DRAFT WORKING PAPER

Ecosystems, Disasters and Climate Change

1. Introduction

Climate change is a critical development issue faced by humanity today. Manifested through debilitating
influence over ecosystem resilience & functionality, increase in frequency and intensity of climate related
disasters (e.g. floods, cyclonic storms, droughts, glacial outbursts and sea level rise), climate change
exacerbates vulnerabilities by undoing the development gains already achieved and crippling options for
current and future human progress. The vicious conundrum of climate change-ecosystem degradation-
accelerated disasters causes severe economic and ecological dislocation/disruptions including loss of life,
property and biodiversity. Ecosystem degradation also compromises on the carbon sequestration potential
of the natural systems; a key component of the mitigation strategy to address climate change.

Ecosystem management forms an essential part of the global climate change adaptation strategy. Healthy
ecosystems act as natural buffers and/ or barriers to the impacts of extreme weather events, protect
economic infrastructure, increase the resilience of human systems to prevent and recover from climate
related disasters and adapt to climate change. Natural ecosystems offer a cost effective and proven way
for climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction that forms an integral part of the overall
sustainable development strategy.

This paper highlights the importance of integrated ecosystems management approaches for disaster risk
reduction and climate change adaptation, and discusses related issues and policy recommendations.

2. Linking Ecosystem & Disaster Risk Management and Adaptation

Climate Change is a threat to human development. Increased exposure to extreme events and natural
disasters and impacts on ecosystems is cited among the five tipping points through which climate change
impacts human development (HDR 2007/8).1 While climate change is likely to impact all, it is the
developing countries and the poorer communities which are most vulnerable. This is because they are
more prone to disaster risk, are highly dependent on climate sensitive activities and have fewer resources
to adapt to the impacts. As per estimations, one in every 19 people in the developing countries are
affected by natural disasters as compared to one in every 1500 people in OECD countries which is a
risk differential of about 79 (HDR 2007/8). India is highly dependent on natural resources with a rural
population of over 700 million directly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors (agriculture, forests and
fisheries) and natural resources for their subsistence and livelihoods, has a large coastline, and is faces
high natural disaster risk about 65% of the countrys area is drought prone and 12% flood prone.
Climate related risks also force people into downward spirals of disadvantage that undermine future
opportunities.

The National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) launched by the Government of India in 2008,
recognizes adaptation to climate change as critical strategy for addressing climate change issues in the
country. As per their estimation, the current government expenditure on adaptation to climate variability
already exceeds 2.6%. It comprises disaster management by (a) reducing risk to infrastructure through
better design and engineering, (b) strengthening communication networks and disaster management
facilities; as well as protection of coastal areas among key initiatives for addressing climate change.

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Others are reduced agricultural productivity, heightened water insecurity, and increased health risks

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Missions on (a) Green India, (b) Sustainable Agriculture and (c) Sustainable Himalayan Ecosystems are
especially relevant from ecosystem management perspective.

2.1 Disaster risk and climate change

Indias geo-climatic conditions as well as its high incidence of poverty and socio-economic vulnerability,
make it one of the most disaster prone countries in the world. Human induced climate change exacerbates
the occurrence and frequency of natural disasters.2 Among the disasters which strike the country on a
regular basis are climate related disasters such as floods, droughts, cyclones and landslides. According to
the National Commission for Floods, 40 million hectares of land in India is identified as flood-prone. On
average 18.6 million hectares of land is flooded annually. India is one of six major cyclone-prone
countries in the world. Of the nearly 7,500 km long coastline, approximately 5,700 km is prone to
cyclones arising from the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. Cyclonic storms and storm surges have been
responsible for some severe fatalities along the coasts, the worst of which was caused during the Orissa
Super cyclone (1999). The hilly regions of India are susceptible to landslide and avalanche hazards. The
most vulnerable are the Himalayan Mountains followed by the North-Eastern hill ranges.

Despite a paradigm shift by the Government of India (Eleventh Five Year Plan) from a relief and
response centric approach to a more holistic approach addressing all phases of disasters cycle such as
preparedness mitigation, response and recovery and institutionalization of the Disaster Management by
enactment of the National Disaster Management Act 2005 and other initiatives, disasters linked to natural
hazards remain on the rise, exacting a significant toll on human lives, livelihoods, assets and economies.
Climate change and the expected increase in the frequency and intensity of extreme weather events have
only further magnified the disaster risk increasing the vulnerabilities. Further, studies have also shown
that tectonic factors (such as rising of Indian plate) can compound this scenario in certain regions and
ecosystems in the country. India continues to remain hot spots with a large area of the country already
facing multiple hazards. This is more so especially due to rural dependence on natural resources sectors
coupled with the rapid rate of growth of urban centers with provision of urban infrastructure and services
not happening at the same place.

