Q1.

(a). (i). Protocol

A protocol is set of rules which govern the data transmission between sender or receiver. Without
protocol the data is useless for receiver, as a person understanding only Urdu cannot understand
English messages. So protocols are control horizontal communication, that is, conversations between
processes that run at corresponding layers within the OSI Reference Model. The Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) Reference Model that uses structured layers. The OSI model describes a
structure with seven layers for network activities. One or more protocols are associated with each
layer.
(ii). PDU
The OSI model describes a structure with seven layers for network activities. At each layer, these
communications ultimately take the form of some sort of message that is sent between corresponding
software elements on two or more devices. Since these messages are the mechanism for
communicating information between protocols, they are most generally called protocol data units
(PDUs).
(iii). Encapsulation
At any particular layer N, a PDU is a complete message that implements the protocol at that layer.
However, when this layer N PDU is passed down to layer N-1, it becomes the data that the layer N-1
protocol is supposed to service. The concept is called encapsulation.
(iv). Peer to peer process
Protocol layers may be defined in such a way that the communications within a layer is independent
of the operation of the layer being being used. This is known as "peer-to-peer" communication and is
an important goal of the OSI Reference Model.

(b). (i). USB

USB means Universal Serial Bus that used in a bus for connection, communication, and power supply
between computers and electronic devices.
(ii). HTTP
HTTP means Hypertext Transfer Protocol that is used to transfer files that make up the Web pages of
the World Wide Web. It can be used in any client/server application involving hypertext. HTTP
functions as a combination of FTP and SMTP. Application layer is the related layer in the OSI
model.

1
(iii). UDP
UTP means User Datagram Protocol that provides a way for applications to send encapsulated IP
datagrams without having to establish a connection. Because is called a connectionless, unreliable
transport protocol. Transport layer is the related layer in the OSI model.

(iv). IGMP
IGMP means Internet Group Management Protocol that is involved in multicasting. The IP protocol is
two types. They are unicasting and multicasting. Unicasting is the communication between one
sender and one receiver. It is a one-to-one communication. Multicasting is the communication
between one sender and many receivers. It is a one-to-many communication. Network layer is the
related layer in the OSI model.
(v). IEEE 802.11
IEEE means Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers which covers the physical and data link
layers. The IEEE 802.11 protocol is a network access technology for providing connectivity between
wireless stations and wired networking infrastructures.
(vi). DNS
DNS means Domain Name Service Protocol that is used to resolve Internet names to IP addresses. It
enables the use of application layer addresses, such as an email address, instead of network layer
logical addresses.

(c). (i). Using Nyquist theorem;

C = 2B log10 (S/N)
C = capacity in bps, B = bandwidth in Hz, S/N = 0
C = 2 100 106 log10 0
C = 200 Mbps

(ii). Data rate for 1s = 3Mb

Required Data rate = (100 3)/60 = 25Mbps

(iii). Channel Capacity = 200 Mbps, Bandwidth = 100MHz

C = B log2 (1+SNR)
200 106 = 100 106 log2 (1+SNR)
Log2 (1+SNR) = 2
1+SNR = 4 ; SNR = 3
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Q2.
(a). (i). Asynchronous communication
Asynchronous transmission is so named because the timing of a signal is unimportant. The transmitter
and receiver must be preset in advance to an agreed-upon baud rate. Data is sent in small packets of
10 or 11 bits for the most common serial protocol.
(ii). Line coding
Binary data can be transmitted using a number of different types of pulses. The choice of a particular
pair of pulses to represent the symbols 1 and 0 is called Line Coding and process of converting digital
data to digital signals.
Converting a string of 1s and 0s (digital data) into a sequence of signals that denote the 1s
and 0s.
For example a high voltage level (+V) could represent a 1 and a low voltage level (0 or -V)
could represent a 0.
Ex: Unipolar NRZ

1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 1

(iii). Multi-level signaling

In these schemes we can increase the bit rate from increase the number of data bits per symbol. Since
we are dealing with binary data we only have 2 types of data element a 1 or a 0. We can combine the
2 data elements into a pattern of m elements to create 2m symbols. If we have L signal levels, we
can use n signal elements to create Ln signal elements.

