to die. Yet, how we conduct ourselves in the face of that
inevitable judgment characterizes humankind at its highest and lowest
points. . . . The courage of the struggle against insurmountable odds is the
quality that existentialists point to in discussing the human spirit. We can
choose our way of life in the face of death. (p. 44)
In addition to the authors call to define ourselves existentially through action,
they advocated that the person must not confuse his or her essence with the demands of
society. Ambrester and Strause (1984) argued:
We are constantly called upon to act in ways that society sanctions and in
doing so we begin to believe that we are not responsible for our actions,
we are simply chattels of the society in which we live. It is only through
the search for ones essence outside of social trappings that gives a true
sense of personal responsibility. (p. 46)
It is within this call to take responsibility for ones identity that the authors develop
existential communication as an aspect of interpersonal rhetoric. Existential
communication, according to Ambrester and Strause (1984), is differentiated from
rhetorical communication not by kind but by degree (p. 46). The two modes of
communication differ in motive. They differentiated the two by stating: In rhetorical
communication we engage in consciously and unconsciously discovering all the means of
persuasion. In existential communication one attempts to communicate his/her essence to
another receptive human being who is attempting to do the same (1984, p. 46).
Interestingly, it is at this point in which the rhetorical perspective approaches a degree of
similarity to a dialogic approach to interpersonal communication: In existential
communication, we attempt to reveal ourselves to another as completely as possible. We
attempt to engage in what Karl Jaspers called an I-Thou relationship. This form of
interaction refers to a communion in which we meet at the level of humanity with another
mutually caring person (1984, p. 46).
Relating to their existentialism, Ambrester and Strause (1984) formulated a
concept of the self that is thoroughly rhetorical. They were able to make this move by
using Burkes concept of identification as the basis for modern rhetoric. The scholars
stated:
From a rhetorical perspective, we would allege that our earliest
associations with parents are rooted in the identification process. . . .
Identification takes place as the infant begins a lifelong process of
determining what the demands of the external audience (the parents) are
and begins seeking to meet those demands as a means of acceptance and
avoidance of rejection. (1984, pp. 79-80)
Continuing with the Burkean idea of identification, Ambrester and Strause (1984)
argued that the process of identity formation happens on three levels: identification
within, identification and interpersonal relationships, and identification and culture.
Concerning identification within, they stated that, we persuade ourselves in much the
same way an orator persuades an audience. We find the means of identification, speak to
ourselves, and render judgment (1984, p. 85). In this manner, they were able to make
intrapersonal communication a part of interpersonal rhetoric. Rhetoric also takes place in
interpersonal relationships when persons seek to identify with other persons (Ambrester
and Strause, 1984, p. 86). Additionally, the self is formed through the symbols of the
culture that the person identifies with and is assimilated into (Ambrester and Strause,
1984, pp. 86-87). Ultimately, they built their theory of interpersonal rhetoric upon this
tripartite process of identification.
Ambrester and Strause (1984) devoted two chapters of their book to self-
persuasion and intrapersonal communication, which they called the internal rhetorical
wrangle. Specifically, they used a model of intrapersonal communication that they
developed in 1980, called The Ambrester/Strause Rhetorical Model of Intrapersonal
Communication. In this model, three different concepts of the self-persuade oneself how
to act. The model is best summarized by the authors themselves:
1. Socialized self discovers and employs all the necessary means to
persuade the person to act in socially acceptable manners and repent
for social failures:
2. Primitive self discovers and employs all the necessary means to
persuade the person to act in any manner required to meet his/her most
basic needs and deny the responsibility for such action:
3. Conceptualizing self discovers and employs all the necessary means to
persuade the person to act in ethically valid manners (congruent with
the value system) and project an ideal self consistent with his/her
self-concept (allowing for consciously purposeful manipulative roles).
(Ambrester and Strause, 1984, pp. 120-121)
At the heart of this Burkean interpersonal rhetoric is this process of self-persuasion by the
socialized self, primitive self, and conceptualizing self. Indeed, the authors themselves
justified their concept of the persuasive internal wrangle by likening it to Meads I
addressing its me (Ambrester & Strause, 1984, p. 21). In a sense, this interpersonal
rhetoric is grounded in both Mead and Burke. Even with its strong foundation in Mead
and Burke, Ambrester and Strauses rhetorical perspective to interpersonal
communication has by and large yet to be espoused by the discipline.
Eventually, Ambrester, Buttram, Strause, and Ambrester III (1997) simplified and
extended Ambrester and Strauses interpersonal rhetoric within A Rhetoric of
Interpersonal Communication and Relationships. In the book, they briefly developed the
concept of self, the internal wrangle, and the existential concerns that were in the
previous book. Upon this conception of the self the authors developed a rhetoric of
personality types and relationships and a rhetorical existential perspective on intimate
relationships.
Ambrester et al. (1997) based their existential perspective on the creation of self-
developed in Ambrester and Strauses A Rhetoric of Interpersonal Communication, but
they made one addition to the self in regards to intimate relationships. This addition is
formulated by the Ambrester Model of Relationships. Interestingly, the authors argued
that, Sea cows are very large and if we could see the concepts and perceptions each of us
carries into a relationship, we would all look like manatees to each other (Ambrester et
al., 1997, p. 6). They argued that, At the core of any relationship lies each persons self-
concept, which basically refers to ego strength. . . . By ego strength we basically mean
the degree to which we like/love ourselves (Ambrester et al., 1997, p. 6). From the self-
concept extends the concept of ideal relationships, and relating to this concept is the
concept of other (Ambrester et al., 1997, p. 6). The authors stated: When speaking of
the beginning of intimate relationships, your concept of the other person often seems to
match your own concept of an ideal relationship (Ambrester et al., 1997, p. 7). Affecting
in large ways how people act in intimate relationships is the concept of the relationship
itself and the persons experience of past relationships (Ambrester et al., 1997, p. 8). At
this point, the manatee shifts their focus of attention away from their immediate self to
their perception of Others concept of you (Ambrester et al., 1997, p. 9). Finally, the
person has a perception of Others concept of the relationship (Ambrester et al., 1997,
p. 10). The person, as such, is a process that works holistically to shape how each person
interacts within relationships, but their metaphor does not end here.
Ambrester et al. (1997) completed their analogy by having the sea cow swim in
the sea of our inner selves, our interpersonal relationships, and our social
interaction. The authors explained:
Your inner communication, which reflects your attitude system, is the
most important key to understanding how well you like yourself, who you
believe yourself to be, and your approach to relationships. . . . Being the
rhetorical creatures that we are, we swim through various depths and
currents in our relationships with others. . . . Continuing our metaphor, as
humans, after we leave our mothers placenta, we are immediately
engulfed in a sea of symbols which are so powerful that they affect our
total existence. (pp. 17-18)
As in Ambrester and Strauses A Rhetoric of Interpersonal Communication, Ambrester et
al. (1997) conceived human existence as being entirely rhetorical: You cannot not
persuade. It is within the context of this model that the authors argued that people can
use this knowledge existentially to improve their relationships. In this spirit of praxis, or
theory-informed action, the authors developed procedures to function in intimate

relationships in the last chapter.
Conclusion
In 1984, Ayres concluded that the time seems particularly ripe for rhetoric to
become a vital force in the area (p. 420). Nearly 20 years after Ayers argued that the
time was right for rhetorical scholarship of interpersonal communication, little had been
done and Harden Fritz (2005) wrote about the potential for rhetoric to be utilized for
studying interpersonal interaction in the 21st century. Harden Fritz (2005) ended her
article by developing potential areas of research for interpersonal rhetoric. First, she
stated that, the concepts of agency and rhetoric, so prominent in this work through its
focus on will and choice, can be engaged to move beyond the modernist assumption of
lack of situatedness of an agent (Harden Fritz, 2005, p. 43). In this manner, the
rhetorical approach may be able to enter into dialogue with a dialogic approach to
interpersonal communication. She also argued that the rhetorical approach could be
extended into the philosophic approaches (2005, p. 43). Most interestingly, she posited
that the rhetorical approach could be improved through the narrative perspective by
moving rhetorical action away from agency, while still holding to choice, situation,
constraint, and will (p. 44). As the situations stands today, much of this research is still
in need of being performed.
This essay ends in the hope, like that of those before me, that the study of
interpersonal rhetoric may experience a resurgence in the 21 st century. The use of rhetoric
in interpersonal communication dates back to at least the conversation sections of
etiquette manuals from the early nineteenth century. After Mead posited the idea of a
social self, rhetoricians would, for a short while, take on the idea and study the effects of
conversation on personality. After a period of latency, interpersonal rhetoric was
formulated in different ways by several scholars, including Hart and Burks, Phillips and
Metzger, and Ambrester and Strause. Regretfully, little has been done following these
scholars. Though interpersonal rhetoric has yet to fully come to fruition, Harden Fritz has
pointed toward fertile grounds for the future development of interpersonal rhetoric.
References
Ambrester, M. L., & Strause G. H. (1984). A rhetoric of interpersonal communication.
Prospect Heights, IL.: Waveland Heights.
Ambrester, M. L., Buttram, C. G., Strause, G. H., and Ambrester, M. L., III. (1997). A
rhetoric of interpersonal communication and relationships. Bloomington, IN:
Tichenor Publishing.
Arnold, C. C. (1972). Rhetorical and communication studies: two worlds or one? Western
Speech, 36, 75-81.
Ayres, J. (1984). Four approaches to interpersonal communication: Review,
observation, prognosis. Western Journal of Speech, 48, 408-440.
Ewbank, H. L., Jr. (1964). The art of conversing: Informal speech education, 1828-1860.
Today's Speech, 12, 7-36.
Harden Fritz, J. M. (2005). The contributions of Gerald M. Phillips to interpersonal
communication. In D. S. Gouran (Volume Ed.), The Pennsylvania Scholars