Disasters are essentially a product of the hazards and the vulnerability faced by the at risk population
minus the coping capacity. Internationally and nationally, these are being tackled by focusing on disaster
risk reduction initiatives coupled with a sustained focus on reducing the vulnerabilities and increasing the
coping capacities of the at risk population. It is being done by systematically analyzing the underlying
risks in addition to setting up of an institutional mechanism and framework to tackle them. In the recent
past, in addition to the engineering solutions (such as use of technologies and the design of climate
resilient infrastructure) and communication, nature-based responses to climate related disasters are
becoming an integral part overall adaptation strategy. For example, dunes, barrier islands, mangrove
forests, and coastal wetlands are natural shock absorbers that protect against coastal storms. The sand
dunes of Vadakku Poigainallur village in the Nagapattinam district which acted as an effective barrier to
the devastating Tsunami is a standing illustration in this context.

2.2 Ecosystems and climate change

Climate Change is adding to existing pressures on ecosystems, forests and biodiversity. According to the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, it is likely to become one of the most significant drivers of
biodiversity loss by 2100. Currently a number of other factors such as pollution, land use change and
overexploitation are responsible for direct loss of biodiversity. Fora such that invasive species with
shorter lifecycles and higher reproductive capacities are more likely to survive climate change. While the

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Time series data between 1940-2008 shows a sharp increase in the occurrence of natural disasters from 1960-1989, and even
more rapid increase since 1990s. While this trend is not wholly attributed to climate change, the increase in frequency and
intensity of climate related hazards does correspond to temperature increase (UNEP 2009).

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increase in CO2 concentrations should enhance the productivity of trees and crops, associated increase in
temperature may destroy tree species which cannot sustain higher temperatures and moisture stress. Such
effects are already visible in the shifting of pine forests upwards (being replaced by oak forests) in
Uttarakhand and Himachal Pradesh and change in life cycles leading to early flowering in rhododendron
in Uttarakhand. The invasion of new pests (emergence of new species of snails in the wet terrace
cultivation and larger variety of resistant mosquitoes) and changes in forest composition further
demonstrate the impacts of climate change on biodiversity.

Impact of Change in Temperature, Hilly Districts of Uttarakhand

In the hilly districts of Uttarakhand, farmers are shifting to cultivation of vegetables from apples, since apples
require low winter temperatures. Similarly, because of increase in temperature, crops earlier grown in lower or
mid-Himalayan regions areas are now grown at higher altitudes. In areas that used to be covered totally with
high altitude grasses, lately Quercus semicarpifolia (kharsu oak) is found growing in abundance.

There is also a growing recognition of the role healthy ecosystems can play in helping people adapt to
climate change. Healthy ecosystems provide drinking water, habitat, shelter, food, raw materials, genetic
materials, a barrier against disasters, a source of natural resources, and many other ecosystem services on
which people depend for their livelihoods. The 2009 Global Assessment Report on DRR in fact has
identified ecosystems decline as one of four major drivers of risk and called for greater protection and
enhancement of ecosystem services. The UNFCCC negotiations have also recognized ecosystem-based
approaches as a key climate change adaptation strategy. Sustainable ecosystems management is therefore
increasingly viewed as an effective approach for achieving both climate change adaptation and DRR.

2.3 Ecosystem based adaptation

Studies have comprehensively shown linkages between environment, development and disasters. Climate
change adaptation comprises disaster risk reduction as a key strategy. In addition to engineering and
technology based solutions such as climate (and disaster) -proofing of infrastructure, strengthening
disaster recovery and management, emphasis is also now including natural or ecosystem based solutions.
Managing natural ecosystems, as carbon sinks and as a strategy for adaptation is increasingly recognized
as necessary, efficient and relatively cost-effective. The Stern Review on the Economics of Climate
Change recommended that governments develop policies for climate sensitive public goods including
natural resource protection, coastal protection and emergency preparedness. Figure 1 depicts the linkage
between Climate Change Adaptation, Ecosystem Management and Disaster Risk Reduction.

Integrated ecological approaches that link ecosystems to disaster and climate risk management may be
termed as Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA). Ecosystem-based Adaptation measures frequently
complement disaster risk reduction objectives. EbA integrates the use of ecosystem services into an
overall strategy to help people adapt to the adverse impacts of climate change and to reduce risk of
climate induced disasters. It includes the sustainable management, conservation and restoration of
ecosystems to provide services that help people adapt to both current climate variability, and climate
change. According to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), an ecosystem-based approach uses
biodiversity and ecosystem services and generates socio-economic as well as ecological benefits.

As natural buffers, ecosystems are often less expensive to maintain and more effective than physical
engineering structures (such as dykes or concrete walls). Ecosystem-based Adaptation, therefore, offers a
means of adaptation that is readily available to the rural poor; it can be readily integrated into community-
based adaptation and addresses many of the concerns and priorities identified by the most vulnerable
countries and people. In addition, healthy ecosystems, such as forests, wetlands, mangroves, and coral
reefs, have a greater potential to adapt to climate change themselves, and recover more easily from

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extreme weather events. For instance, the impacts of tsunami were much less in areas covered with
mangroves in coastal Tamil Nadu compared with areas devoid of them.

Figure 1: Linking climate change adaptation, ecosystem management and disaster risk reduction
Source: UNEP 2009

3. Benefits of Ecosystem based Adaptation

Ecosystem-based Adaptation not only reduces vulnerability to climate change by decreasing disaster risk
and enhancing carbon sequestration, but also minimizes non-climate risks. It provides multiple economic,
social, environmental and cultural benefits. This makes EbA a decentralized, cost effective, proven
solution with multiple benefits (CBD, 2008).

