Size-Controllable Synthesis and Characterization of Wide Band Gap

Semiconductor Oxide Nanoparticles

A.Sharma*, A. Sharma**, R. Sharma***
*
Electrical Engineering Department, AKG College of Engineering, Uttar Pradesh Technical University,NH-24
Bypass, Ghaziabad,UP India;**Nanotechnology Lab, Electrical Engineering Department, MP A&T University,
Udaipur, Raj 313001 India; ***Center of Nanobiotechnology, TCC and Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL
32304 USA
ABSTRACT powders and thin films in cycles known as “one impregnation-
decomposition cycle – IDC”.
A search of new class of semiconductors with metal oxides of
specific sizes motivated us to synthesize nanoparticles. The 3. EXAMPLES OF SYNTHESIS
preparation of nanocomposites using dispersed nanoparticles
into solid hosts is nowadays an attracting scientific art and The integrated chemical systems (nanocrystals anchored on
technological interest. The properties of these hybrid porous hosts) are following as illustration:
nanocomposite systems are different and often improved, 3.1. α-Nbpo5 Glass-Ceramic Monolith is obtained from the
compared with their isolated counterparts. In this study we glass system 6Li2O–18Nb2O5–43CaO–33P2O5 has channel-
improved the synthesis of controlled-size semiconductor oxide like pores 130 nm shown in Figure 1a and the SEM image.
nanoparticles based on the impregnation and decomposition of
transition-metal 2-ethylhexanoate-based precursors in
mesoporous hosts aiming to prepare MO2 (M = Ti, Ce, and
Sn). The pore size of the host material was enough to control
the size of the guest material synthesized within it. The linear
mass gain for each cycle in the synthesis process was an
advantage of this method, because it allowed the control of
nanoparticle growth via a layer-by-layer assembly. We report
the results of X-ray diffraction, Compton profiling,
transmission electron microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy
for SnO2, TiO2 and CeO2 nanocrystals. Raman spectroscopy
dependence on nanocrystal sizes allowed nanocrystals to their
use by this technique as prompt characterization tool to
estimate nanocrystal size.
Keywords: semiconductor, oxide nanoparticles
Figure 1. (a) (left) of the popsicle-like structure of porous α-NbPO5 and
1 INTRODUCTION scanning electron microscope (SEM) image (right) of the host with
average pore diameter around 130 nm. (b) The porous structure of PVG
(right) and the details of the chemical environmental on the pore surface
Researches on nanostructured semiconductor materials are the (left).
basis for electronics, optoelectronics, sensors, catalysis. Size-
induced characteristics give novel properties to aggregate, 3.2. Porous Vycor Glass Monolith (10x10x1) mm3 with PVG
forming microsized clusters of nanocrystals as integrated plates in a 2 mol L-1 HCl-acetone become rich in silanol (Si–
chemical system (ICS) as nanoreactors. ICS is heterogeneous OH) and siloxane (Si–O–Si) groups on surface with pore
and multiphase system (host and guest) designed and arranged diameter distribution (2 to 20 nm) .
(nanocrystals anchored in the pores) for specific functions 3.3. Impregnation of Single-Source Precursor into α-Nbpo5
and/or to carry out specific chemical reactions or processes- and PVG hosts is done for metallo-organic precursor titanium
photocatalytic activity and photoluminescence intensity of di-(n-propoxy)-di-(2-ethylhexanoate) [hereafter Ti(OnPr)2
TiO2 nanoparticles to make high dispersion of Ti ions and/or (hex)2 or Ce(III) 2-ethylhexanoate [Ce(hex)3] or Sn(II) 2-
the coordinative unsaturation of surface Ti ions. Wide band ethylhexanoate [Sn(hex)2] impregnated with 50 mL, 1.0 mol
gap semiconductor oxides are SnO2, TiO2 and CeO2 with high L-1, hexane as solvent for 24 h, at room temperature.
photocatalytic activity and high surface to volume ratio. If we 3.4. Thermal Decomposition at 600 oC for 8 h for Ce(hex)3 at
consider a spherical particle, the surface to volume ratio 750 oC for 8 h for Sn(hex)2 and Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2 at ambient
exhibits 1/L dependence, where L is the nanoparticle diameter. atmosphere using a 10 oC min-1 heating rate removes
Nanocrystal synthesis and characterization is focus in this MO2@PVG (M = Sn, Ti and Ce) and TiO2@α-NbPO5 plates
paper. at 200 0C (impregnation–decomposition cycle or IDC) make
2. NANOCRYSTAL SYNTHESIS free MO2 (M= Sn, Ti and Ce) nanocrystals.