Series. The Pennsylvania Communication Association.
Hart, R. P., & Burks, D. M. (1972). Rhetorical sensitivity and social interaction.
Speech Monographs, 39, 75-91.
Hart, R. P., Carlson, R. E., & Eadie, W. F. (1980). Attitudes toward communication and
the assessment of rhetorical sensitivity. Communication Monographs, 47, 1-22.
Mead, G. H. (1934). Mind, self, & society: from the standpoint of a social behaviorist.
Ed. w. introd. C. W. Morris. Chicago: University of Chicago.
Oliver, E. S. (1958). The art of conversation. Today's Speech, 6, 3-6.
Oliver, R. T. (1960). Conversation and personality. Today's Speech, 8, 1-3, 32.
Oliver, R. T. (1961a). Conversation as a key to the understanding of human nature.
Today's Speech, 9, 25-26, 28.
Oliver, R. T. (1961b). Conversational rules--their use and abuse. Today's Speech, 9, 19-
22.
Phillips, G. M. (1981). Help for shy people & anyone else who ever felt ill at ease on
entering a room full of strangers. New York: Dorset Press.
Phillips, G. M. (1976). Rhetoric and its alternatives for examination of intimate
communication. Communication Quarterly, 24, 11-22.
Phillips, G. M., & Metzger, N. J. (1976). Intimate communication. Boston: Allyn and
Bacon.
Watzlawick, P., Beavin, J. & Jackson, D. (1967). Pragmatics of Human Communication.
New York: W. W. Norton.
G.I.F.T.S. (Great Ideas For Teaching Students)
Explaining Theory-Guided Research through The Big Bang Theory
Brittnie Peck5
Doctoral Student
University of Wisconsin
bspeck@uwm.edu
Scott Christen
Assistant Professor
Tennessee Technological University
schristen@tntech.edu
Stephanie Kelly
Assistant Professor and Director of the Business Communication Center
North Carolina A&T State University
sekelly@ncat.edu
Abstract
The Big Bang Theory is a comedy aired on CBS that features the lives of a group of
scientists. Like many people, the characters in this show find it difficult to avoid taking
their work home with them. Thus, most episodes are rich with research terminology and
demonstrations. This paper details an activity that provides a fun means of introducing
students to the role of theory in guiding research through the use of The Big Bang Theory.
Courses
Theory, Research Methods
5 Brittnie S. Peck is a doctoral student and Graduate Teaching Assistant in the Department of
Communication at the University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee. She received her M.A. in Communication
Studies at Northern Illinois University in 2014. She can be contacted at bspeck@uwm.edu.
Scott Christen is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Communication at Tennessee
Technological University. He received his PhD in Communication and Information from the University of
Tennessee in 2013. He can be contacted at schristen@tntech.edu.
Stephanie Kelly is an Assistant Professor in the School of Business and Economics at North Carolina
A&T State University where she also serves as Director of the Business Communication Center. She
received her PhD in Communication and Information from the University of Tennessee in 2012. She can be
contacted at sekelly@ncat.edu.
Objective
To show students the process of using theory to guide research within a single
class period so that the concept of a theory does not remain abstract upon
introduction.
Introduction and Rationale
Abstract concepts are best solidified for learners through the use of example
(Newby & Stepich, 1987). Though students engage in hands-on experience with hard
science throughout their education, most are not exposed to social science theory until
college. The lack of social science exposure coupled with the intangibility of
measurement in communication (e.g. measuring a social scientific construct like teacher
immediacy vs. a physical measure such as weight in pounds), makes communication
theory abstract, indeed. Though approaching communication theory using students
familiarity with hard sciences can build upon what they already know (Zimmerman &
Schunk, 2001), it is not enough to overcome the abstraction.
Giving a good example of a theory necessitates that the theory be explicated
(Reynolds, 2007), which can take an entire class period in and of itself. Ideally, therefore,
an effective introduction of theory-guided communication research must accomplish
three tasks: 1) building on students preexisting knowledge, 2) explicating an individual
theory, and 3) showing an example of how that theory has been used in research. As
such, this activity was developed to accomplish all three goals through a method that will
engage rather than overwhelm students, and allow the instructor to achieve all three
phases of these lesson outcomes within a single class period.
Activity Phase One: Introduce the Concept of Theory
Again, because abstract phenomena are best conveyed through demonstration, the
instructor needs to begin the lesson with something concrete, preferably accessing
knowledge students can build upon (Zimmerman & Schunk, 2001). For example, the
instructor may begin class by holding a small object, like a pencil, over her/his head and
asking the class what will happen to the elevation of the pencil if it is released. Of course,
after students realize that this is a serious question, they answer that the object will fall to
the floor. The instructor can then drop the object to test whether what the students have
predicted is accurate. After the object hits the floor, the instructor should then ask
students how they knew this to be true, to which students always answer gravity. Then,
students can be prompted to explain gravity, leading them towards the explanation that it
is a law of the natural world.
The question can then be posed, If there is a law-like nature to the world, and
social interaction exists within this world, then does it follow that there could or should
be a law-like nature governing social interactions? Students typically vary in their
answers to this question, so once all views have been heard, the instructor can conclude
the discussion by sharing that many communication scholars do believe in a law-like
nature of the social world, and work towards developing communication theories to
explain it.
Then, the instructor will present the definition of theory to students. Kerlinger and
Lees (2000) thorough definition explains that a theory is a set of interrelated constructs
(concepts), definitions, and propositions that present a systematic view of phenomena by
specifying relations among variables, with the purpose of explaining and predicting the
phenomenon (p. 11). Though this thorough definition may seem very straightforward to
a graduate school veteran, it is exceedingly abstract to undergraduates, especially on their
first day of communication theory or research methods. Therefore, the definition must be
broken into three facts for the instructor to elaborate upon:
1. A theory proposes relationships between well-defined variables, all of which
are relevant to a given phenomenon.
2. By defining the relationships between these variables, a theory presents a
systematic way of describing the phenomena.
3. Because theory explains a phenomenon in terms of relationships among
variables, it allows researchers to predict the ways these variables should
behave together (Kerlinger & Lee, 2000).
Arguing conclusions from the above facts, it is important the instructor or students also
add the following facts about theory:
4. Theories may apply across contexts to many phenomena, people, and places.
5. Theories guide research by generating testable hypotheses.
This discussion and explanation takes 10-15 minutes.
Activity Phase Two: Watch The Big Bang Theory
Next, students will view a demonstration of communication theory in action by

playing Season 4, Episode 20 of The Big Bang Theory, titled The Herb Garden
Germination. This particular episode focuses on physicist Sheldon and neurobiologist
Amy. Early in the episode, Sheldon and Amy speculate about the concept of gossip and
wonder why some bits of information spread faster than others. Amy concisely
introduces Sheldon to meme theory (Dawkins, 1976), an evolutionary biology theory that
views information as living organisms whose survival is determined through natural
selection such that stronger information survives through being shared and weaker
information dies quickly. Using meme theory as a guide, Sheldon and Amy conduct an
experiment among their friends, starting two rumors about themselves by telling them to
a third friend. One rumor is of a racy, gossip-prone nature and the other, a control rumor,
deals with starting an herb garden. The duo spends the rest of the episode tracking the
progress of each rumors penetration through their group of friends. This episode is 21
minutes long.
Activity Phase 3: Debriefing
Once the show is over, the instructor will help students make connections
between the show and the material presented in Phase One; this can be done through a
class discussion. The instructor should be prepared with a list of questions that prompt
students to make connections such as the following:
What is a meme?
How did meme theory guide the study?
What did meme theory predict in this episode? Consequently, what did Sheldon
and Amy expect to happen?
What if Sheldon and Amy had been curious about information sharing in an
organization instead? What sort of information would meme theory predict is
most apt to survive?
How about in politics?
How does meme theory explain what was observed?
Meme theory is used to explain the way that communicative behaviors spread
within culture. What other communication phenomenon could meme theory be
applied to besides gossip?
This debriefing phase is intended to drive home for students that theories predict
relationships between variables across contexts. Therefore, the crux of this debriefing is
asking students to generate examples of instances in which they have seen meme theory
in action. If they initially have trouble generating examples on their own, help them by
giving examples such as popular social media memes or advertising campaigns. This
discussion takes 10-20 minutes and should not conclude until students can readily
provide original examples of the theory in action.
Supplemental Activity: Another Use of The Big Bang Theory in the Theory
Classroom
For instructors who like to use similar instructional techniques throughout the
year and would like to demonstrate a theory more commonly discussed in business
communication research, Season 3, Episode 11 titled The Maternal Congruence is a
great segue to communication privacy management theory (CPM ) in that it shows the
role of self-disclosure in interpersonal relationships. This episode focuses on physicist
Leonard, Leonards emotionally distant mother, and Leonards girlfriend Penny. Leonard
is upset that his mother self-discloses more with his roommate, Sheldon, than with him.
Penny is upset that Leonard has not disclosed the fact that they are dating to his mother,
and Leonards mother is upset that Leonard does not disclose to her at all. CPM posits
that individuals follow certain rules when choosing to disclose information, and that they
then negotiate boundaries concerning sharing of the information (Griffin, 2006; Petronio,
2002). The characters interpersonal struggles, although humorous, demonstrate how the
choice to disclose affects relationships. After watching the episode, instructors can break
students into groups of five or six to discuss the role of self-disclosure in the lives of the
characters. The following questions can be utilized to prompt student discussion:
How would CPM explain why Leonards mother chose to disclose to Sheldon
rather than to her son?
How does Pennys decision to share her relationship status with Leonards
mother relate to CPM?
Think back to the scene where Leonard, his mother, and Sheldon are in the car
and Leonard shares his feelings about his mothers selective disclosure. How
does CPM relate to this discussion?
What modifications in the characters self-disclosure could improve their
relationships?
CPM explains that individuals protect their private information through self-imposed
boundaries, the permeability of which is dynamic in nature. This episode demonstrates

the fluctuation of those boundaries as the characters decide how much of their own
information they want to keep private, share publically, or share only with certain
individuals. These disclosure norms must be considered when assimilating into any new
organizational dynamic. As such, this activity encourages students to critically analyze
the underlying processes that lead to disclosure.
Activity Appraisal
Both activities have been a great success for the authors in their communication
theory classrooms. Either can be conducted in a 50- or 75- minute class period. The
students find the episodes to be comical and the laughter early in the semester sets the
tone for a relaxed, discussion-based classroom.
If this activity is being used in a research methods course where students are
already familiar with theory, then the activity can be extended to include discussion of
the experiment. For example, students can discuss that the experiment was actually a
quasi-experiment because it does not take place in a controlled environment or utilize
random sampling. Also, Sheldon and Amy conduct their experiment twice. Therefore,
students can discuss how scientists look across a body of literature to draw conclusions in
order to account for measurement error and sampling error in individual studies. Finally,
because between study one and study two Amy reverses the order in which the racy and
control rumors are introduced, the role of counterbalancing inductions can be discussed.
In their assessment of the activity, one student commented For me personally, I
was a little confused about how theory worked or what it meant, but using that show kind
of put it in a perspective that I could understand more. Another student wrote, To be
honest it was one of the better ways that you could have brought forward this subject. A
third student noted that, There were a shocking amount of theory references - it was
almost like that episode was designed to be used in the classroom. Haha! Finally,
another student wrote that I thought it was very useful and got the point across very
well. It was also good because it was through something comical rather than a boring
lecture. Overall, the activity has been successful at being simultaneously beneficial and
informative.
Instructors who wish to use a more concrete assessment of the activity may
consider asking students to define theory and variable on a sheet of paper using their
own words both before and after watching the episode. In this way instructors can
identify how seeing a theory utilized to guide research as well as the manipulation and
measurement of variables enhances their understanding of these concepts. Such an
assessment will help demarcate intellectual gain vs. enjoyment of the activity.
References
Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Griffin, E. A. (2006). A first look at communication theory. Boston: McGraw-Hill.
Kerlinger, F. N., & Lee, H. B. (2000). Foundations of behavioral research (4th ed.).
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Thomson Learning.
Newby, T. J., & Stepich, D. A. (1987). Learning abstract concepts: The use of analogies
as a mediational strategy. Journal of Instructional Development, 10, 20-26. doi:

10.1007/BF02905788
Petronio, S. S. (2002). Boundaries of privacy: Dialectics of disclosure. Albany: State
University of New York Press.
Reynolds, P. D. (2007). A primer in theory construction. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon
Classics.
Zimmerman, B. J., & Schunk, D. H. (2001). Self-regulated learning and academic
achievement: Theoretical perspectives (2nd ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
Practicing Critical Research:

Applying a Feminist Textual Analysis to the Film 300
Tatjana M. Hocke-Mirzashvili6
Assistant Professor
James Madison University
hocketm@jmu.edu
Stephanie Kelly
Assistant Professor
North Carolina A&T State University
sekelly@ncat.edu
Darrel Blair
Adjunct
Colorado State University
Darrell.Blair@ColoState.edu
Hoyoung (Anthony) Ahn

Assistant Professor
Pepperdine University
Abstract
This single-class activity was developed to give students hands-on experience with
critical research. The purpose of this activity is to assist students in developing critical,
textual analysis skills by applying a feminist lens to the hyper-masculine film 300,
specifically analyzing symbolic representations of power.
6
Tatjana M. Hocke-Mirzashvili (Ph.D., University of Tennessee) is an Assistant Professor in the School of
Communication Studies at James Madison University. She has taught Public Relations Writing, Public
Relations Campaigns, Introduction to Public Relations, Qualitative Research Methods, Public Speaking,
and Business Communication. Her research interests focus on stakeholder perspectives in health, risk, and
crisis communication.
Stephanie Kelly, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Business Education in the
School of Business and Economics at North Carolina A&T State University where she also serves as
Director of the Business Communication Center. She received her PhD from the University of Tennessee in
2012. She can be contacted at 336-285-4903 or sekelly@ncat.edu.
Darrell Blair (ABD) is a Special Instructor at Colorado State University in Fort Collins, Colorado.
The courses he has taught are Sports Journalism, Reporting, Professional and Technical Communication,
News writing, Public Relations Writing. His research interests are quantitative and qualitative study of
sports-related communication and media, news credibility, college media, digital news and mass
communication.
Hoyoung (Anthony) Ahn (Ph.D., University of Tennessee) is an Assistant Professor of Advertising at
Pepperdine University, Malibu, CA. He has taught Intro to Advertising, Advertising and Promotions for the
Internet, and Research Methods. His research focuses on advertising and promotional strategies, effective
health messages in advertising, ethical issues in marketing communication, and consumer psychology
(persuasion and resistance).
Courses
Film Studies; Research Methods; Visual Rhetoric
Objectives
Give students hands-on practice approaching data within the critical paradigm
Engage in multiple perspectives interpreting the same piece of data
A number of universities place equal emphasis on scientific, interpretivistic, and