First line of defence against climate related disasters: EbA options are often more accessible and
affordable to the poor than adaptation interventions based on infrastructure and engineering. It is
consistent with community-based approaches to adaptation; can effectively build on local knowledge and
needs; and can provide particular consideration to the most vulnerable groups of people, including
women, and to the most vulnerable ecosystems. There can be multiple social, economic and
environmental co-benefits for local communities from the use of ecosystem-based adaptation.
Communities that are managing ecosystems specifically to adapt to climate change impacts can also
benefit from these interventions in other ways, if they are designed and managed appropriately. For
example, the restoration of mangrove systems can provide shoreline protection from storm surges, but
also provide increased fishery opportunities, and carbon sequestration. As such, ecosystem-based
adaptation can achieve adaptation benefits for multiple sectors through a single investment. A series of

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experiments carried out by the EqTAP3 project have shown that mangrove forests and certain other types
of coastal vegetation can effectively reduce the impact of tsunamis on coastlines.4

Augmenting carbon sequestration: EbA strategies can complement and enhance climate change
mitigation by conserving carbon stocks, reducing emissions from ecosystem degradation and loss, and
enhancing carbon sequestration. Sustainable management of forests can store and sequester carbon by
improving overall forest health. Conservation and, in some cases restoration, of grasslands, can protect
very significant carbon stores. Additional mitigation efforts can be realized through land and water
management practices. Similarly, the conservation and restoration of other natural ecosystems (e.g.
wetlands) can result in both adaptation and mitigation benefits. Reduction of carbon emissions through
ecosystem-based approaches, such as establishment of new protected areas and improved management of
existing reserves; protection of old-growth and wetlands; and natural regeneration of forests,
reforestation, and afforestation are important aspects of combating climate change.

Enhancing livelihoods and ensuring food security: Ecosystems provide a wide range of
provisioning of goods (e.g. food and fibre), cultural (e.g. recreational and aesthetic) and supporting (e.g.
soil formation) services, critical to human well-being including health, livelihoods, nutritious food,
security and social cohesion. Ecosystems are proven tools for maintaining ecological services and for
providing material goods essential for day-to-day life, which in turn can help increase the resilience and
reduce the vulnerability of livelihoods in the context of climate change. In this context, Ecosystem-based
Adaptation can directly meet the needs of Community Based Adaptation and poverty reduction initiatives.
For instance, as per a recent study (TEEB), ecosystem goods and services contribute to around 60% of the
rural economy in Orissa. Similarly, a UNDP supported project on medicinal plants has shown that
conservation of medicinal plants and use of traditional natural medicines reduces the health care costs by
60-70% in rural India. The economic valuation of ecological services provided by the East Godavari
mangroves was valued at US$ 2,700 per ha, which extrapolates to approximately US$ 90,000 annually for
the entire area. Also, marine protected areas worldwide have been found to double the abundance and
triple the biomass of fish (30% increases in both size and diversity of fish species in as a little as 5 years).
Further, the annual economic values of mangroves, estimated by the cost of the products and services they
provide, have been estimated to be USD 200,000900,000 per ha.

Improving biodiversity conservation prospects: Conserving terrestrial, freshwater and marine

ecosystems and restoring degraded ecosystems (including their genetic and species diversity) is essential
for addressing climate change because ecosystems play a key role in the global carbon cycle and in
adapting to climate change, while also providing a wide range of ecosystem services that are essential for
human well-being and the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals. While ecosystems are
generally more carbon dense and biologically more diverse in their natural state, the degradation of
many ecosystems is significantly reducing their carbon storage and sequestration capacity, leading to
increases in emissions of greenhouse gases and loss of biodiversity at the genetic, species and ecosystem
level. Climate change is a rapidly increasing stress on ecosystems and can exacerbate the effects of other
stresses, including from habitat fragmentation, loss and conversion, over-exploitation, invasive alien
species, and pollution. Human induced climate change could shift the net natural carbon cycle towards

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Development of Earthquake and Tsunami Disaster Mitigation Technologies and their Integration for the Asia-
Pacific Region
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Empirical and field based evidence is limited, but analytical models show that 30 trees per 100 m2 in a 100 m wide
belt may reduce tsunami flow rate by as much as 90%. EqTAP recommend using a coastal green belt to protect
homes, as it is sustainable, and much cheaper than artificial barriers. Studies in Vietnam also demonstrate the
usefulness of mangrove forests in coastal protection. The value of Malaysian mangroves just for storm protection
and flood control has been estimated at USD 300,000 per km of coastline, which is based on the cost of replacing
the mangroves with rock walls (Ramsar Secretariat, 2001).

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annual net emissions from terrestrial sinks, and weaken ocean sinks, thus further accelerating climate
change (CBD, 2009)5. Protecting, restoring, and managing key ecosystems helps maintain biodiversity
and people to adjust to changing climatic conditions. Ecosystem-based Adaptation can safeguard and
enhance protected areas and fragile ecosystems. It can also involve restoration of fragmented or degraded
ecosystems, or simulation of missing ecosystem processes such as migration or pollination.