Metallo-organic decomposition (MOD) using layered solids, 4. EXAMPLES OF NANOCRYSTALS

zeolites, carbon nanotubes. Nanocrystals anchored in porous
Vycor glass (PVG, Corning code 7930) with an α-NbPO5 at 4.1.Tin Dioxide is a wide band gap semiconductor with
optimal temperature, atmosphere, time makes inorganic
chemical, optical and electronic properties is useful in E2g TiO2@PVG

catalysis, sensors for fuels and toxic gases, in Li-based

Relative Intensity (a.u.)

E2g
batteries. The wide band gap (3.5 eV) makes it optical 10 IDC

transparent in the visible region. 7 IDC

4.2. SnO2 into Porous Hosts shown in Fig. 2a and 2b exhibit a
specific diffraction peaks. How size is significant? 5 IDC

k ⋅λ 3 IDC

The crystallite size, L, is given by: L= (1)

B ⋅ cos θ
100 130 160 550 600 650 700 750
Raman Shift (cm-1)
Figure 3. Raman spectra of different TiO2 nanocrystals size dispersed into
where k is a geometry dependent constant (about 0.9 for
PVG obtained from different numbers of IDC.
spherical shape), λ is the X-ray wavelength, θ is the Bragg
diffraction angle (in rad) and B is full-width at half maximum The Raman spectra characterize by broad bands several peaks
(FWHM) of the peak after correcting the instrumental from TiO2 nanocrystals(144 and 635 cm-1, 451 and 615 cm-1
broadening which is given by: B = Bm − Bs
2 2 of the rutile phase) based on frequency and relative intensity
(2)
associated with the matrix. The lowest frequency E2g mode
where Bm and Bs stand for the measured FWHM of the sample experiences an upshift and becomes broader as the number of
and a standard. The SnO2 crystallite sizes are listed in Table 1 IDC increases (Figure 3) size-induced phenomena in
showing pyrolysis of the precursor inside the monoliths makes nanostructured materials. Raman profile is based on the
smaller crystal sizes. following equation:
Table 1. Average crystallite sizes estimated by using Scherrer´s model
C (0, q ) L3 q
2
for the semiconductors formed by pyrolysis of the precursors inside
I (ω )α ∫ (4)
and outside (free) host. BZ
[ω − ω (q )]2 + (γ 2)2
Average crystallite size, L (nm) where γ is the line width of the Raman peak and ω(q) is the
Semiconductor Free in PVG (3) in α-NbPO5 (3) phonon dispersion curve for the bulk counterpart. For
SnO2
CdS
54 (1)
24 (2)
6
5
14
_____
spherical nanocrystals C (0, q ) = exp − q 2 L2 16π 2
2
( )
where L is the nanocrystal average diameter. Both γ and L are
fitting parameters. The phonon confinement is evident for the
Take home points: The linear mass gain is important.
Monoliths preserve their porosity and capacity of interacting lowest frequency Eg mode located at ω0 = 144 cm-1 for bulk
with single source precursors. anatase-TiO2. For simplicity, phonon dispersion can be of this
5. Titanium oxide TiO2 has applications in photocatalysis, mode using a linear chain model:
optics sensors, with small crystal size and high surface to ω (q ) = ω0 + 20[1 − cos(0.3768q )] (5)
volume ratio (anatase form). Temperature influences at As the nanocrystal size gets smaller the phonon confinement
different heat treatments can be estimated according to the involves large q values and the maximum of the Raman peak
equation: 1 (3) follows the same trend of ω(q) that is positive in the case of
χ= the E2g mode for bulk TiO2. Figure 4 shows Raman profile of
I 
1 + 0.8 ⋅  A  the E2g mode according to Eq. (4) for diameters of 15, 10 and
 IR  5 nm and considering Γ0 = 16 cm-1.
where χ is the TiO2R mass fraction in the powders, while IA
and IB are the X-ray integrated intensities of the (101) Expt. (7 ICD)
15 nm
reflection of TiO2A and the (110) reflection of TiO2R. 10 nm
Relative Intensity (a.u.)