critical research [for an explanation of these three types of research, see Fink and Gantz
(1996)] in one introductory research methods course. This focus poses a problem for
methods instructors: How do we provide students with practice conducting research
within each paradigm in the course of one semester, especially if data collection is
involved? Students learn best through doing (Kolb, 2007). Therefore, students will best
understand each of the research paradigms if they have experience within each research
approach designing the instruments, collecting data, and analyzing the data themselves
rather than just reading about the process.
Although students can quickly appreciate the tangibility of a questionnaire or
interview guide for collecting data, the authors of the current manuscript struggled with
an equally substantial method of data collection through which to introduce students to
critical research. To alleviate the abstraction of critical research methods, the challenge
for the authors was to give students a concrete example (Newby & Stepich, 1987) of the
entire research process. The following paper explains the product of much consideration
and practice to introduce critical research through a feminist critique via textual analysis
of the film 300 (Miller & Synder, 2007). When covering critical film and rhetorical
theories, this activity can be integrated into other classes.
Any documented social interaction is a potential sample for textual analysis which
includes an investigation of the symbolism within the discourse (Fairclough, 2003). 300
is well suited for textual analysis through a critical feminist lens which considers the
symbolism of power struggles through artifacts such as color, view point, and exposure
(Jhally, 2006; Kilbourne, 2000; Nead, 1992). If students look past the superficial aspects
of the story, considering the role of the lone female lead, they will discover a secondary
storyline woven throughout the plot. Critical analysis will reveal underlying societal
worldviews of men and women that are violated or enhanced through the portrayal in the
movie.
In the Spartan world portrayed in the film, masculinity is shown in its most
extreme forms. Men are bred to serve the state and die, if needed, a beautiful death on the
battlefield. Throughout the film, audiences follow the male protagonist from his birth, to
his rise as King, and eventually to his death. Because of the extreme masculine portrayal,
300 appears polarized visually and ideologically against women. Indeed most women
appear only as secondary to men: as caregivers, child bearers, sexualized objects, or in
similar second-class roles that are contrary to the efforts of feminist movements for
equality. Yet, despite the overwhelming depictions of hyper-masculinity that made the
movie famous, careful analysis shows that the lone female lead is the character that holds
much of the power. It is because of these counterintuitive findings that this film is an
excellent candidate for textual analysis through a critical feminist lens.
The Activity
Preparation
The purpose of this single class activity is to apply research skills through a
critical feminist lens (see suggested readings). Therefore, the activity should be utilized
only after teaching critical methods. While learning critical methods, the students will
need to understand the characteristics of men and women in visual media and study
visual indicators of power and feminist theory for the analysis to be possible. This
activity specifically assumes that students have been given foundations in the goals,
procedures, and philosophies behind conducting a textual analysis. At a minimum,
students must have knowledge about how power is portrayed through:
Typical roles and characteristics of men and women in the visual media (Men
appear in greater numbers and variety of roles than women. Typical
characteristics ascribed to mene.g., independent, objective, active, logical,
determined, successful, willing to take risks, and confidenceand womene.g.,
gentle, calm, clean, orderly, sensual, religious, emotional, expressive and/or as
sexual objects.)
Amount of clothing (where the amount of clothing one wears is positively related
to power)
Colors (darker colors represent evil and lighter colors represent purity; color
amongst black and white images represent importance)
Angle of portrayal (taking a picture from below, above, or in alignment with the
person represents power such that the higher the person appears, the more power
he/she has)
Before showing the film, instructors are encouraged to have students read reviews of the
movie to prepare for the visual imagery. With the theme of the film, the director strove to
portray death as beautiful, yet students should be forewarned that it does depict violent
battle and sexual content.
Showing 300
300 is 117 minutes long. Therefore, it is recommended that students be instructed

to view the movie outside of class without distractions. To be most effective, instructors
should inform students that they are expected to view the film through a critical feminist
lens and take notes of scenes that defy gender expectations in this masculine world.
These notes will create the parameters (a guiding instrument) for their textual analysis.
Students should note specific scenes in detail that will help with both class discussion and
the written assessment. Given the students level of preparation, instructors may consider
giving students a hint before showing the film that they should pay particular attention to
the portrayal of the queen.
Debriefing
Once the film has been viewed, the instructor should lead students in a discussion
of their initial analysis, encouraging them to describe and cite specific examples. It is
essential to discuss in depth, each of the scenes that portray the queen. The following
scenes are typically those first brought up by students:
The Persian Messenger Arrives in Sparta: In this early scene, the Persian
messenger arrives to tell Sparta that they are to submit to foreign rule. The queen
is the only female character portrayed in the meeting, and the messenger makes it
clear that he is offended that a woman should be allowed to speak in their midst.
Before anyone can respond to his proclamation, the queen defends her own
position at the meeting. More crucially, although the king ultimately declares war,
he looks to the queen in making his decision, allowing her nonverbal cue to be the
catalyst that initiates the war.
The Army Leaves: When the Spartans go to war, the queen sees the army off.
There are two notable displays of power by this character within the scene. First,
it is her nonverbal communication that dismisses the army. Second, she is the
only character who is fully clothed. Being naked or scantily clothed is perceived
as submissive, powerless (Nead, 1992), or sexually objectifying (Jhally, 2006;
Kilbourne, 2000). Hence, the queen is portrayed in this scene with adequate
clothing as an assertive power and active ruler rather than a sexual object. Both
her dismissal of the troops and her clothing indicate that she is the character
holding the most power.
The Queens Speech: Ending the film, the queen appears before the counsel to
argue in favor of sending more soldiers to support her husband. Her speech is
quite powerful and able to move many councilmen. Notably, she wears a red
dress the first colored ensemble shown in Sparta. Aside from her attire and
powerful words, her actions also exude power in this scene. When a councilman
attempts to discredit the queen, the queen exposes the councilmans corruption
and slays him. So, it is by the actions and words of the lone female lead that the
Spartan army is rallied to defend Greece.
Each of these scenes provides clear examples of how the only woman given a name in the
entire film is actually the most powerful character the only character more powerful
than the king.
The queen appears in two additional scenes in which she displays her powerthis
time, through her sexuality. As a note regarding these scenes, nothing is shown that
students would not see in an art history course. The scenes are filmed to be part of the
story rather than pornographic.
In the first scene, the queen is with her husband and tastefully filmed to show her
in control of her own sexuality, equal to her husband.
The second of these scenes typically generates the most debate among students:
the scene in which she uses her sexuality (or allows herself to be used sexually) to
win the favor of one of the councilmen. The discussion polarizes because some
students see this as an exercise in her power, though others see it as a loss of
power because she was coerced.
Once these five scenes are discussed, the instructor must pose a critical question
to the students: Was 300 a masculine or feminine movie? The initial reaction before
textual examination of the symbolism surrounding the queen would be to call it
definitively masculine. Students typically debate from this point whether it was truly a
feminist movie, given that only one female character had power, or whether both sexes
were portrayed as equally powerful. Each semester, students reach a different verdict on
the matter, but they must do so through analysis of the data, making the unique
perspectives valuable (i.e. symbolism noted in the film). Being able to debate this
question with the support of data allows for an involved example of critical research
which assists in removing the abstraction.
Appraisal
This activity is limited by the films length. This single class activity works best
in a three-hour class period where showing the film ensures that all students have the
same exposure. The activity fortunately also works if students are required to watch the
film as homework before the class discussion and debriefing.
Students respond positively to this activity for two reasons. First, this is typically
the most enjoyable research experience of the semester. Rather than administering
questionnaires or conducting interviews, they watch an award-winning movie, providing
an appreciated break within such an intense course. Second, students report that this
activity actually poses one of the semesters greatest challenges to their critical thinking
skills. Because the movie is so blatantly masculine on the surface, considering the
portrayal of femininity is an effortful process. Students who are familiar with the film
before viewing it in class usually laugh at the seemingly ridiculous notion of finding what
they initially believe are non-existent feminine aspects. Yet, they learn that by paying
attention to symbolic representations of power and taking on a new perspective, they
develop a new understanding of the film and an appreciation for the critical research
process.
References
Fairclough, N. (2003). Analyzing discourse: Textual analysis for social research. New
York: Taylor & Francis.
Fink, E.,& Gantz, W. (1996). A content analysis of three mass communication research
traditions: Social science, interpretive studies, and critical analysis. Journalism
and Mass Communication Quarterly, 73, 114-134. doi:
10.1177/107769909607300111
Jhally, S. (2006). Advertising, gender, and sex: What's wrong with a little objectification?
In S. Jhallys The spectacle of accumulation: Essays in culture, media, and
politics (pp. 163-175). New York: Peter Lang.
Kilbourne, J. (2000). Can't buy my love: How advertising changes the way we think
and feel. New York: Simon and Schuster.
Kolb, D. A. (2007). Experiential learning. Digital Print Edition: Pearson Education,
Limited. Retrieved from: http://books.google.com/books?id=TyKYkQEACAAJ.
Miller, R. (Producer), & Snyder, Z. (Director). (2007). 300 [Motion picture]. USA:
Warner Bros.
Nead, L. (1992). The female nude: Art, obscenity and sexuality. London and New York:
Routledge.
Newby, T. J., & Stepich, D. A. (1987). Learning abstract concepts: The use of analogies
as a mediational strategy. Journal of Instructional Development, 10, 20-26. doi:
10.1007/BF02905788
Suggested Readings:
Collins, R. L. (2010). Content analysis of gender roles in media: Where are we now and
where should we go? Sex Roles, 64, 290-298. doi: 10.1007/s11199-010-9929-5
Elasmar, M., Hasegawa, K., & Brain, M. (1999). The portrayal of women in U.S. prime
time television. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 43, 20-35. doi:
10.1080/08838159909364472
Furnham, A., & Mak, T. (1999). Sex-role stereotyping in television commercials: A
review and comparison of fourteen studies done on five continents over 25 years.
Sex Roles, 41, 413-437.
Using Video Clips to Illustrate How

Paralinguistic Variation Communicates Emotion
Shane M. Semmler, PhD7

Associate Professor
University of South Dakota
shane.semmler@usd.edu
Abstract
Aristotles explication of the available means of persuasion includes logic, character, and
emotion as the three artistic proofs available to any rhetorician. Because emotion is the
least understood rhetorical proof (Jorgenson, 1998), this lesson plan uses Aristotles
definition of delivery (i.e., variations in rate, volume, and pitch) to illustrate how
paralinguistic qualities reflect and elicit emotion. Educators are provided with the
necessary materials and procedures for a 50-minute multimedia instructional event
including the content and citations for a lecture articulating how paralinguistic variation
reflects and elicits emotion, links to audiovisual illustrations of emotional paralinguistic
variation, worksheets to structure student processing of the illustrations, and a
think/pair/share procedure for efficiently integrating this lessons content into the
students existing knowledge structures.
Courses
Hybrid Basic Communication Course, Public Speaking, Advanced Public Speaking,

Persuasion, Rhetorical Criticism, Oral Interpretation, Nonverbal Communication, or
Business and Professional Speaking.
Objectives
To provide a common vocabulary for discussing the emotional significance of

paralinguistic variation in terms of rate, volume, and pitch.
To increase students understanding and awareness of the emotional meaning of
paralinguistic variation in terms of rate, volume, and pitch.
Paralinguistic qualities of verbal speech refer to how words are spoken (Alberts,
Nakayama, & Martin, 2010). The most prominent paralinguistic qualities are rate,
volume, and pitch (Lucas, 2009; O'Hair, Stewart, & Rubenstein, 2012; Zarefsky, 2011).
Rate is the pace of a speech measured in words per minute (Zarefsky, 2011), volume is
7
Shane M. Semmler (University of Oklahoma, PhD) is an associate professor in the Department of
Communication Studies at the University of South Dakota where he researches mediated persuasion and
regularly teaches public speaking, persuasion, research methods, political communication, and rhetorical
interpretation.
the loudness of a speech (Zarefsky, 2011), and pitch includes the tonal quality of a
speech. Pitch is measured in wavelength frequency, with greater frequencies producing
higher pitches and lesser frequencies producing lower pitches (Lucas, 2009).
Variations in rate, volume, and pitch are significant because they indicate
physiological changes that co-occur with emotional experience and expression (Planalp,
1999; Scherer, 1986). Increases in speaking rate signify excitement (Planalp, 1999).
Decreases in rate signify thoughtfulness or solemnity (OHair, et al., 2012). Increases in
volume signify higher levels of emotional arousal (Planalp, 1999) or enthusiasm (DeVito,
2000). Decreases in volume signify sadness or lower levels of emotional arousal (Planalp,
1999). Increases in pitch signify greater levels of stress (Zarefsky, 2011), and decreases
in pitch signify sadness and lower levels of arousal (Planalp, 1999).
Empirical research demonstrates the emotional and persuasive influence of
paralinguistic variation. Juslin and Laukkas (2003) meta-analysis of 104 studies revealed
that emotion-specific patterns of vocal expression reliably communicate discrete
emotions, like sadness and anger. Other demonstrations show that emotionally-charged
acoustic patterns are contagious, meaning that receivers non-consciously mimic the
emotions embodied in those patterns (in Hatfield, Cacioppo, & Rapson, 1994). Perhaps
the contagiousness of paralinguistic emotion explains why vocal variation elicits more
perceptions of sincerity, credibility, and persuasiveness than monotone speeches
(Burgoon, Birk, & Pfau, 1990). This lesson plan teaches communication students to
identify and understand how a speakers paralinguistic variation reflects and elicits
emotion for rhetorical purposes.
Description of the Activity
This five-step activity uses video clips to introduce the concept of paralinguistic
variation and explain its indexical relationship to a speechs emotional content. Step one
draws students attention to the emotional significance of paralinguistic variations in a
speech taken from an episode of the television series Mad Men (2007-present). Step two
uses a worksheet to guide discussion of that speech. At step three, the instructor delivers
a lecture defining paralinguistic variations emotionally significant qualities in terms of
rate, volume, and pitch. Step four invites students to record and analyze the
paralinguistic variation in a speech taken from the motion picture The Great Debaters
(Winfrey, Roth, Black, Weinstein, Weinstein, & Washington, 2007). Step five concludes
with a think, pair, share activity (Lyman, 1981) that debriefs students on the presence,
meaning, and effect of paralinguistic variation in the step-four video.
Video Clips
The step-one video clip is from Mad Men (2007-present), the AMC dramatic
television series about a mysterious and talented advertising executive set in 1960s
America. The specific video clip is taken from episode 13, The Wheel (Weiner & Taylor,
2007): 34 minutes, 55 seconds to 38 minutes, 1 second (3 minutes, 26 seconds). The clip
depicts the lead character using low volume, a slow rate, and low pitch to associate a
Kodak film projector with tenderness, sentimentality, and nostalgia. If the DVD is not
available, the clip can be found by searching YouTube using the terms Mad Men and
Carousel speech. The step-four video is an excerpt from The Great Debaters (Winfrey,
et al., 2007), a film that tells the story of Americas first nationally competitive African-
American debate team from Wiley College. This clip depicts the Wiley team supporting
racial integration against a team of White students from Oklahoma Christian University.
The clip shows Wileys only female debater delivering a speech that progressively
increases in volume, rate, and pitch until it reaches a crescendo of anger directed at the
injustice of racial segregation. This clip is located 53 minutes, 27 seconds to 56 minutes,
40 seconds (4 minutes, 17 seconds) into the film. If the DVD is not available, the clip
can be found by searching YouTube using the terms time for justice and The Great
Debaters.
This activity works best in a classroom with a computer connected to a mounted
video imager. Before class, save the step-one and step-four video clips on an external
storage device, like a flash drive. The videos format must be compatible with the
player(s) on the classrooms computer. Alternatively, the clips could be streamed from
YouTube or played directly from the DVDs.
Response and Analysis Forms
The step-one emotional response form guides the students responses to the step-
one video clip and structures the step-two discussion. Similarly, the step-four
paralinguistic analysis form guides analysis of the step-four video clip and structures the
step-five discussion. Create and print as many step-one and step-four response forms as
there are students in the class, plus one additional form for the instructor.
Lecture Materials
Prepare a short lecture (i.e., about 10 minutes) that defines paralinguistic variation
and illustrates it with the definitions of rate, volume, and pitch. The lecture should
conclude with an explanation of how variations in rate (slow versus fast), volume (quiet
versus loud), and pitch (low frequency versus high frequency) reflect and elicit emotion.
Procedure
1. Distribute an emotional response form containing the instructions and questions