(iv).Pulse shaping
Generating band limited channels and reducing inter symbol interference (ISI) from multi-path signal
reflections are the important requirements of a wireless communications channel demand the use of a
pulse shaping filter.
Examples of pulse shaping filters that are commonly found in communication systems are:

Sinc shaped filter

Raised-cosine filter
Gaussian filter
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 Ex: Raised-cosine filter

(b). (i). Polar RZ 1110001101

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

(ii). Manchester 1110001101

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

(iii). Differential Manchester 1110001101

1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1

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Q3.
(a).
Key Requirements Maximum
throughput
Multiple transmitters single receiver
ALOHA configuration.
Transmissions are in the form of packets of (dS/dG) = e-2G
constant length. 0 = -2G e-2G
Variable packet size. Gmax = 1/2
If two or more users send their packets at the Smax = 1/2e
same time, a collision occurs and the packets are 1/2e = 0.184
destroyed.
Retry time exponentially distributed.
Multiple transmitters single receiver
Slotted ALOHA configuration. (dS/dG) = e-G
Time divided into slots of packet transmission 0 = -G e-G
time. Gmax = 1
The vulnerable period is now reduced in half. Smax = 1/e
Require synchronization. 1/e = 0.36
Fixed packets length.
Random delay before retransmission of collided
packets.
Single media shared by several stations.
CSMA/CD Check for busy line before transmission.
If collision detected wait random time before
retransmission.
Max time to detect collision is equal to twice the
propagation delay between the two stations.
Variable packet size.

(b).

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Q4.
In 19th century wireless communication was introduced. In a wireless communication, we can
communication or transmission of information over a distance without requiring wires, cables or any other
electronic conductors. It can be transmitted through the air. It is one of the important mediums of
transmission of data or information to other devices. Many types of wireless communication systems exist,
but a distinguishing attribute of a wireless network is that communication takes place between computer
devices. These devices include personal digital assistants (PDAs), laptops, personal computers (PCs), tabs,
smart phones, and printers.
Many types of wireless communication systems exist, but a distinguishing attribute of a wireless
network is that communication takes place between computer devices. Types of Wireless networks are
WLANS (Wireless Local Area Networks), WPANS (Wireless Personal Area Networks), WMANS (Wireless
Metropolatan Area Networks), WWANS (Wireless Wide Area Networks).
Standards of WLANS are IEEE 802.11, Wi-Fi, and HiperLAN.
Standards of WPANS are Wireless PAN Within reach of a person Moderate Bluetooth, IEEE 802.15,
and IrDa Cable replacement for peripherals.
Standards of WMANS are Proprietary, IEEE 802.16, and WIMAX.
Standards of WWMANS are CDPD and Cellular 2G, 2.5G, 3G and 4G.

The different types of wireless communication mainly include, Satellite communication, IR wireless
communication, Broadcast radio, Microwave radio, Bluetooth, WiMax, Wi-Fi, ZigBee etc.
One of the wireless technologies is the Satellite communication. When the signal is sent near the
satellite then, satellite amplifies the signal and sent it back to the antenna receiver which is located on the
surface of the earth. Satellite communications may be used for many applications including relaying
telephone calls, providing communications to remote areas of the Earth, providing satellite communications
to ships, aircraft and other mobile vehicles, and there are many more ways in which communications
satellites can be used. There are many different ways in which satellite communications can be used. They
are Telecommunications, Satellite phones and direct broadcast etc.
Coverage angle of Satellite communication: A measure of the portion of the earth surface visible to a
satellite taking the minimum elevation angle into account.
R/(R+h) = sin(/2 - - )/sin( + /2)
= cos( + )/cos()