Sustainable water management: Managing, restoring and protecting ecosystems can also contribute
to sustainable water management by, for example, improving water quality, increasing groundwater
recharge and reducing surface water run-off during storms. About one third of the worlds largest cities
obtain a significant proportion of their drinking water directly from forested protected areas. A study of
the overall value of wetlands for flood protection provided an estimated benefit of $464 per metre of
riverbank. Ecosystem-based approaches that include watershed and forest protection, incorporate
wetlands in water treatment and water quality improvement initiatives, and protect wetlands for water
storage and flood control. Management that incorporates mangroves and other coastal wetlands into storm
protection and coastal defense; protects mangroves, sea grass beds, and coral reefs for sustainable
fisheries; and promotes integrated coastal management to prevent pollution of the marine and coastal
environment; are critical in this regard.

4. Ecosystem-based Adaptation (EbA) in practice

Ecosystem-based adaptation can be applied at different geographical scales (local, regional, national) and
within various time frames (short to long term). It can be implemented as projects and as part of overall
adaptation programmes. It is most effective when implemented as part of a broad portfolio of adaptation
and development interventions, such as early warning systems, education, and physical infrastructure.
EbA involves a wide range of ecosystem management activities to increase resilience and reduce the
vulnerability of people and the environment to climate change.

4.1 Some EbA Illustrations

There are several EbA activities that can be citied as illustrations towards effective disaster risk
management and climate change adaptation. These include not only conservation but also restoration
activities. Restoration of ecosystems can be part of a cost-effective adaptation strategy despite the
relatively high costs as compared to conservation of existing intact ecosystems. Restoration activities
include limiting activities such as grazing or extraction to allow ecosystems to recover, or restoring
ecological components such as connectivity or hydrological regimes, through activities such as re-
flooding wetlands. For example, flood plain restoration can be a useful alternative to constructing
additional dams or reservoirs for increased flood-water storage, and reforestation of degraded areas can be
an effective strategy to enhance land productivity.

Some of the examples of EbA practices include6:

Sustainable water management, where river basins, aquifers, flood plains, and their associated
vegetation are managed to provide water storage and flood regulation services;
Living Ganga Programme, Gangotri to Kanpur
To implement strategies for sustainable energy and water resource management within the Ganga Basin, WWF has started the
Living Ganga Initiative. It brings together components of climate adaptation, vulnerability assessment, environmental flows and
water allocation etc. The programme has established partnerships with key stakeholders and consists of 6 crosscutting components
including climate adaptation.

5
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2009. Connecting biodiversity and climate change mitigation and
adaptation: Report of the second ad hoc technical expert group on biodiversity and climate change. Montreal, Quebec:
Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. [http://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-41-en.pdf].

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Sustainable management of grasslands and rangelands, to enhance pastoral livelihoods and increase
resilience to drought and flooding;
Restoration of coastal habitats such as mangroves can be a particularly effective measure against
storm-surges, saline intrusion and coastal erosion
Sea-level rise has led to coastal erosion and submergence in Sundarbans. Increased salinity has reduced
crop productivity and fish farming. At the same time, severity of cyclones in the region has reduced
livelihood options. For example, after the cyclone Aila, local communities have planted mangroves and in
places a tree wall as an adaptation strategy to withstand cyclones and violent storms. Other measures that
are being introduced after Aila are saline resistant cereal & vegetable crops; non-shrimp brackish water
fisheries; mangrove nursery raising & plantation as an alternative livelihood option; food processing and
other non-farm activities.

Tree Wall as adaptation strategy, Midnapu, West Bengal

Jargram Block in the district has been facing severe impacts of such violent super-cyclones since 2004.
After the Aila cyclone, local communities supported by CBOs planted tree wall as adaptation strategy to
withstand cyclones and violent storms. The community takes care of the plants and monitoring activities.
The local community has appreciated the urgency of climate change adaptation and adapted to the change
which has proved to be beneficial.

Establishment of diverse agricultural systems, where using indigenous knowledge of specific crop
and livestock varieties, maintaining genetic diversity of crops and livestock, and conserving diverse
agricultural landscapes secures food provision in changing local climatic conditions.

Using short duration crops: Oxfams approach to DRR focuses on vulnerable livelihoods, water-sanitation-
hygiene (WASH) and capacity building of communities for quick response particularly in flood prone areas.
For example, in the flood prone areas of Bihar and Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Oxfam through its partner
organizations introduced short duration paddy variety that can be harvested before monsoon to avoid flood risk
and maximize returns to farmers on their investments. In the flood prone areas of Eastern UP and Bihar, an
NGO introduced short duration paddy variety NDR97- to avoid flood risk and maximize returns to farmers on
their investments. By harvesting paddy early & showing short duration mustard and then late variety of wheat,
farmers could take up three crops in two crop seasons. This resulted in production from the same land going up
substantially giving food security (rice, wheat) and cash income (mustard).

The Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR) has a Challenge Program on
Water and Food in the Indo-Gangetic flood plain both in India and Bangladesh. The programme has
introduced livelihood diversification options through alternate or concurrent rice-fish culture. It contributes to
improving system productivity as well as conserving ecological and hydrological flow.