provided below. Ask students to follow the instructions on their emotional response
form. When students are ready, play the Mad Men (Weiner & Taylor, 2007) video
clip. Following the clip, give students a minute or two to complete the emotional
response form. While they work on the form, cue the step-four video clip (5-10
minutes).
Instructions: While watching the video clip, consider the following questions.
After viewing the clip, briefly record your responses.
Question 1: What is the emotional tone of this speech?
Question 2: How did this speech make you feel?
2. Invite students to verbally report their responses on the emotional response form.
Students will likely report that the speech elicited sadness or reflection. If students
initiate an explanation of how the clip affected them, use it to transition to the
prepared lecture (5-10 minutes).
3. Deliver the lecture. At its close, introduce step four of the activity, and hand out the
step-four paralinguistic analysis form containing the instructions and questions listed
below (5-10 minutes).
Instructions: While watching the video clip, consider the following questions.
After viewing the clip, briefly record your analysis.
Question 1: What is the emotional tone of this speech?
Question 2: How did this speech make you feel?
Question 3: How did the speakers use of rate, volume, and pitch reflect and
communicate her emotional state?
4. Give students a minute or two to read the instructions on the paralinguistic analysis
form. When students are ready, play The Great Debaters (Winfrey et al., 2007) video
clip. Following the video, give students a few moments to individually complete
their paralinguistic analysis forms (5-10 minutes).
5. Ask students to discuss their paralinguistic analysis with a nearby student. Announce
that student pairs will be asked to share their discussion with the entire class. Give
pairs three minutes to discuss their analysis. After they begin, start timing and
announce the time every 60 seconds; this will keep students on task. After three
minutes, invite students to share their discussion with the entire class (5-10 minutes).
Debriefing
The think, pair, share component in step five creates an apt context for this
activitys debriefing. It provides students with three distinct opportunities to articulate
their understanding of emotionally meaningful paralinguistic variations in rate, volume,
and pitch. First, individual students articulate their understanding in writing on the
paralinguistic analysis form; second, individual students verbally represent their
understanding to a partner; and third, student pairs prepare to verbally articulate their
understanding to the entire class. At this stage, achievement of the activitys objectives is
virtually guaranteed by the instructors active involvement in guiding the students
interpretations of the step-four videos depiction of paralinguistic variation and its
relationship to the step-four videos emotional content.
Students tend to observe that the speakers indignation and passion are
underscored by her steadily increasing rate, greater volume, and higher pitch. Students
often further acknowledge that the speaker is demanding action on the issue of racial
injustice. Ask students to consider how the speakers meaning would have been different
had she slowed her rate and lowered her volume and pitch. Students generally report that
the speech would have sounded more like surrender than a call to action. Instructors
should conclude the activity by relating paralinguistic variation to the specific form(s) of
speaking implicated in their particular courses.
Appraisal
This activity provides students and instructors with a common vocabulary for
recalling and representing the emotional significance of paralinguistic variations in rate,
volume, and pitch. That vocabulary can then be the basis for specifying how vocal
variation usefully punctuates a speechs emotional content. Because students are often
emotionally affected by the video clips, they may be more likely to recall the lesson when
preparing or improving their own speeches. Research shows greater memory for
emotionally arousing narratives (Cahill & McGaugh, 1995). Finally, this activitys use of
several teaching modalities (e.g., audiovisual media, class discussion, dyadic interaction,
and didactic lecture) has the potential to engage students of various learning styles.
References
Alberts, J.K., Nakayama, T.K., & Martin, J.N. (2010). Human communication in society
(2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson.
Burgoon, J.K., Birk, T., & Pfau, M. (1990). Nonverbal behaviors, persuasion and
credibility. Human Communication Research, 17, 140-169. doi: 10.1111/j.1468-
2958.1990.tb00229.x
Cahill, L., & McGaugh, J.L. (1995). A novel demonstation of enhanced memory
associated with emotional arrousal. Consciousness and Cognition, 4, 410-421.
doi: 10.1006/ccog.1995.1048
DeVito, J. (2000). The elements of public speaking (7th ed.). New York: Addison Wesley
Longman, Inc.
Hatfield, E., Cacioppo, J.T., & Rapson, R.L. (1994). Emotional contagion: Studies in
emotion and social interaction. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Jorgensen, P. F. (1998). Affect, persuasion, and communication processes. In P. A.
Andersen & L. K. Guerrero (Eds.), Handbook of Communication and Emotion:
Research, theory, applications, and contexts (pp. 403-422). San Diego, CA:
Academic Press.
Juslin, P.N., & Laukka, P. (2003). Communication of emotions in vocal expressions and
music performance: Different channels, same code? Psychological Bulletin, 129,
770-814. doi: 10.1037/0033-2909.129.5.770
Lucas, S. (2009). The art of public speaking (10th ed.). New York: McGraw Hill.
Lyman, F. (1981). The responsive classroom discussion: The inclusion of all students. In
A. Anderson (Ed.), Mainstreaming Digest (pp. 109-113). College Park, MD:
University of Maryland Press.
O'Hair, D., Stewart, R., & Rubenstein, H. (2012). A speaker's guidebook: Text and
reference (5th ed.). Boston, MA: Bedford / St. Martins.
Planalp, S. (1999). Communicating emotion: Social, moral, and cultural processes. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Scherer, K. R. (1986). Vocal affect expression: A review and a model for future research.
Psychological Bulletin, 99, 143-165. doi: 10.1037//0033-2909.99.2.143
Weiner, M. (Writer), & Taylor, A. (Director). (2007). The wheel [Television series
episode]. In Weiner Brothers (Producer), Mad Men. Los Angeles, CA: AMC.
Winfrey, O., Roth, J., Black, T., Weinstein, B., Weinstein, H. (Producers), &
Washington, D. (Director). The great debaters [Motion Picture]. Chicago, IL:
Harpo Productions.
Zarefsky, D. (2011). Public speaking strategies for success (6th ed.). Boston, MA:
Pearson Learning Solutions.
Stacey A. Peterson8
Associate Professor & Chair
Notre Dame of Maryland University
speterson@ndm.edu
Abstract
Classroom discussions around race and difference are often difficult and challenging.
We all come to our social interactions as products of our cultural selves, race being one
of a myriad of multi-faceted characteristics. Therefore, while many feel that race is
something that is discussed ad nauseam, others feel that such discussions rarely scratch
the surface. This exercise uses the Implicit Association Test on race to encourage
students to reflect upon and examine their hidden biases and address the role those biases
play in potential communicative interactions, decisions, actions, and even emotions that
they, the students, likely have of people of a particular race. Given the centrality of
communication to our behaviors, worldview, identity, and relationships, this assignment
is not only relevant to the discipline, but it can be used in several communication courses.
Although students initially respond with resistance to seeing their own biases, subsequent
written reflection and class discussion provide them the opportunity to see how
powerfully prior associations impact them, how communication plays a vital role in the
process through which those biases are created and perpetuated, and how negative
associations can be overcome.
Courses
Intercultural Communication; Fundamentals of Oral Communication where race, culture,

ethnicity are addressed; Popular Culture; Interpersonal Communication
Objectives:
To explain how and why people make certain racial associations.

To address how societal messages can impact possible personal beliefs,
perceptions and behaviors.
To explain how our unconscious beliefs about race can conflict with our
conscious ones and impact behaviors and interactions.
Issues around race, discrimination, and bias seem to confound people while they
heavily occupy popular discourse. The election of Barack Obama in 2008 as Americas
first African American president ushered in a series of discussions asserting that the US
8
Stacey A. Peterson (Ph.D., Rutgers) is Associate Professor & Chair of the Communication Arts
Department at Notre Dame of Maryland University in Baltimore, MD.
had become a post-racial society where race was something that was finally in our
nations collective rear view mirror. Shortly after the election, an article in The Atlantic
(Hsu, 2009) examined whether the identity of whiteness might be eroding due to
multicultural intersections and to the growth of multiracial couples and families, resulting
in what the author referred to as a beigingof America. The author went so far as to
suggest that being white may eventually become a disadvantaged identity due to its
absence of coolness, and a post-white world could be looming (Hsu, 2009).
However, complex racial dynamics have not seemed to diminish since Obamas
election and subsequent 2012 reelection. In fact, recent events such George
Zimmermans murder trial for the shooting death of African American teen Trayvon
Martin and subsequent commentary brought issues of race right back to the forefront
(Zimmerman, himself, has been described as white Hispanic due to his Peruvian
heritage (Fish, 2013). The recent Coke Cola Super Bowl advertisement featuring
Americans of varied ethnic backgrounds singing America the Beautiful
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=443Vy3I0gJs) stirred anglocentric-based discussions
on message boards about who gets to claim the American identity. Therefore, even
though America has often touted itself as a nation of immigrants and a nation of
acceptance, its citizens still wrestle with issues about difference and bias.
Hsu (2009) provides points to ponder in the 21st century:
We aspire to be post-racial, but we still live within the structures of privilege,

injustice, and racial categorization that we inherited from an older order. We can
talk about defining ourselves by lifestyle rather than skin color, but our lifestyle
choices are still racially coded. We know, more or less, that race is a fiction that
often does more harm than good, and yet it is something we cling to without fully
understanding whyas a social and legal fact, a vague sense of belonging and
place that we make solid through culture and speech.
These nuances and societal tensions merit the importance and relevance of this
assignment employing Greenwald, McGhee, and Schwartzs (1998) Implicit Association
(IAT) to encourage students to assess and reflect on their own preconceived notions of
race. Communication, as the means through which we co-create and develop meaning,
plays a key role in racial discussions. Not only does it work as a tool that can allow us to
share and better understand perceptions and perspectives between and among cultures, it
also provides the means for how we create and develop our sense of identity (Adler &
Rodman, 2012). Results from the IAT can form a valuable venue for transformative and
reparative continued discussions about race.
Part I
The instructor should do some set up leading to this assignment. Readings and
class discussion about race perceptions and media influences provide an effective way to
introduce the topic, particularly since conversations around race tend to be
uncomfortable. This is a way to contextualize the complexities in racial perceptions.