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R = 6370 km (earths radius)
h = satellite orbit height
= coverage angle
= minimum elevation angle
Data rate of satellite communication,
Data rate (pushbroom) = (Sw/X) (Vn/Y) b
Sw = Swath Width (m)
Vn = Ground track velocity (m/s)
X = Across track pixel dimension (m)
Y = Along track pixel dimension(m)
B = Bits/pixel (Bits)
Data rate (imager) = (Bits/pixel) (Pixels/sample) (Samples Second)/duty_cycle
IR wireless communication is one of the earliest types of optical communication and is still very
much in use today. It is found in remote controls for Televisions, DVD players and most other entertainment
devices. Infrared wireless communication communicates information in a device or systems through IR
radiation.
The radio system is one type of wireless data transmission. Information to be sent is impressed on to
the carrier, which then carriers the signal to its destination. At the receiver the carrier is filtered out, allowing
the original message to be recovered. Radio waves are electromagnetic signals that are transmitted by an
antenna. The transmission frequency for information transmitted through a radio system ranges from 10
kilohertz (kHz) to 1 gigahertz (GHz), and the frequencies are regulated by the Federal Communications
Commission (FCC).
An effective type of communication is the Microwave wireless communication. The data or
information can be transfer in two methods. They are satellite method and terrestrial method. In satellite
method, can be transmits information via a satellite that orbits 22,300 miles above the Earth. Stations on the
earth send and receive data signals from the satellite with a frequency ranging from 11GHz-14GHz and with
a transmission speed of 1Mbps to 10Mbps. In terrestrial method, the frequency range is typically 4GHz-
6GHz and with a transmission speed is usually 1Mbps to 10Mbps.
Bluetooth is a standard used in links of radio of short scope, destined to replace wired connections
between electronic devices like cellular telephones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDA), computers, and many
other devices. Bluetooth technology can be used at home, in the office, in the car, etc. Cell phones are
connected to hands-free earpieces, wireless keyboard, mouse and mike to laptops with the help of Bluetooth.
It can be any data or information can be transmitted faster and with a high speed. It has 2.4GHz frequency

7
band and IEEE 802.11b physical\MAC layers. Coverage of Bluetooth technology is only 9 meter area. It has
1Mpbs data rate. Required minimum quiet bandwidth is 15MHz (dynamic).
WiMax means Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access. It is easy to deploy and high speed
and low cost for broadband wireless access. This wireless technology allows data to be transferred at a rate of
30-40 megabits per second. The original WiMAX standard (IEEE 802.16) specified maximum transmission
range of 50 km and WiMAX for the 10 to 66 GHz range with a theoretical maximum bandwidth of 120
Mb/s.
Wi-Fi uses radio waves (RF) to allow two devices to communicate with one another. It is a low power
wireless communication. It is most commonly used to connect internet routers to devices like computers,
tablets and phones. Wi-Fi is common in home networking applications which provides portability without
any need of cables. It has 2.4GHz frequency band and IEEE 802.15.1 physical\MAC layers. Wi-Fi coverage
is 75m - 90m. it has 11Mbps data rate and 22MHz (static) minimum quiet bandwidth.
ZigBee is a wireless communication standard designed to address the unique needs of low-power,
low-cost wireless sensor, and control networks. The technology is inexpensive to run and doesnt require a
lot of power, making it an ideal solution for many industrial applications. ZigBee can be used almost
anywhere, as it is easy to implement and requires little power to operate. It has 2.4GHz frequency band and
IEEE 802.15.4 physical\MAC layers. ZigBee coverage is Indoors: up to 30 m and Outdoors (line of sight):
up to 100 m. it has 250 Kbps data rate and 3 MHz (static) bandwidth.

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References:
1. Computer Networks - A Tanenbaum 5th edition
2. Data Communications and Networking By Behrouz A.Forouzan
3. Data And Computer Communications William Stallings 8th edition
4. Digital Communications - 2nd Edition by Ian A. Glover and Peter M. Grant.
5. Communication Systems - 4th Edition by Simon Haykin
6. http://pluto.ksi.edu/~cyh/cis370/ebook/ch05b.htm
7. http://www.highteck.net/EN/Application/Application_Layer_Functionality_and_Protocols.html
8. http://faculty.spokanefalls.edu/Rudlock/files/WP_Simoneau_OSIModel.pdf
9. http://users.ecs.soton.ac.uk/sqc/EL334N/InfThe-L5.pdf
10. http://web.stanford.edu/class/ee179/handouts/slide18.pdf
11. http://www.bluetooth.com/bluetooth/
12. http://www-isl.stanford.edu/people/gray/fundcom.pdf
13. http://www.tutorialspoint.com/wimax/wimax_technology.htm
14. http://airccse.org/journal/ijctcm/papers/2312ijctcm03.pdf