Strategic management of shrub lands and forests to limit the frequency and size of uncontrolled forest
fires;
Other initiatives related to diversification of livelihood opportunities as adaptation to disasters
including within existing policies and programmes.

Examples include (1) establishment of Agriculture Service Station to promote improved farming techniques, (2)
Promotion of low input agriculture practices, (3) promotion of community managed grain-seed bank, fodder
bank and village emergency fund; (4) mobilization of social security schemes such as NREGA, drought
proofing programme, insurance etc as safety net; (5) Plantation and horticulture promotion for conservation and
protection of forest Increasing access to micro finance services and promoting collective marketing of
agriculture product through SHGs.

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Drawn from various sources including UNDP, World Bank, IUCN, and Solution Exchange reports

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Establishing and effectively managing protected area systems to ensure the continued delivery of
ecosystem services that increase resilience to climate change.

Conserving Marine Ecosystem in the Gulf of Mannar

Activities such as mining, over-fishing, pollution and unsustainable coastal development activities have
disturbed coral reefs in the Gulf of Mannar. Invasion of exotic seaweed, algal bloom, trap fishing, sewage
disposal and seaweed collection have emerged as other major threats to biodiversity. A GEF-UNDP intervention
in the region coordinates among different stakeholders and departments (such as the fisheries, agriculture, rural
development, pollution control board, environment and forests, local communities, SHGs) to create joint
conservation initiatives and enforcement mechanisms for the better management of the coastal region.
Awareness campaigns conducted by the Gulf of Mannar Biosphere Reserve Trust (GoMBRT) have led to
increased awareness of the significance of the coastal ecosystem. The projects initiatives have seen an increase
in live coral cover from 37% to 43%, so far which have the potential of preventing salt water intrusion and
impacts of flooding and cyclones.

4.2 Principles of effective Ecosystem-based Adaptation

Based on the experiences of EbA initiatives, some fundamental guiding principles for developing
effective EbA strategies may be identified. These principles include:

Focusing on reducing non-climate stresses as well: Reducing ecosystem degradation is a no

regrets to adaptation. Ecosystem-based Adaptation strategies should include a focus on minimizing
other anthropogenic stresses that have degraded the condition of critical ecosystems, and thereby
undermine their resilience to climate change. Such stresses include, inter alia, unsustainable harvests,
habitat fragmentation, non native species, and pollution.
Multi-partner strategy development: EbA presents a tangible opportunity to solve climate change
problems by aligning conservation, development, and poverty alleviation interests. Such synergies
benefit from collaboration between Government, indigenous and local communities, conservationists,
natural resource managers, relevant private sector stakeholders, development specialists, and
humanitarian aid specialists
Involving local communities: Community participation is an important element in almost all EbA
activities. The measures are more successful when they are participatory and inclusive where the local
population also participates in both planning and implementation.

Participatory Approach to Vulnerability Assessment and Adaptation, West Midnapur

Working on participatory tools for community adaptation to Climate Change in West Midnapur district shows
that communities facilitated by local CBOs could be used for assessing vulnerability and designing adaptation
strategy. Under the programme, two Self Help Groups with the help of local CBO first generated data on
incidences of super cyclones and decided on setting up a tree wall as adaptation strategy to withstand the
cyclones like Aila.

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Building upon existing good practices in natural resource management: The most effective
EbA strategies apply established best practices in natural resource management to confront some of
the new challenges posed by climate change. The application of the ecosystem approach for the
integrated management of resources is particularly appropriate to the implementation of Ecosystem-
based Adaptation.

Enhancing Farmers' Capabilities for Informed Decision

As part of initiatives to enhance farmers capabilities to make informed decisions at the community level,
Andhra Pradesh Farmers Managed Groundwater System (APFAMGS) project worked with 638 villages. Their
experience shows improvement in groundwater levels and improved efficiency in use of irrigation water. They
also demonstrated that knowledge generated though collective sharing process gets internalized within the
community.

SMS Alert for Weather Forecasting, Sunderbans

In changing climatic conditions, it is the unpredictability of monsoon that makes farmers most vulnerable. To
overcome this, scientists from the Krishi Vigyan Kendra in Sunderbans are trying to help farmers by making
certain predictions based on meterological data. The information is sent across using SMS service of mobile
phones. Through this, farmers are able to prepare themselves better for facing any undesirable situation.

The Adaptive Strategies Initiative, in India examined the course of action households in various parts of the
country actually take during floods and droughts to gain understanding of the factors which enable
communities to adapt.

Civil Society Groups are working in different parts of North India on DRR with a focus on sensitizing the
communities before the monsoon to minimize loss due to floods as well as trained volunteers who work
during emergencies & rescue operations. Civil Society Groups are also working with communities on adaption
and mitigation through capacity building of the community.

Action for Food Production (AFPRO) is working with communities and PRIs in the North East, Jharkhand
and Rajasthan to build capacities to understand potential impacts and devise suitable response strategies.
However, with reference to livestock, adaptation strategies in Rajasthan focus on identification of traditional
practices, mapping of pasture land, fodder availability etc.

Communicating and educating: Successful Ecosystem-based Adaptation depends on knowledge

transfer, capacity building, integrating science and local knowledge and raising awareness about
climate change impacts and the benefits and potential of sound ecosystem management.