5 nm

5.3. Tio2@PVG is obtained with 10 IDC (upper trace) is

shown in Figure 3a along with the patterns for bulk anatase
TiO2 (lower trace) with average nanocrystal diameter is 5.0
nm. The silicon threshold in the EELS spectra is 103 and 106
eV for Si and SiO2.
TiO2@PVG (10 IDC)
130 140 150 160 170 180 190
Relative Intensity (a.u.)

Raman Shift (cm-1)

(101)

Figure 4. Size dependent Raman scattering profile of the lowest frequency

E2g mode for TiO2. The solid points stand for the experimental data
obtained for a TiO2@PVG sample obtained with 7 IDC. The solid, dashed
and dotted lines were obtained by plotting Eq. (4) for nanocrystal
TiO2 anatase (bulk) diameters of 15, 10 and 5 nm, respectively. The linewidth used was 16
20 22 24 26 28 30 cm-1.[1].
a. 2θ (degrees) b.
Figure 2. (a) X-ray powder diffraction patterns for bulk TiO2 anatase and The precursor promotes coverage of the porous surface due to
TiO2@PVG obtained with 10 IDC. (b) TEM bright field image of
its interaction with the Si–OH sites present in the PVG matrix.
TiO2@PVG obtained with 3 IDC. The average nanocrystal size was found
to be 5.0 nm. The interaction of metallo-organic molecule with Si–OH sites
is important and Si–O–Ti bonds in decomposition during
nanocrystal formation. The nanocrystal size changes with
transition from anatase to rutile with influence of temperature, allows more solution to get in, increasing the precursor
nucleation and growth processes at the nanocrystal surface. amount, thus leading to larger crystal sizes.
The anchoring process plays a fundamental role in stabilizing TiO2A [Eg(ν6)]

the nanosized-TiO2 anatase phase.

5.4. Tio2@α-Nbpo5 and role of template: Peaks in XRD

Relative Intensity (a.u.)

pattern of TiO2A present a small 2θ variation.. Raman
responses of rutile and anatase phases are distinct. TiO2@α-
NbPO5 (A→R) transition Raman spectrum shows bands at 144

α-NbPO5
cm-1 [Eg(ν6); vs], 399 cm-1 (B1g; m), 519 cm-1 (B1g; m) and 639
cm-1 [Eg(ν1); m] while TiO2R exhibits bands at 143 cm-1 (B1g;
w), 447 cm-1 (Eg; s) and 612 cm-1 (A1g; s), assigned to phonon
lattice modes (where: vs, very strong intensity; s, strong 100 125 150 175 200 225 250 275 300
Raman Shift (cm-1)
intensity; m, mid-intensity; and w, weak intensity) as shown A
Figure 6. Raman spectra of TiO2 obtained via decomposition of (full
in Figure 5a. Band at 144 cm-1 is intense and no peak of α- circle) free Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2 and (open circle) Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2@α-NbPO5,
NbPO5 host suggests the formation of TiO2A phase at 1000 oC in the region between 100-300 cm-1 for analysis of band width of the
for 8 h byRaman band at 144 cm-1 [Figure 5b]. Role of the [Eg(ν6)] phonon lattice mode of TiO2A. [1].
template is important in the structural phase of the TiO2
nanocrystals. Table 2. {I[ν(Nb=O)805/I[Eg(ν6)144]} ratio, position and FWHM of
 Raman bands of the [Eg(ν6)] phonon lattice mode of the TiO2A for:
 [Eg(ν6)]  α-NbPO5
TiO2A@α-NbPO5 from 10 IDC, TiO2A@α-NbPO5 from 5 IDC and
 TiO2A
TiO2
R TiO2A@α-NbPO5 from 5 IDC+5TT. Reference[1,2]
Relative Intensity (a.u.)