Several chapters in Martin & Nakayamas Intercultural Communication in Contexts
(2010) cover these issues in a fundamental manner. Chapter 5 addresses racial
categorization, the social construction of race as well as legal implications. Chapter 7
discusses stereotypes, prejudice, discrimination, and non-verbal bias, all of which impact
our judgments and potential behaviors towards others. Chapter 9 highlights the impact of
popular culture and how we learn a lot (in positive as well as problematic ways) about
others from exposure to various media artifacts. The instructor should use these chapters
or similar material to explain the cognitive complexity humans deal with when drawing
conclusions. On pages 364-365, Martin and Nakayama use Stuart Halls (1980)
encoding/decoding model to explain how people can draw different conclusions when
exposed to a text, (i.e. a television show, magazine picture, etc.) due to their experiences,
social interactions, and motivations (2010). These social elements, along with each
persons individual characteristics construct their identity impact how they create
meaning.
Students should also be assigned Chapter 3 in Malcolm Gladwells (2005) Blink.
This chapter explains the concepts around the mental associations that people make and
how powerful unconscious attitudes are, even if they conflict with conscious attitudes.
Gladwell also explains the background and workings of the Implicit Association Test,
especially with regard to how we can be socialized to make certain associations about
certain people--in this case, black people. This information should form the basis of the
instructor-led discussions during the debriefing period, since many students will get
results that conflict with their conscious beliefs and feelings.
Also, students should be instructed to read the sections that provide an overview
of the IAT, background, ethical considerations, and frequently asked questions. This
material is on the Project Implicit section of the Harvard University homepage, located at
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/ and all of this material serves to help address issues
of possible discomfort with the results, test reliability, how and why its used, and what
the results suggest.
It may be appropriate here to initiate additional class discussion that provides an
example of how implicit associations may play out and how people often act or react
based upon their unconscious attitudes as opposed to their conscious ones. In my home of
Baltimore, Maryland, a Latino student was hospitalized in June, 2014, after a fight with a
black student. News reports such as that located at http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2014-
06-04/news/bs-md-digital-tension-20140604_1_digital-harbor-high-school-good-
students-social-media (Bowie & Campbell, 2014) suggested that this event underscored
pent up tensions between these two groups that have been simmering for years,
particularly due to discourse around a large influx of undocumented immigrants.
Although there has been some debate as to whether this was actually a racially-charged
incident or just a fight between two people who didnt like each other, the prevailing
discussion in the city does raise the issue of bias. The instructor can let the students read
the accompanying article and have them discuss what, if any, racial biases played a role
in the fight and why the media coverage decided to focus on racial tensions. It may help
minimize some of the discomfort that tends to come up during this assignment.
The instructor may want to use an alternate or additional example to help
illustrate the impact of implicit associations. When People magazine named Oscar winner
Lupita Nyongo as one of their 50 Most Beautiful, and her face graced the cover
(http://www.people.com/people/package/article/0,,20360857_20809287,00.html)
rekindling a long-running conversation about skin color, race, and beauty. This
photograph and Nyongos selection may be an effective entry point for discussing
stereotypical American beauty traits, (e.g., blonde, thin, white, and tall), and how we tend
to draw snap judjments about certain depictions of beauty while rejecting others. In the
brief accompanying article, Nyongo discusses struggling to find comfort with her
appearance, given that there were few media examples of women who mirrored her dark
brown coloring and tightly curled hair.
Part II
Outside of class, students will take the Race IAT which can be located at
https://implicit.harvard.edu/implicit/demo/selectatest.html.
There are several implicit association tests so it is important to clarify that for the
purposes of this assignment, they are to take the one that is specific to Race. The
instructor should also check this web link regularly to ensure that it takes the users to the
appropriate site. There have been times when I have given the assignment and the site
took the user to a different test. In the event that this should occur, users can follow the
following link through the Understanding Prejudice website.
http://www.understandingprejudice.org/index.php
Click on the section where it says Test Yourself for Hidden Biases. The user will be
taken to the Implicit Associations tests on Race as well as one on Gender. Make sure
they take the test on Race. They may want to take the test on gender as a warm up to get
used to the test-taking style; to help minimize anxiety by desensitizing themselves to the
idea that they do, indeed have biases; or even just out of curiosity. Students are also
welcome to take any of the other implicit association tests for the same reasons.
Part III
Once students have taken the test, they will get a result indicating how strongly
they associate certain characteristics with blacks and whites. These results suggest a
degree of bias either toward black people or toward white people. They should state their
results and as part of a written reflection, and then discuss these results and their feelings
about those results. The reflection should also include discussion on these additional
questions: What did you learn about yourself after seeing the results of your test? Were
you surprised in any way? How do you think these results impact your intercultural
communication encounters? How do racial perceptions create problems in
communication?
Debriefing
More than 80 percent of people who have taken the Race IAT, regardless of racial
background or explicit behaviors, have pro-white associations (Gladwell, 2005). So, it is
not surprising that many students are very upset with their results. Many students will
declare that the test is compromised, they will deny their results, they will retake the test,
they will also declare that they are not racist, concluding that the test results yield that
conclusion.
It is very important that the instructor refers students back to the Blink reading and
that he/she uses that as a basis to explain the differences between implicit and explicit
associations. The instructor should also discuss that cultural messages, media images, and
symbolic discourses play a powerful role in why people tend to score the way they do.
The instructor needs to explain why their results do not necessarily indicate that they
have racist leanings, but they likely do internalize certain biases. It does not mean that
their implicit and explicit associations will match or represent their sincere feelings. In
other words, its okay and we all can learn from these results. Even talking about them
can help overcome the negative associations.
A slide show from The Oprah Winfrey Show (Rakieten, 2007) found at the url
http://www.oprah.com/oprahshow/Overcoming-Prejudice shows an example of extreme
bias based on ones sexual orientation, as well as one based on religious bias. The site
also provides an informative restatement about the use of the IAT and the commonality
of implicit associations that is phrased in a simple and accessible way.
I prefer to use this as part of our debriefing discussions because it reiterates what
Ive addressed in the readings and the lectures prior to having the students take the IAT,
and the Oprah show format makes it palatable and understandable. I go through the slides
with them and the examples of prejudice that are discussed. As the slideshow moves into
the IAT, I spend extra time restating the subject matter. It helps them to better understand
the difference between overt behaviors and how implicit associations can contribute to
those behaviors. Its important to repeatedly go back to the Gladwell chapter, the Project
Implicit homepage, and the Oprah slide show to explain that their results do not mean
that they are racist because many students will be tempted toward that conclusion.
Appraisal
This assignment and activity has always led to a turning point in this class. Many
students have results that fall into the pro-white associations category, just like the
majority of people who take this test, so their reactions reflect their unsettled emotions.
The ensuing discussion is necessary because it creates a safe environment for them to
express these feelings. It also allows them to develop a better understanding as to what
factors influence their results and hence, conclusions and behaviors drawn by themselves
and others in society. The recent media coverage over the case popularly-known as the
loud music trial, where a Caucasian man was convicted of attempted murder for
shooting into a vehicle filled with African-American teenage boys, could provide another
discussion point around this topic. The aforementioned George Zimmerman/Trayvon
Martin case could provide another one. It may help if the instructor gives personal
examples of when theyve fallen prey to their own implicit associations, so the students
see that it is part of how were all socialized. Key to this assignment is guiding the
students in understanding the multi-layered complexities in racial bias. As stated in the
reading material, media images, interpersonal discussions, life experiences, legal
dynamics, proximity and regular or sporadic interactions with people of varied racial and
ethnic backgrounds impact our implicit and explicit associations, powerfully impacting
the conclusions we all draw.
A person is never just their race. They are a combination of many biological,
physical and cultural factors. Race is not a linear concept, and discussion about the
multiple factors that encompass a persons identity can help students to understand why
race is understood so differently. The students should also be pointed back to the Oprah
(Rakieten, 2007) slide show and the Gladwell (2006) reading to illustrate how those same
aforementioned communication issues that can impact implicit associations in a negative
way can be used to impact them positively. The instructor does not want to shame the
students but instead, help them to understand how and why these associations are
common among people of varied backgrounds, even those who are of African descent.
The post-IAT discussion is also an important time to encourage students to
develop an awareness and presence of their racial associations, while attempting to
unpack their personal experiences that may have impacted their IAT results. If they are
unhappy about their results, how can they shift their experiences so that they might get a
different result in the future? Should they socialize with different people or watch
different programming? The instructor can encourage students to examine some of their
snap judgments and reflect on the processes through which they drew certain racially-
oriented conclusions. Another point to keep in mind is that 20 percent of the people who
take the Race IAT do not have strong anti-black or pro-white associations. These
individuals should be encouraged to share and discuss their experiences and help explain
their results.
As previously stated, this assignment is designed to address how and why we
draw certain conclusions about race, and to help us develop an awareness about our
implicit associations. It is not to embarrass or stigmatize. Throughout the course, it is
likely that examples of implicit associations will surface and the instructor can raise them
for short class discussions to reiterate this lesson or encourage students to bring in
examples for class participation credit.
References
Adler, R. B. & Rodman, G. (2012). Understanding human communication. New York:

Oxford University Press.
Bowie, L. & Campbell, C. (2014, June 4). Digital Harbor unlikely school for racial
tensions, educators say. The Baltimore Sun. Retrieved from
http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2014-06-04/news/bs-md-digital-tension-
20140604_1_digital-harbor-high-school-good-students-social-media
Fish, J. M. (2013, August 6). Looking in the cultural mirror. Psychology Today [Web log
post]. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/looking-in-the-
cultural-mirror/201308/what-race-is-george-zimmerman
Gladwell, M. (2005). Blink: The power of thinking without thinking. New York: Little,
Brown and Company.
Greenwald, A. G., McGhee, D. E. & Schwartz, J. L. K. (1998). Measuring individual

differences in implicit cognition: The Implicit Association Test. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 74, 1464-1480.
Hsu, H. (2009 January/February). The end of white America? The Atlantic
http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2009/01/the-end-of-white-
america/307208/
Jordan, J., & Coulton, A. Y. (2014, May 23). Oscar winner Lupita Nyongo: 50 most
beautiful. People. Cover.
Martin, J. N. & Nakayama, T. K. (2010). Intercultural communication in contexts (5th
ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
Rakieten, E. (Executive Producer). (2007, June 6). The Oprah Winfrey show [Television
series]. Chicago, IL: Harpo Productions.
"I don't always look at memes, but when I do, it's for a class":
Using Memes to Demonstrate Language Rules
Jocelyn M. DeGroot, PhD9

Assistant Professor
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
jocbrow@siue.edu
Hannah Coy
Graduate Student
Southern Illinois University Edwardsville
hcoy@siue.edu
Abstract
This activity uses Internet memes to demonstrate the pervasiveness of language rules and
cultures effect on language in online culture. Numerous introductory communication
courses include a discussion on verbal communication that focuses on language rules and
the effects of culture on verbal communication. The most relevant language rules for
memes are the regulative rules that guide action and how we use language (Cronen,
Pearce, & Harris, 1979). In this exercise, students analyze and evaluate language rules
present in popular online memes. The students identify the language rule utilized in each
of a pre-chosen set of Internet memes and generate at least three memes of their own that
fit within the theme and language rules of the meme as a communication form. Students
also answer questions regarding cultures role in meme topics and language choices.
Courses
Interpersonal Communication; Public Speaking; Language; Media; Intercultural