Adopting adaptive management approaches: Ecosystem-based Adaptation strategies should

support adaptive management options that facilitate and accelerate learning about appropriate
adaptation options for the future. Climate impacts and EbA measures should be monitored carefully
so that management actions can be appropriately adjusted in response to changing conditions.

Table 1 summaries and indicates the applicability of EbAs in relevance to various ecosystems in
the Indian context.

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Table 1: EbAs and different ecosystems

Natural Ecosystem Climate change Existing Pressures Maintaining Resilience
Ecosystems functions Impact
Forest Ecological Services - Change in forest Landuse change, Maintain genetic diversity in
Ecosystem Carbon composition; Fragmentation, forests
sequestration; Shift in tree line; Diversion of forest for
Climate Regulation; Increased incidence non-forest use, Maintain stand and
Water regulation; of forest fires; monoculture; forest landscape structural
habitat function; Loss of carbon degradation, excessive complexity
absorption capacity resource use
Goods- timber/ Maintain connectivity across
NTFP supply; forest landscapes by
tourism and cultural reducing fragmentation,
function establishing biological
corridors etc.

Avoid conversion of natural

forests to monoculture
plantations.

Reduce reliance on non-

native tree species for
plantation, afforestation/
reforestation

Ensuring significant area

under PA.
Grassland Seed Dispersal; Reduction in cover Over grazing; agriculture Minimize fragmentation by
Ecosystem drought and flood and productivity of expansion and other land land use changes and roads;
mitigation; nutrient the grassland (feed use changes
cycling; soil back to regional Maintaining Connectivity to
conservation; rainfall pattern); facilitate migration of
Contribute to climate reduction carbon species
stability absorption
Provide aesthetic capacity; may shift Low-intensity, sustainable
beauty; Provide towards greater grazing practices
wildlife habitat; tree dominance
Food and fodder Maintain heterogeneity of
supply management at the
landscape and mimic grazing
patterns of native herbivores;

Prevent and control the

spread of invasive species

Restoration and
reintroductions of native
species

Provide buffer zones

Fresh Water Provides Water Erratic rainfall, Reduced environmental Maintaining the
Ecosystems Supply; Wild reduced water flow; Pollution; Reduced environmental water flow;
Habitat; flood flow, proliferation Water Flow Capacity; reducing pollution pressure;
control; food source of invasive species; Agriculture and maintaining flood plains;

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to rural population; reduced nutritional infrastructure expansion invasive species control

water purification; security for local and other changes in other
nutrient cycling; people. land use pattern
wildlife habitat;
recreation and
tourism
Marine and Climate regulation; Acidification; sea Pollution; costal erosion; Reducing existing human
Coastal Maintaining water level rise; costal over-fishing; pressure;
Ecosystems cycle; nutrient erosion; coral Conserving mangrove
cycling; provide bleaching forests and corals
wildlife habitat Integrated Planning of
(corals, mangroves); coastal areas
nursery for marine Sustainable resource use
stock Setting up of Marine PAs
Himalayan Climate Regulation; Melting of Land use change; Planning and designing
Ecosystem Water Regulation; Glaciers; Changes deforestation, soil erosion, projects sensitive to
Habitat in forest changes in forest Himalayan ecology;
composition and composition and
distribution; distribution and changes
decline in crop in rainfall distribution/
production; pattern
changes in rainfall

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Broadly, key specific practices based on EbA relevant in India in the context of DRR and Climate Change
would include: a) maintain and create large, complex patches of vegetation and small areas of native
vegetation keystone structures, b) maintain structural complexity and mimic the matrix of natural
vegetation patterns, c) create buffers around sensitive areas or buffer patches around native vegetation, d)
maintain or create corridors or stepping stones to improve connectivity, e) maintain landscape scale
heterogeneity and capture environmental gradients, f) maintain key species interactions and functional
diversity by identifying keystone species and key seed dispersal agents, f) apply appropriate disturbance
regimes (e.g., fire regimes, hydrological flow regimes), g) control aggressive, over-abundant invasive
species, h) minimize threatening ecosystem-specific processes, i) maintain species of particular concern
(e.g., highly threatened/rare species), etc.

4.3 EbA: Key issues in upscaling EbA approaches to developmental planning

Notwithstanding the obvious advantages of EbA as a strategy to address climate change, the potential of
upscaling and mainstreaming EbAs into regular development planning is yet to be realized. There are
some key issues and challenges that act as barriers in this regard:

Firstly, there exist systemic and institutional barriers. The prevailing development paradigm in the
country is largely sector driven, where conventionally the sectoral growth models do not explicitly
recognize ecosystem based approaches as a means for climate change adaptation. Even in cases, where
the sectors do have ecosystem based adaptation components by default (e.g. NREGA, national forestry
sector schemes), often they fail to recognize, upscale and adapt these attributes more effectively into the
regular planning process and generate synergy. On similar lines, though EbA is a cost effective and
proven climate change adaptation strategy, the same has not been adequately taken into considerations by
private agencies while pursuing own developmental goals. In the planning process, there is a skewed
tendency to give dominance to engineering solutions over natural solutions.