{I[ν(Nb=O)805/I[
 [Eg(ν1)] Position FWHM


System Eg(ν6)144]} (cm-1) (cm-1)
 
   ratio
(a) TiO2@α-NbPO5
1.7 147 48
  
from 5 IDC

 TiO2@α-NbPO5
 1.5 146 40

from 5 IDC+5TT
(b) TiO2@α-NbPO5
1.0 144 26
200 400 600 800
-1
1000 1200 from 10 IDC
Raman Shift (cm )
Figure 5. Raman spectra of (a) TiO2@α-NbPO5and (b) TiO2@α-NbPO5
with additional thermal treatment at 1000 oC for 8 h. [1].

(3 IDC)
For illustration, Figure 6 shows Raman spectra of TiO2A
(PVG)
nanocrystals. The [Eg(ν6)] peak from TiO2A changes from 145
Relative Intensity (a.u.)

(5 IDC)
cm-1 (free) to 148 cm-1 (inside the α-NbPO5) and line widths 10 20 30 40 50
modified from 19 cm-1 to 26 cm-1 suggest a smaller 2θ (degrees)
(7 IDC)
nanocrystal size L when the TiO2 is prepared inside α-NbPO5
(111)

compared with free TiO2 (600 oC for 8 h), which presents L = (220)
32 nm for TiO2A and L = 18 nm for TiO2R. The stabilization of
(200)

TiO2A in α-NbPO5 depends on interaction with the surface sites (10 IDC)

of the pores of α-NbPO5. The smaller the L, the larger the (Free)

fraction of surface sites that are interacting with surface sites of 25 30 35 40 45 50 55