Communication; Computer-Mediated Communication
Objectives
Students will evaluate memes to determine the language rules employed as well
as cultures influence on the memes message.
Students will also create their own examples of well-known memes using correct,
meme-specific language and culture-based rules.
9 Jocelyn DeGroot is an Assistant Professor and Basic Course Director in the Department of Applied
Communication Studies at Southern Illinois University Edwardsville. She teaches a variety of
communication courses including interpersonal communication and computer-mediated communication.
Her research interests include computer-mediated communication and communicative issues of death and
dying.
Hannah Coy earned her B.A. in Communication from Hanover College and is an independent
researcher.
While the word meme has become a widespread part of the pop culture lexicon,
meme theory is actually much older and broader than these now-popular digital,
captioned photographs. Memes are ideas, beliefs, or patterns of behavior that spread
throughout a culture (Dawkins, 1976), including songs, phrases, clothing, and images
(Knobel & Lankshear, 2007). More informally, and more recently, memes have come to
be thought of as images overlaid with text that spread by imitation via the internet.
However, this particular type of meme, while a large part of internet culture, is actually
only one mode of meme communication, and is more precisely known as the image
macro.
Image macros generally consist of an image in the middle of a pictorial frame
with white text above and below the image. For simplicity, throughout the remainder of
this essay, the term meme will be used to refer to a particular picture or graphic image
or the body of various messages using that image (e.g., those using the image known as
Grumpy Cat http://www.grumpycats.com/memes/ ), over which any number of text
choices can be laid with different effect. The term image macro will refer to a given
meme with specific text overlaid (e.g., I had fun once. It was awful.
http://www.grumpycats.com/memes/i-had-fun-once-it-was-awful/ ).
Other popular memes include those known as LOLcats, Ermahgerd, and First
World Problems. These and many others can be found on Memegenerator.net and other
similar websites, which allow any internet user to select a meme-specific picture and
insert his or her choice of text to create a personalized image macro. The content of the
text is usually humorous, and the text follows language rules that are exclusive to each
particular picture/meme. For example, Grumpy Cat memes nearly always contain
negativity, often including the word no. Exploring the text rules on the image macro is
the focus of this teaching activity.
Numerous introductory communication courses and textbooks contain discussions
about verbal communication that include information regarding language rules (i.e.,
pragmatics) and the effects of culture on communication. Regulative rules are those that
guide action and how language is used (Cronen, Pearce, & Harris, 1979). These are the
most relevant language rules for this teaching activity because, essentially, regulative
rules explain the patterns of language that should be utilized when creating an image
macro to maximize its desired impact on ones intended audience.
Additionally, memes allow students to learn about cultures role in message
content because memes are often influenced by cultural norms and expectations (Burgess,
2008), and only memes and image macros that properly represent the socio-cultural
environment are spread, or go viral (Knobel & Lankshear, 2007; Shifman, 2012). A
shared culture or background is key to understanding any given image macros premise
and punch line. Each social group develops a culture that includes the basis of
humorous interactions (Holmes & Marra, 2002). Joking is interactive, referential, and
embedded in a context (Fine & De Soucey, 2005). The messages intended audience must
have a shared reference point in order to make sense of the humor. The more familiar a
viewer is with multiple image macros created from a particular picture/meme, the more
likely he or she will understand the joke communicated in the text of a newly-viewed
image macro created from it. In this single-class teaching activity, students identify a
memes language rules and work together to produce original, language rule-compliant,
and situationally-appropriate content for that meme.
Being involved in classroom activities can aid in the learning process (Astin,
1984). Further, by applying communication concepts (i.e., language rules) to information
they are already interested in or knowledgeable of, students are more likely to be
motivated to comprehend the material and have a positive classroom experience
(Schiefele, 1991). Thats why memes make such useful classroom examples.
Before class, the instructor chooses three or four popular memes to use in class.
Memegenerator.net and memesly.com are examples of websites that contain several
image macros categorized by meme title, such as Bad Luck Brian, Socially Awkward
Penguin, and Success Kid. The instructor selects three or four exemplar image macros
from each meme title chosen. These meme images are easily downloaded to a
PowerPoint handout, or the instructor can show or print them directly from a website. To
learn more about each meme, knowyourmeme.com provides a thorough description of
the memes origin as well as the message type typically portrayed by the meme. Knowing
the history and common usage of the meme helps the instructor and student situate the
meme in context.
The day of the activity, the instructor begins by providing an example of a meme,
its language rules, and relevant cultural considerations so that the students understand the
objective of the activity. Intended to serve as an example for the class, the instructor
shows the variations of the one meme (e.g., show three examples of image macros
generated from the Success Kid meme). When showing the meme examples, the students
identify the language rules of that meme, focusing mostly on the regulative rules that
govern how language and sentence structure are utilized in that meme. For example,
Success Kid is typically used to indicate a positive outcome of a problematic situation. A
picture of a toddler making a fist in accomplishment is in the center of the frame with
white text above and below the image. Examples of Success Kid text include: Dont
know a question on a test // Answer is in another question, and, Late to work // Boss
was even later. The main language rule for this meme is that the top line of text typically
reveals a mundane problem or situation, and the bottom line of text reveals a triumph
over that problem. In addition, the text is rarely in proper sentence format.
Students then identify and discuss how the content of the text is (or is not)
affected by cultural aspects. That is, what does the audience need to know prior to
viewing the image macro in order to understand its message? For example, in the
previous Success Kid example about test-taking, the audience will likely need to have an
understanding of being a student and taking tests, being fortunate and attentive enough to
recognize that an answer to one question can be found in another question.
After the example is shown and discussed as a class, the instructor breaks the
class into groups consisting of four or five members. Each group will receive a different
meme to evaluate and are given a printout of that memes exemplar image macros. One
copy per group is sufficient, for one student usually reads the text to the other group
members. The groups are instructed to evaluate their memes for language rules utilized in
the body of image macros created from that meme. The students should also be able to
recognize the image macros common premise (e.g., awkward situations, unfortunate
situations, dumb teenagers) and its implied audience. After identifying language rules, the
groups should generate at least three examples of their own that fit within the meme
theme and language rules. One example should be context-specific to the university or
geographic region to highlight the importance of cultural impact on message content.
When groups have discussed their rules and created their own examples, the class
reconvenes. Each group briefly identifies their memes language rules and reads their
original image macro examples. If possible, the instructor should show the picture used in
each groups meme category (from the website) to the class, so the students can also see
the image that would accompany the text.
As an alternative, the instructor can choose not to use small groups and, instead,
focus on one or two memes as a class. The remainder of the activity continues as
previously described.
Debriefing
The following questions can help guide the class discussion about the students
examples and other language rules related to memes:
1. What were some common language rules?
2. What is the general theme of the meme?
3. How does culture play a role in the memes topics and language used?
4. What background information is needed in order to understand the memes
premise?
5. Who is the implied audience?
6. What happens when an image macro is created that does not follow the
relevant language rules?
Based on the amount of classroom time that is available, this discussion can take
as much or as little time as necessary. The instructor can also show examples of poorly-
constructed image macros (e.g., when language rule are not followed) and have the
students identify why the language does not follow the rules. During the discussion on
cultures role in comprehending and replicating a meme, it is also useful to show image
macro examples that are specific to the university or region (or a completely different
university) to demonstrate how being a member of the culture (e.g., the university) is
required in order to understand their intended messages.
Appraisal
In this activity, the students are able to see how regulative rules are used and what
happens when those rules are not followed. Because most students are familiar with
memes, they are able to identify with them and thoughtfully contribute to the class
discussions. Students are also able to see how culture plays a role in language use and
message construction. Further, since this activity has students identifying language rules
and creating their own image macros based on those rules, the exercise focuses on the
higher order thinking skills identified in Blooms Taxonomy (i.e., Application, Analysis,
Synthesis, and Evaluation; Bloom, 1956).
This activity can be expanded or modified in a variety of ways. To amend this

activity, the instructor may wish to have the students speculate as to why some memes
are more contagious than others. Jonah Bergers (2013) popular book, Contagious, and
Knobel and Lankshears (2007) chapter on characteristics of successful memes would be
useful to read in conjunction with this activity to further determine what makes a meme
contagious. The debriefing then might require students to identify characteristics that lead
to a memes s success (or demise). Another option is to expand on the notion of genre,
including notions of permanence and change. The related class discussion can include a
dialogue about the evaluation of image macros and their language use. That is, how has
language on an image macro transitioned from one topic or tone to another? Overall, this
activity challenges students to analyze popular Internet memes and consider the cultural
implications of them rather than blindly consuming them.
References
Astin, W. W. (1984). Student involvement: A developmental theory for higher education.
Journal of College Student Personnel, 25, 297-308.
Berger, J. (2013). Contagious: Why things catch on. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster.
Bloom, B. S. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives, Handbook I: The cognitive
domain. New York: Longmans.
Burgess, J. (2008). All your chocolate rain are belong to us? In G. Lovink & S. Niederer
(Eds.), Video vortex reader: Responses to YouTube (pp. 101-109). Amsterdam:
Institute of Network Cultures.
Cronen, V. E., Pearce, W. B., & Harris, L. M. (1979). The logic of the coordinated
management of meaning: A rules-based approach to the first course in
interpersonal communication. Communication Education, 28, 22-38.
doi:10.1080/03634527909378327
Dawkins, R. (1976). The selfish gene. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fine, G. A., & De Soucey, M. (2005). Joking cultures: Humor themes as social regulation
in group life. Humor, 18(1), 1-22. doi:0933-1719/05/00180001
Holmes, J., & Marra, M. (2002). Having a laugh at work: How humor contributes to
workplace culture. Journal of Pragmatics, 34, 1683-1710. doi:10.1016/S0378-
2166(02)00032-2
Knobel, M., & Lankshear, C. (2007). Online memes, affinities, and cultural production.
In M. Knobel & C. Lankshear (Eds.), A new literacies sampler (pp. 199-227).
New York: Peter Lang.
Schiefele, U. (1991). Interest, learning, and motivation. Educational Psychologist, 26,
299-323. doi:10.1080/00461520.1991.9653136
Shifman, L. (2012). Anatomy of a YouTube meme. New Media & Society, 14(2), 187-
203. doi:10.1177/1461444811412160
Joshua N. Westwick10
Assistant Professor
Joshua.Westwick@sdstate.edu
Kelli J. Chromey
Doctoral Student
North Dakota State University
kelli.chromey@ndsu.edu
Abstract
A common learning objective of many communication courses centers on speech

criticism and evaluation, and the classic canons of rhetoric (invention, arrangement, style,
memory and delivery of the speaker) have been used to help communication students
achieve these learning outcomes. This teaching activity provides a creative and
meaningful way to explore the canons of rhetoricthrough assigning students to perform
critical evaluation of a popularized YouTube video, the campaign stump speech of Stark
County, Ohio, treasurer candidate Phil Davison. Students have responded favorably to the
activity and demonstrated an increased awareness and understanding of the rhetorical
canons and their use in speech criticism/evaluation.
Courses
This instructional activity was designed for a basic public speaking course based
on the classical frame of public speaking. However, the activity could also be utilized in
Human Communication, Public Speaking, Argumentation and Debate, and Rhetorical
Studies.
Student Learning Outcomes
To increase students understanding and awareness of the canons: invention,

arrangement, style, memory, and delivery.
To apply the basic principles of the canons of rhetoric to critique a public
speaking presentation.
10 Joshua N. Westwick, Ed.D., is an Assistant Professor of Communication Studies and Theatre and
Director of the Basic Communication Course at South Dakota State University. In addition to teaching the
basic course, he teaches General Communication, Small Group Communication, and Instructional
Methods. His research interests include instructional communication, communication apprehension, and
the basic course. His research has been published in Communication Education, the Basic Course Annual,
and several state journals.
Kelli J. Chromey, M.S. (SDSU, 2013) is a doctoral student and Assistant Basic Course Director at
North Dakota State University. Her research areas include the basic course, organizational
communication, and impostor phenomenon.
To improve personal perspectives on invention, arrangement, style, memory, and

delivery through oral and written criticism.
Activity Background
The spectacle of Stark County, Ohio, treasurer candidate Phil Davisons speech
that led to its viral dissemination was due to the fact that this speech, unlike many of
those recorded and archived, demonstrates both the speakers weaknesses and his
strengths. Before completing this activity, students should have a preliminary
understanding of the classic canons of rhetoric (see Cicero, 2001). After a brief review of
the canons, the students will apply their knowledge of the rhetorical elements by
watching Phil Davisons speech on YouTube
(https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SsCe2LIYkNo). The students will then extend their
understanding of the canons by orally describing examples from the speech in a
classroom discussion.
The activity requires access to the YouTube video and the discussion questions
outlined in this manuscript. It may be completed in 25 to 30 minutes of a standard 50-
minute class. After watching the video, a group discussion regarding Davisons speech
and a debriefing of the activity will occur. The discussion allows students to apply the
principles of the canons of rhetoric to another individuals speech, and the debriefing
questions connect the activity to the content and the student learning objectives.
Evaluating public discourse is a central aspect of day-to-day communication. The