EbA is also faced with issues such as lack of finance, land use conflict and community opposition.
Similarly there is also need to know the limits of application of EbAs. Healthy, resilient ecosystems
cannot protect communities from all climate or extreme weather-related impacts. In some situations,
engineering solutions will still be required instead of, or alongside, Ecosystem-based Adaptation
measures. There will also be ecological limits to Ecosystem-based Adaptation. prThe decision to
implement ecosystem-based adaptation is subject to risk assessment, and scenario planning that recognise
and incorporate potential trade-offs. In addition, the implementation of ecosystem-based adaption requires
an adaptive management approach, which allows management adjustments in response to changes in
external pressures, and uncertainty in ecosystem. Similarly at the policy level, climate change, DRR and
development priorities need to take care of regional variability. A common standardized approach will not
be feasible.

Another range of critical barriers may be grouped as knowledge related barriers. The knowledge base
on the scope of EbA of addressing climate change, particularly the costs and benefits, is weak which
directly impacts decision making. Climate information needs to inform all concerned as to the
consequences of what the different management actions will be. A major challenge thus becomes how to
engage with stakeholders as to what information (climate and other types) they need and how best to
provide it.

Before involving key partners and communities it is important to enhance the capacities through mass
awareness programs to deal with climate change and disasters so that they are able to help themselves.
Besides developing capacities of the local community, response to climate change and DRR requires
strong institutional mechanisms and support. In this regard, ownership of the adaptation and DRR

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programmes by PRIs; access to a sound early warning systems; appropriate weather forecasting etc are
important. This would entail investment in physical infrastructure as well as on skill development for
dissemination of information. There is need to develop training & IEC materials for different stakeholders
that incorporate DRR & CCA components.

In order to provide suitable adaptation strategy against deleterious effects of Climate Change, it is
important to first assess how communities/ ecosystems/ regions are vulnerable to various Climate Change
impacts. Vulnerability assessment to Climate Change has to be location/ region specific. This is primarily
because the regions differ vastly in agro-climatic characteristics and extreme climatic conditions that they
face. Risks to biodiversity from climate change can be initially assessed using available vulnerability and
impact assessment guidelines. However, further development and validation of tools is necessary because
uncertainties limit our ability to project climate change impacts on biodiversity and ecosystem services.
However, there is no universally accepted methodology available to assess climate vulnerability at the
local level.

5. The Way Forward

Ecosystem management provides the unifying base for promoting climate change adaptation and DRR,
with the overall goals of achieving sustainable development. Climate change adaptation, DRR and
development planning need to recognize the potential of harnessing ecosystem services and also address
vulnerability linked to ecosystem degradation. Keeping this mind, there is a need to integrate adaptation
planning (with particular focus on ecosystem based DRR) with conventional developmental planning.
Communication, engineering based solutions and EbA will go together as complementary strategies for
effective climate change adaptation and climate resilient planning. Some of the key issues that require
attention include the following:

Improving the knowledge base and create awarenss: EbAs, as a strategy to combat climate
change, are often taken for granted. It may look paradoxical that even though a large number of
developmental programmes in the country, by default, are ecosystem based adaptation programmes (e.g.
coastal and dry land afforestation, watershed management programmes, etc), they are seldom viewed as
climate change adaptation programmes. The problem is compounded by the weak information base that
details the linkages between the outcomes/ objectives of such programmes with climate change
adaptation. Further, absence of adequate documentation of good practices of EbAs, hinder the prospect of
popularizing and mainstreaming this important option to address climate change. There is need to plug
this gap. Guidance on EbA and integrating these within DRR and climate change adaptation programmes
in practice may be developed.

Need for decentralized adaptive planning: Adaptive planning has traditionally been discussed in
the sectoral contexts like agriculture, water and rural energy. Even in the National Action Plan on Climate
Change (NAPCC), the identified priorities are compartmentalized under various sectors ignoring the
importance of ecosystems as a whole and their critical role in terms of accommodating changes as a
natural process. Since EbAs are often local community based responses to adapt to changes (including
climate change), a bottom up approach that facilitates local actions related to EbAs need to be promoted.
However, what is required at the policy level is the recognition of the importance of EbAs and policy
support creating an enabling environment.

Need for a conducive and supportive policy outlook: There is a critical need to mainstream EbAs
as a strategy to address climate related risks and DRR into Indias development policies and processes.
United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) publication Climate Change and
Disaster Risk Reduction can be used as a tool for developing an integrated approach to reducing

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vulnerabilities to climate change and other natural disasters by utilizing a comprehensive disaster
management system.

As of now there is only limited recognition of EbA to adaptation under UNFCCC. CBD on the hand has
started addressing the linkages between ecosystems, disasters and climate change. Not only at the political
motivation at the international level, but national and local policies and actions taking integrated approach
to address the spiral of climate change impacts, ecosystem degradation and disaster risks, and systematic
integration in overall development policies is needed.