merits of using classical rhetorical principles to help students achieve learning outcomes
have been noted for some time. Erickson (1968) stated, the comprehension and
application of rhetorical theory is the beginning of purposeful speech-making and
criticism is at once the beginning and the end of rhetorical theory (p. 173). The
significance of this evaluation stems from great communication philosophers. With
influence from Cicero, Quintilian, and Aristotle, the canons of rhetoric have remained an
important rhetorical tool for analysis in our present public speaking instruction. The five
canons, which are designed to evaluate public discourse, include invention, arrangement,
style, memory, and delivery. According to Charlesworth (2010):
Invention deals with the content of a speech, arrangement involves placing the
content in an order that is most strategic, style focuses on selecting linguistic
devices (such as metaphor) to make the message more appealing, memory assists
the speaker in delivering the message correctly, and delivery ideally enables great
reception of the message.
(p. 122)
Although numerous methods exist for speech evaluation, we have found that
analysis of the five canons of rhetoric provides a useful and meaningful method of peer
speech evaluation. First, through analysis of invention the critic explores the various
methods that a speaker uses to influence an audience through the content of the message,
such as: Did the speaker appear to care about the topic? Did the speaker adapt the
message to meet the needs of the audience? How did the speaker use evidence and
reasoning to support the points they were making? Second, analysis of arrangement asks
the critic to examine the organization of the oral presentation. For example: Did the
speaker provide clear development of their content? Was there an appropriate attention
getter or hook? Did the speaker provide a summary of the main points in the conclusion?
Third, through analysis of style the critic analyzes the choice and arrangement of the
speakers language. For instance: How did the speaker use language to convey their
message? Did the speaker use vivid or emotive language? Did the speaker use metaphor
or simile to illuminate their point? Fourth, through analysis of memory the critic
investigates how well the speaker knows their message. For example: Did the speaker
seem fluent in their delivery? Did the speaker seem prepared and rehearsed? Finally, by
exploring delivery the critic examines the speakers ability to disseminate their message.
Sample analysis questions include: Did the speaker maintain eye contact with the
audience? How did the speaker use para-language to reinforce their message? These
rhetorical elements, outlined above, provide a useful framework for speech criticism and
evaluation.
This instructional activity was created in order to develop an understanding and
application of the rhetorical canons through use in speech criticism and evaluation. The
activity allows students to evaluate a public presentation by exploring each cannon
individually. In order to create a unique classroom experience, we turned our attention to
popular YouTube videos of public discourse for speech analysis. Previous research has
illustrated that using YouTube in the classroom provides an opportunity to engage the
students in important subject matter through social media (Lehman, DuFrene, & Lehman,
2010). Thus, this activity asks the students to apply and articulate an analysis of the
canons to the popular political stump speech delivered by Phil Davison.
Although there are numerous speeches available for analysis online (see
www.americanrhetoric.com), Davisons popularized video is particularly useful as a
successful teaching tool (Mascarenhas, 2014) because it provides students an opportunity
to dissect a presentation and explore both the strengths and weaknesses of the speechs
content, language, and delivery. With this is mind, instructors are encouraged to use both
effective and ineffective examples of public speaking in their courses.
Following this classroom exercise, students are asked to complete a speech
criticism assignment using the classic canons of rhetoric. Public speaking scholars have
suggested that having students evaluate their classmates is very beneficial within the
public speaking course (Lucas, 1999). The benefits of peer evaluation include personal
reflection of the evaluators own skillset, enhanced speech delivery, and critical
evaluation of others arguments (Haleta, 2009). Through an examination of the classical
canons, students develop the skills needed to speak intelligibly, competently, and
convincingly to their audience.
Agenda
Prior to viewing the Phil Davison speech, instructors should provide the students
with an overview of invention, arrangement, style, memory, and delivery. After
reviewing the canons, have the students watch the Phil Davison campaign speech on
YouTube. Students should take notes on the strengths and weaknesses of the speech with
careful consideration of the canons of rhetoric.
Following the video, the instructor should pose the questions below to the class. If
the class is rather large, instructors can break students into smaller groups to discuss their
answers in a more intimate setting.
1. Considering each of the canons, which classic rhetorical strategies did Phil
Davison use in his speech?
2. What elements of the rhetorical strategies were less effective in Davisons
speech?
3. How would you provide both positive and constructive criticism to Davison? Be
sure to cite specific examples from his speech which would allow him to improve
this presentation.
Debriefing
The discussion questions and the visual artifact prompt a lively classroom discussion.
Students are able to connect their prior knowledge on invention, arrangement, style,
memory, and delivery to a humorous, real, and practical example of public speaking.
Once the students have completed the classroom discussion of the canons, the instructor
should pose questions to the class. The following questions tie the theoretical concepts to
the interactive activity and offer the students an expanded perspective on the rhetorical
evaluation.
1. How can you apply the elements of invention, arrangement, style, memory, and
delivery to a peer evaluation of your classmates speech performance?
2. How can you apply the elements of invention, arrangement, style, memory, and
delivery to evaluation of other types of public discourse?
3. In what ways have your perceptions and attitudes about the classical rhetorical
elements changed based on this activity?
Appraisal
The students became energized and excited to discuss the rhetorical canons based
on the YouTube example. We have found that as a result of the in-class activity, the
students become much more aware of the rhetorical elements when analyzing their peers
through the speech criticism assignment. Moreover, the activity is a meaningful and
memorable experience shared through formal and informal out-of-class communication
with the instructors. The students demonstrated increased understanding and applicability
of the principle foundations within the canons of rhetoric. Also, as demonstrated in the
follow-up assignment, through peer-evaluation of the students classmates speeches,
students demonstrated improved personal perspectives of the rhetorical cannons through
oral and written evaluation.
Using an example that does not depict a polished and effective presentation may
seem dubious or unorthodox in any classroom. However, we have found great success in
allowing the students to critically evaluate this particular speech by identifying areas for
development and improvement. In fact, students in our course indicated that watching
speech examples that are nearly perfect makes them more apprehensive as a public
presenter. Most students agreed that the exercise made them realize the importance of
speech development and rehearsal. In essence, the activity allowed them to become more
proficient public speakers and more critical evaluators of public discourse.

The classic canons of rhetoric provide a useful foundation for speech evaluation
and criticism. Although specifically used in this exercise to evaluate Davisons speech,
the rhetorical framework would prove useful for most types of speech evaluation. From
the communicative foundation of rhetorical tradition to the presence of social media, this
activity allows the students to engage actively in the classroom discussion of public
discourse.
References
Charlesworth, D. (2010). Re-presenting subversive songs: Applying strategies for

invention and arrangement to nontraditional speech texts. Communication
Teacher, 24, 122-126.
Cicero. (2001). De oratore. In P. Bizzell & B. Herzberg (Eds.), The rhetorical tradition:
Readings from classical times to the present (pp. 289-339). Boston: Bedford/St.
Martins Press.
Ericson, J. M. (1968). Evaluative and formulative functions in speech criticism. Western
Speech, 32, 173-176.
Haleta, L. L. (2009). Public speaking: Strategic choices (6th ed.). Englewood, CO:
Morton Publishing.
Lehman, C. M., DuFrene, D. D., & Lehman, M. W. (2010). YouTube video project: A
cool way to learn communication ethics. Business Communication Quarterly,
73, 444-449. doi:10.1177/1080569910385382
Lucas, S. E. (1999). Teaching public speaking. In A. L. Vangelisti, J. A. Daly, & G. W.
Friedrich (Eds.), Teaching communication: Theory, research, and methods (2nd
ed., pp. 157-170). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Mascarenhas, M. (2014). Wearing different listening hats: A classroom activity for
demonstrating the effect of listening attitudes. In J. E. Aitken (Ed.), Cases on
communication technology for second language acquisition and cultural learning.
(pp. 18-22). Hershey, PA: IGR Global.
Colleen Arendt, PhD11

Assistant Professor
Fairfield University,
carendt@fairfield.edu
Abstract
A great deal of research focuses on the importance of effective interviewing skills across
professions and interpersonal settings. This activity, based on speed dating, is designed
to improve students interviewing skills. Specifically, the activity develops listening and
probing skills by having students conduct mini interviews without preparation. The lack
of preparation forces students to rely only on their listening and probing skills instead of
an interview protocol. To increase difficulty, the questions can be tailored to employment
or internship interviews to help the interviewees prepare while their partners practice
listening and asking probing questions. This activity can also be modified to help students
work on basic conversation skills in a variety of communication courses.
Courses
Research Methods, Interviewing, Interpersonal and Health Communication, Public
Speaking and Business and Professional Speaking.
Objectives
To apply principles of interviewing, specifically listening and probing skills.
To appreciate the critical role listening plays in interviewing.
To identify individual students barriers to listening effectively.
To expand students use of probing (secondary) questions while avoiding question
pitfalls.
Providing students with real-world contexts to practice effective interviewing

skills, both as interviewer and as interviewee, can mean the difference between their
achieving desired outcomes versus missing opportunities in future internship and
employment interviews. Practicing these skills can also afford students the chance to
analyze, assess, improve, and apply listening skills. I created this interview speed
dating activity because I noticed that in previous interviewing activities, students were
adept at creating interview protocols but, during the interview, they merely moved from
one question to the next without listening and probing any of the interviewees answers.
This activity rewards students for improving these skills repeatedly in a fun environment.
This activity works well in an interviewing or research methods course, but can also be
used in interpersonal, relational, or public speaking courses because it can help students
improve their conversation skills. This activity would also work well in a health
11 Colleen Arendt is an Assistant Professor at Fairfield University.

communication course to meet the demand for interviewing skills in various healthcare
settings (for examples, see Percival, 2014; Wilson & Horman, 2013; Wong, Cheung, Lee,
Cheung, Leung, Wong, & Chan, 2007).
In the class periods leading up to this activity, students will have learned basic
interviewing skills, such as how to phrase their questions in an open-ended manner to
elicit more detailed answers as well as how to avoid question pitfalls (Stewart & Cash,
2013). Question pitfalls include asking yes or no questions, asking leading or loaded
questions, asking two questions at once (double barrel), or asking an open question
before immediately following it with a closed question (open-to-closed switch) such as,
Why did you choose a communication major? Was it because of the internship
opportunities? (Stewart & Cash, 2013).
Before beginning, I make sure to frame this activity as one that will specifically
help students work on their listening and probing skills. I also incorporate some research
that discusses the importance and difficulty in learning to be good listeners, including
research that suggests note-taking improves listening comprehension (Gur, Dilci, Coskun,
& Delican, 2013). Additionally, I emphasize the fact that a great deal of research has
focused upon improving interviewing skills in various professions, such as social work
(Rogers & Welch, 2009), law enforcement (Fisher, 2010; Walsh & Bull, 2010), and
health care (Percival, 2014; Wilson & Horman, 2013; Wong, Cheung, Lee, Cheung,
Leung, Wong, & Chan, 2007). This connection to professional and/or other interpersonal
settings also makes this activity pertinent in a variety of communication courses.
Addressing some barriers to listening may be beneficial. I address the barriers to effective
listening, such as environmental, psychological and physiological barriers (Adler,
Elmhorst & Lucas, 2013) at the end of the activity, which provides the students with the
information at the perfect time--just when many students realize that they need to
improve their listening skills.12
For this activity, I prepare a numbered list of fun questions. Questions include13:
1) If you could have any super power, what would it be? 2) If you could live anywhere in
the world, where would you choose? 3) What is your biggest pet peeve? 4) If you could
meet anyone famous, dead or alive, whom would you choose? 5) What is your ultimate
dream job? 6) Tell me something interesting about your hometown. 7) What is your
favorite season? 8) If you could trade places with someone famous for a week, whom
would you choose? 9) Who is your favorite fictional character? 10) What is your favorite
holiday?14
Next, I start the class by arranging the desks or tables in one long row, making it
easy for one side of the room to move down one chair easily with each partner turn (as
with speed dating). Before we begin, we take a minute to review some of the
12
See Adler, Elmhorst and Lucas (2013) for a comprehensive chapter on listening, including assumptions,
barriers, listening styles, and tips.
13
Please see Appendix A for a list of sample questions.
14
Please note that none of these questions include the and why? because I want students to include that in
their interview. Because most usually forget, after the first 1-2 rounds, when we pause to change seats, I
remind them to be sure they are asking why.
interviewing basics, such as using open-ended questions, avoiding question pitfalls, and
adding different types of probing questions (e.g., informational, restatement, mirror,
nudging, and clearinghouse probes) (Stewart & Cash, 2013). With students sitting in the
seats that I arranged, I designate one side to be the interviewers and one side to be the
interviewees.15 I choose one student to pick a number from 1-20 (or however many
questions I have prepared).16 I then read to the class the question that corresponds to the
number called. The interviewers in the room are then given approximately fifteen
seconds to write the question down along with anything else, such as one follow up
question (although I encourage them to follow the interviewees responses). I encourage
them to take notes while also maintaining eye contact and rapport as they have learned in
previous class meetings.
I also instruct interviewees to be honest, but reticent. This means that they should
answer closed-ended questions with short, one word answers while open-ended questions
will be answered with longer answers. Fortunately, usually the interviewers who make
this mistake realize it immediately and work to correct it during the rest of the interview.
The interview times may be adjusted to fit into the full length of the class period,
but I generally let each interview last three and one-half to four minutes. A bell may be
rung to signal the final thirty seconds so that interviewers can ask one final question and
wrap up the interview. Then one side of the room moves down one seat and proceeds as
before. During the exercise, the instructor can alternate which side of the room is doing
the interviewing. I usually switch sides every 3-4 interviews because, while I want each
student to experience both roles, I find that students want a few immediate chances to
correct their mistakes as interviewers. By the end of the class period, students should
have had the opportunity to be the interviewer and interviewee in nearly equal amounts
and will have had a different partner each time, depending on class size.
Interviewees can be given the opportunity to practice their employment
interviewing skills by changing some or all of the questions to reflect the types of
questions they might be asked in employment interviews. Appendix A ends with a few
sample employment interview questions that work well with this activity. I usually add a
few of these questions in with the fun ones. Students have said that they liked being
asked employment-type interview questions in the middle of a fun activity so that they
could gain experience answering serious questions and practice their demeanor for future
real-world interviews while in a relaxed environment.
Debriefing
I save a few minutes at the end of the class to debrief the students on what they
learned about their listening and probing skills and what they would do differently in
future interviews. During this portion of the activity, we discuss how difficult it is to
juggle listening with building and upholding rapport as well as note-taking during the
interview, and then immediately following up with an appropriate comment or question
15
In some classrooms, I have had to arrange the seats in a circle, with an inner and outer circle. This also
works well.
16
Putting the questions on a PowerPoint, with one question per slide, also works nicely. If you do this,
students do not need the extra time to write the question down.
that indicates they were listening to their partner. At this time, we often discuss barriers
to effective listening and tips for improving listening skills.
Students have often commented that this was a difficult activity because they did
not realize how poor their listening skills were, especially when outside their comfort
zone. Though this activity is primarily based around interviewing, students are able to
identify how their struggles to listen effectively, sustain focus, and ask probing questions
also translate to weak conversational skills. Some students have mentioned that they are
glad that they have the opportunity to work on their conversational weaknesses before
entering into internship or business situations. Students have commented that when they
were being interviewed (and also in regular conversations), it was easy to tell when
someone was not paying attention to what they were saying. We then discuss how this
changes the path of interviews and conversations. This is a great opportunity to connect
back to important workplace implications whether in healthcare, business, and even legal
settings as well as in other interpersonal and relational contexts.
Here are sample questions I use to guide the debriefing:
1. What was easy/difficult about this activity?

2. After this activity, what are some strengths and weaknesses you identified
about yourself as an interviewer? How can you continue to work on any
weaknesses?
3. Interviewees: Could you tell when your interviewer was paying attention to
what you were sharing? How? What were some verbal and nonverbal cues?
4. Interviewees: When you noticed your partner was not listening to your answers,
how did that affect your participation in the interview?
5. For those of you who said that you had troubling listening to your partners
answers, what do you see as your most common barrier to listening
(environmental, psychological, or physiological)? Why do you think that is? Be
specific.
5. Did you have a hard time staying focused for the entirety of the interview?
Why do you think that is? What can you do to practice sustained focus?
6. What question pitfalls were you most likely to commit? What did you do after
you realized you committed them?
7. What probing questions did you use the most? Why do you think you relied on
that type more than the others? How does that change the path of the interview?
Appraisal
Overall, students listening and probing skills improve a great deal through this
activity. They often begin frustrated because they find it difficult to think of probing
questions on the spot (let alone to phrase them properly), but they improve immensely by
the end of the activity. In addition, some of the questions are easier to probe than others,
which provides varying levels of difficulty to the activity. If interviewers continue to
struggle with probing questions, it helps to have the interviewees identify the probing
questions they did hear while being interviewed. Doing this can help boost the confidence
of the struggling interviewer. Interviewees can also share where they thought a good
probing question was missed, such as by saying, After I shared that I see myself as
having three different hometowns, I thought you would follow up by asking me why I
feel that way. You can utilize mini-debriefings after each round as needed by the
students. In the first few rounds, I typically save approximately one minute for
interviewees to share their impressions with their interviewers and then for both to share
with the class.
Many students mention how deceptively tiring this activity is. This leads to
discussions of how taxing mindful conversations can be and what it means to be fully
engaged in an interview or conversation. I tell them to imagine that they are doctors or
nurses who have to essentially interview dozens of patients each day or social workers
who have to figure out the diverse needs of their (sometimes reticent) clients. We discuss
the potentially serious implications of professionals losing focus or trying to multitask.
Additionally, hearing their own classmates say that they could easily tell who was paying
attention and listening versus who was not teaches the students that they cannot so easily
fool the other party in these interactions. Therefore, an added take-away for the
students is often the realization that pseudo listening does not fool relational partners in
real-life settings, either.
References
Adler, R. B., Elmhorst, J. & Lucas, K. (2013). Communicating at work: Strategies for
success in business and the professions (11th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
Fisher, R. P. (2010). Interviewing cooperative witnesses. Legal & Criminological
Psychology, 15, 25-38. doi:10.1348/135532509X441891
Gur, T., Dilci, T., Coskun, ., & Delican, B. (2013). The impact of note-taking while
listening on listening comprehension in a higher education context. International
Journal of Academic Research, 5(1), 93-97. doi:10.7813/2075-4124.2013/5-
1/B.16
Percival, J. (2014). Promoting health: Making every contact count. Nursing Standard,
28(29), 37-41.
Rogers, A. & Welch, B. (2009). Using standardized clients in the classroom: An
evaluation of a training module to teach active listening skills to social work
students. Journal of Teaching in Social Work, 29, 153-168.
Stewart, C. J. & Cash, W. B. (2013). Interviewing: Principles and Practices (14th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Higher Education.
Walsh, D., & Bull, R. (2010). Interviewing suspects of fraud: An in-depth analysis of
interviewing skills. Journal of Psychiatry & Law, 38(1&2), 99-135.
Wilson, J., & Horman, L. (2013). Using patients as teachers: Listening to patients and
seeing the world through their eyes. Education for Primary Care, 24, 135-137.
Wong, S. S., Cheung, A. Y., Lee, A. A., Cheung, N. N., Leung, A. A., Wong, W. W., &
Chan, K. K. (2007). Improving general practitioners' interviewing skills in
managing patients with depression and anxiety: A randomized controlled clinical
trial. Medical Teacher, 29, 175-183. doi:10.1080/01421590601050585
Appendix A: Sample Interview Questions
1) If you could have any super power, what would it be?

2) If you could live anywhere in the world, where would you choose?
3) What is your biggest pet peeve?
4) If you could meet anyone famous, dead or alive, whom would you choose?
5) What is your favorite board game?
6) Tell me something interesting about your hometown.
7) What is your favorite season?
8) If you could trade places with someone famous for a week, whom would you choose?
9) Who is your favorite fictional character?
10) What is your favorite holiday?
11) If you could choose anyone in the world to be your roommate, whom would you
choose?
12) If you could change one thing about your campus, what would it be?
13) Who is your biggest role model?
14) If you had to eat only one food for a week, what would you choose (assuming
nutrition and survival were not an issue)?
15) What would your personal theme song be?
16) If you could live in any era (20s, 30s, 40s, etc.) what would you choose?
17) What is your ultimate dream job?
18) What is your biggest weakness?
19) If you had to describe yourself in one word, what would it be?
20) Where do you see yourself in ten years?
21) Why did you choose your major?
22) What is the biggest lesson you learned in college?
23) What is your best personality trait?
24) Describe an ideal company to work for.
25) Explain why an employer would want to hire you.
Constitution of Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD

Ratified by the Editorial Executive Committee, November 2014
Article 1. Name
The name of the journal shall be Discourse: The Journal of the Speech Communication
Association of South Dakota (Also known as Discourse or Discourse: The Journal of the
SCASD).
Article 2. Affiliation
Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD shall be the official journal of the Speech
Communication Association of South Dakota (SCASD).
Article 3. Publisher
Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD shall be self-published and distributed through
the SCASD official website, the url for which shall be disseminated via CRTNet and
professional networking channels. Each volume of the journal shall contain the Call
for Manuscripts for the following volume. The call will also be disseminated via
CRTNet and professional networking channels. The annual deadline for submissions
shall be February 1.
Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD shall be published annually in the Fall beginning
with Volume 1, Fall 2014. As the number of quality submissions increases, the
Editorial Executive Committee will consider a move to a biannual (Spring and Fall)
publication schedule.
Article 4. Purpose
Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD shall be a scholarly journal committed to the
submission of refereed manuscripts concerning human communication,
performance, and the education of these matters.
Article 5. Structure and Responsibilities

Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD Editorial staff shall consist of the following
members:
a) An Editor
b) An Associate Editor
c) An Editorial Executive Committee
d) An Editorial Board
e) An Article Review Board
a) The Editor shall serve a three-year term.

The Editor shall be responsible for the general management of the journal.
His/her duties shall consist of receiving submissions, delegating manuscripts
to appropriate reviewers, and making final decisions concerning the
acceptance or rejection of all manuscripts received by Discourse: The Journal
of the SCASD. The Editor, working with the reviews and recommendations of
the Associate Editor and Editorial Board, is responsible for the quality of all
manuscripts published by Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD. The Editor
shall also be responsible for constructing an Editors Statement for every

volume of Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD.
b) The Associate Editor shall serve a three-year term in preparation for an

additional three-year term as Editor, assuming that all duties assigned by the
Editor have been performed as agreed.
The Associate Editor shall perform duties as assigned by the Editor.
c) The Editorial Executive Committee

The Editorial Executive Committee shall consist of the Editor and Associate
Editor. This body is empowered with the authority to make and enact
necessary and proper decisions regarding operations and handling of the
journal (e.g., obtaining and communicating with reviewers and Editorial
Board members, marketing the journal, any changes of web-hosting services,
decisions on printing and dissemination, acquisition of funding as needed,
copy editing services, etc.). Any actions that alter standards and practices
(e.g., the blind review process; the mission statement; general formatting) of
the journal shall also invite participation from the Editorial Review Board.
d) The Editorial Board

The Editorial Board shall advise the Editor in matters concerning the
publication of the Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD, including changes to
the constitution and to editorial policy. The members of the Editorial Board
shall include past Editors of Discourse and the sitting SDASD association
President, as well as the best possible blend of members who are experts
from the various publics represented by the journal. All members of the
Editorial Board shall be expected to review at least 2-4 manuscripts per
volume (see item e), and to provide precise copy edits for at least one
additional manuscript per volume.
e) Article Reviewers
Article Reviewers, including Editorial Board Members, shall be experts in
their respective fields and will be asked to blind review manuscripts in their
field of expertise and make recommendations to the Editor as to whether
each manuscript reviewed should be: (1) accepted without change, (2)
accepted pending minor revision, (3) revised and resubmitted, or (4)
rejected.
Article 6. The Review Process

For every volume of Discourse, the Editorial Executive Committee shall ensure that
all submissions are devoid of identifying information before sending all eligible
submissions that meet a minimum set of standards (defined by a rubric) for a
minimum of two blind peer reviews using a standard review rubric. In the case of a
split recommendation between reviewers, the Editorial Executive Committee may
choose to send the piece for a third review.
Article 7. Meetings
The Editor shall present on the state of the journal at the annual Speech Convention
Association of South Dakota convention.
Article 8. Amendments
This constitution may be altered, amended or repealed by a two-thirds majority of
members present (which may include a roll call vote via online or digital
communication) at a General Meeting of the Editorial Advisory Board.

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Discourse:

The Journal of the Speech Communication

From the Editor

Overcoming Public Speaking Anxiety:

Research Articles and Theoretical Perspectives

G.I.F.T.S. (Great Ideas For Teaching Students)

Using Video Clips to Illustrate How Paralinguistic Variation Communicates Emotion

Facing Our Racial Biases Via the Implicit Association Test

Improving Interviewing and Conversational Skills using "Speed Interviewing"

Editor Associate Editor

Discourse Executive Advisory Board

SCA of SD Elected Officers

If I have seen further, it is by standing on the shoulders of giants.

This volume is dedicated to the memories of two remarkable scholars,

Overcoming Public Speaking Anxiety:

RESEARCH ARTICLES AND THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES

Interpersonal Rhetoric: An Approach to Bettering Oneself and Others

G.I.F.T.S. (GREAT IDEAS FOR TEACHING STUDENTS)

Using Video Clips to Illustrate How Paralinguistic Variation Communicates Emotion

Facing Our Racial Biases Via the Implicit Association Test

Improving Interviewing and Conversational Skills using "Speed Interviewing"

DISCOURSE MISSION STATEMENT

Discourse: The Journal of the Speech Communication Association of South Dakota

CALL FOR MANUSCRIPTS VOLUME 2, FALL 2015

Discourse: The Journal of the SCASD is seeking original manuscripts

All submissions will undergo a review process, and select manuscripts

These guidelines include those set forth by of the National

1. The manuscript is original work and proper publication credit

Manuscripts submitted to Discourse must conform to these

The deadline for all submissions for Volume 2 of Discourse: The

For more information or assistance with the submission process,

FROM THE EDITOR

Message from the editor

Make no little plans; they have no magic to stir men's blood.

Pragmatism. Heightened pressure for publication and for graduate and

Impact. Beyond serving as an additional outlet for industrious scholars as well as an

So, Youre a New Forensics Coach?:

#5 Attend the Speech Communication Association of South Dakota (SCASD) or your

#6 Organize an Oral Interpretation sign up meeting for your students. At that

#7 Contact the SDHSAA http://www.scasd.k12.sd.us/speecon.html or your states

#10 Begin selecting material, cutting pieces to 10 minutes, writing memorized

#14 None of the seven categories of Oral Interpretation may be memorized

a. New plays, novels, poetry and script material as needed: $300

m. Busing costs: To be determined by the Business Manager

Overcoming Public Speaking Anxiety:

During the 2013 Speech Communication Association of South Dakota annual

Public Speaking Anxiety

Public Speaking Anxiety is a construct which extends from communication

Coping with Anxiety in the Classroom

According to Finn, Sawyer, and Schrodt (2009) graduated exposure involves

Assessment is a critical component in measuring the effectiveness of our

Connection and Avoidance in Campus Spaces:

Rick Malleus, PhD3

Uses and Gratifications Perspective

Campus Cell Phone Research

Rationale and Research Questions

A 21-item questionnaire was administered to the study participants. The

The questionnaire was administered as a pen and paper survey to a convenience

Two independent coders (the researcher and a trained undergraduate student)

Prevalence of Cell Phones

Using cell phones to meet student communication needs is clearly a campus

Cell Phones and Campus Spaces

Students clearly articulated their perceptions of how cell phones impact