Securing finances for effective management: The Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group (AHTEG) on
Biodiversity and Climate Change was established to provide relevant information to the CBD and the
UNFCCC through the provision of scientific and technical advice and assessment on integrating the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity into climate change mitigation and adaptation activities.
The AHTEG has emphasized the key roles that natural ecosystems can play in mitigation and adaptation
to climate change and in protection of ecosystem services. Nevertheless, a key challenge remains: how to
reward countries that conserve these natural ecosystems and provide global services.

Currently very few markets exist to provide financial benefits for improved management of natural
ecosystems in the context of climate change, and most opportunities have come about through the
voluntary carbon markets. The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) under the Kyoto Protocol, for
instance, gives carbon credits for afforestation and reforestation projects (including natural forest
regeneration) but makes no provision for protecting standing forest and other intact natural habitats. The
World Bank has been involved in financing mechanisms to protect natural ecosystems for their carbon
sequestration and biodiversity benefits. Initiatives such as the BioCarbon Fund and the Forest Carbon
Partnership Facility afford opportunities to protect forests for carbon sequestration and other multiple
benefits, including conservation of biologically rich habitats, and to realize greater community benefits
from forest management and watershed protection. New opportunities also exist through the GEF
Adaptation Fund and links to new Bank programs such as the Global Facility for Disaster Reduction and
Recovery.

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Degradation: Forestry, land use change, and
agriculture are major contributors of climate change, accounting for almost 45 percent of emissions in
developing countries. Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) has been
identified as one of the most cost-effective ways to lower emissions. REDD holds promise for linking
carbon to improved biodiversity conservation and related benefits, since it relies on protection and
improved management of natural forests. UNREDD is an example for ecosystem management and can be
used for EbA for disaster risk and climate change adaptation.

Strengthening existing biodiversity conservation efforts: Ecosystem-based adaptation, if

designed and implemented appropriately, contributes to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.
Conserving, restoring and sustainably managing ecosystems, as part of an adaptation strategy can also
help conserve biodiversity and a wider range of ecosystem services through providing important habitats
and biological resources, and maintaining landscape connectivity. For example, the conservation or
restoration of wetlands to ensure continued water flow in periods of drought also conserves plant and
animal species that live or breed in these systems. The establishment of diverse agroforestry systems with
native plant species as an adaptation measure can similarly help conserve biodiversity. The creation or
expansion of community conserved areas in dryland regions can not only provide additional fodder
resources for pastoralists, but also provide habitat for native dryland species. Similarly, the establishment
or creation of networks of marine protected areas can ensure the continued provision of ecosystem
services for adaptation, as well as biodiversity conservation.

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In order to ensure that ecosystem-based adaptation activities deliver multiple social, economic, cultural,
and biodiversity benefits, it is important that these co-benefits be specifically considered in the planning,
design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of these activities. Systems to monitor and evaluate
co-benefits from ecosystem-based adaptation measures should be established to ensure the equitable
distribution of benefits among stakeholders.

Local involvement and community participation: Local communities and stakeholders clearly
have a role to play in promoting climate change adaptation and risk reduction through ecosystem
management as they have accumulated traditional knowledge with respect to managing hazards and
natural resources on which their livelihoods depend.

In conclusion, there is a need for proactive efforts for systematic strengthening the linkages and
integrating ecosystem, DRR and adaptation policy frameworks and practices. Actions and participation
may be needed at different levels to optimally utilize these options for sustainable development and
climate resilient pathways.

References:

1. Ecosystem-based Adaptation: a natural response to climate change; IUCN, 2009

2. Convenient Solutions to an Inconvenient Truth: Ecosystem Based Approaches to Climate Change;
The World Bank, 2010
3. Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security- Experiences, Examples; Consolidated Reply of the
Solution Exchange Climate Change Community; September 2009
4. Climate Change Vulnerability Assessment and District Plans- Examples; Referrals. Consolidated
Reply of the Solution Exchange Climate Change Community; December 200
5. Input for National Consultation on Best Practices in Tribal Areas- Experiences, Examples;
Consolidated Reply of the Solution Exchange Climate Change Community; February 2010
6. Climate Change and Biodiversity- Experiences; Examples; Consolidated Reply of the Solution
Exchange Climate Change Community; July 2010
7. Ecosystem-based adaptation: An approach for building resilience and reducing risk for local
communities and ecosystems; IUCN, December 2008.
8. Holling, C. S. (1978). Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. Wiley, London.
Reprinted by Blackburn Press in 2005.
9. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecosystem_management"
10. Peter Neil, Coordinator Regional Forest Programme & Climate Change Focal Point, Asia, IUCN)
11. Holling, C. S. 1973. Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annual Review of Ecology and
Systematics 4:1-23.
12. Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity. 2009. Connecting biodiversity and climate
change mitigation and adaptation: Report of the second ad hoc technical expert group on biodiversity
and climate change. Montreal, Quebec: Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity.
Available at http://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-41-en.pdf
13. Johnson, B. L. 1999. The role of adaptive management as an operational approach for resource
management agencies. Conservation Ecology 3(2): 8. Available at
http://www.consecol.org/vol3/iss2/art8/
14. GOI 2008. National Action Plan on Climate Change. Government of India. Delhi
15. UNEP 2009. The Role of Ecosystem Management in Climate Change Adaptation and Diaster Risk
Reduction. Copenhagen Discussion Series. Paper 2.

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