the pores of α-NbPO5, reducing the number of nucleus sites,
and causing, as a consequence, an increase in the (A→R)
transition temperature. Reduction of L leads to increases the
growth rate. Example: TiO2A@α-NbPO5. In impregnation-
decomposition cycles, a total thermal annealing of 80 h at 750
o
C treatment temperature promote the kinetic coalescence of
crystallites. The Raman spectrum of α-NbPO5 exhibits a very
strong band at 805 cm-1 which is assigned to niobyl groups
(Nb=O) from the α-NbPO5 phase; the predominant phase of
this porous glass-ceramic [27]. Table 2 shows IDC presents a
{I[ν(Nb=O)805/I[Eg(ν6)144] = 1.0} ratio smaller than
{I[ν(Nb=O)805/I[Eg(ν6)144] = 1.7} to suggest larger amount of
TiO2A present in the pores. FWHM of band [Eg(ν6)] of TiO2A
in size evaluation depends on growth of L and mass
increment via impregnation-decomposition cycles. Average
TiO2 nanocrystal inside α-NbPO5 or PVG is different due to
the different pore dimensions, i.e., a larger pore diameter
2θ (degrees)
Figure 7. X-ray diffraction patterns for CeO2@PVG nanocrystals obtained
with 3, 5, 7 and 10 IDC. The X-ray pattern at the bottom is for free CeO2
nanocrystals. The JCPDS standard for bulk CeO2 is also shown as vertical
lines [2]
6.1. Cerium oxide (CeO2) is used as an active catalyst in
vehicle emission systems for oxidation of pollutant gases, as a
solid oxide fuel cell electrolyte material, as an electrode
material for gas sensors for monitoring environmental
pollution, as silicon-on-insulator structures , and as high TC-
superconductors. A route for enhancing the CeO2 catalyst
activity is to increase the surface to volume ratio, which can
be achieved with smaller CeO2 nanoparticles.
6.2. X-ray patterns of Ceo2@PVG CeO2 nanocrystals
dispersed into PVG (obtained with 3, 5, 7, and 10 IDC)
showed vertical lines, peak line widths broad suggestive of
small size of the nanocrystals. The inset in Figure 7 shows
amorphous state. The shift of the diffraction peak to lower 2θ behavior. For low diameter nanocrystals the signal-to-noise
values indicates a lattice expansion for small CeO2 particles. ratio is poor and the fitting of the Raman profile is difficult.
These line widths are much broader [≅ 3○] than those expected
for bulk crystalline materials, where the diffraction peaks are
as narrow as 0.15○. A typical TEM bright field image of the
CeO2@PVG nanocrystals obtained with 7 IDC is shown in
Figure 8a. TEM image of the pristine PVG matrix has a
different image (Figure 8b).
Figure 8. (a) TEM image of CeO2@PVG nanocrystals obtained with 7
IDC and (b) of PVG. The inset to panel (a) represents particle size
distribution. [2].
For illustration, TEM images show average nanocrystal size
2.3, 3.0 and 4.0 nm ± 0.9 nm for 3, 5, and 7 IDC samples
similar with X-ray diffraction data. CeO2 has fluorite structure
Fm3m and shows vibrational spectra with one infrared active
phonon (T1u symmetry) and one Raman active phonon (T2g
symmetry). The T2g Raman mode frequency downshifts and
becomes broader as the number of IDC decreases, i.e., as the
nanocrystal size decreases shown in Figure 9.
03 IDCs
Relative Intensity (a.u.)
04 IDCs
05 IDCs
07 IDCs
10 IDCs
Free
320 400
Ramann Shift (cm-1)
Figure 9. Raman spectra of CeO2@PVG obtained with 3, 4, 5, 7 and 10
IDC. The Raman spectrum of free (outside the matrix) CeO2 nanocrystals
is also shown. For better comparison, the spectra are normalized to their
maximum intensities. [2]
The TEM and Raman spectroscopy indicate strain in Eq. (4).
Linear chain model describes the effective phonon dispersion
relation and behaviour of the T2g vibrational mode as ω(q)
[ )]
( )
given by: ω q = 464 − 32 1 − cos 0.5411q 2 (6)
The phonon dispersion is responsible for involving large q
wavevectors in the light scattering process. Figure 10a we plot
the expected Raman profile of CeO2 gives nanocrystal
diameter as a function of the number of IDC. The nanocrystal
average size versus the number of IDC presents a linear
(a) (b) 07 IDCs
3 nm
464
4.5 nm
6 nm
10 nm
Normalized Intensity (a.u.)
460
Raman Shift (cm-1)
456
452
ω = 463-185/L
Spanier et al
2
448 This work
400 420 440 460 480 500 0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Raman Shift (cm-1) 1/L (nm-1)
Figure 10. (a) Expected Raman profile for the T2g mode in CeO2
nanocrystal. (b) Raman frequency as a function of reciprocal nanocrystal
size 1/L for CeO2 nanocrystals.
The changes in lattice parameters and different strain level
along the nanoparticle induce small changes in the position of
the diffraction peak and broaden the Raman peak. This
process leads to non-stoichiometric cerium oxide (CeO2-x)
nanocrystals. In the case of Raman scattering, the presence of
oxygen vacancies along the nanocrystal also relaxes the q ≅ 0
selection rule which fundamentally has the same effect on the
frequency and line width as the nanocrystal size. Raman
spectroscopy gives true average diameter size of the
nanoparticle distribution. Figure 10b shows the frequency plot
of the main Raman peak as a function of the reciprocal
nanocrystal size 1/L. A fit to the experimental data gives a
quadratic dependence of frequency (in units of cm-1) on 1/L,
i.e.:
ω (L ) = 463 − 185 L2 , (7)
where L (in units of nm) is the average size of the
nanocrystals, considering a spherical shape. CeO2
nanocrystals can be obtained at 600 ○C over 12 h final in size
10 nm. The nanocrystal growth does not occur via
coalescence. PVG plays a role in controlling the coalescence
process. In the first IDC the precursor promotes coverage of
the porous surface, establishing some nucleation sites due to
interaction with the Si–OH sites present in the matrix. The
metallo-organic molecule is large enough to interact with all
nearby Si–OH sites and, during the decomposition process,
the dispersed nanocrystals are formed on the nucleation sites
and they remain anchored to the porous matrix. The exceeding
interfacial free energy is minimized by nanoparticle growth
(forbidden coalescence) instead of creating new nucleation
sites.
480
560 7 CONCLUSION
CeO2, TiO2 and SnO2 nanocrystals have distinct size
controllable properties prepared by metallo-organic
decomposition, bottom-up approach in nanotechnology. Size-
induced Raman spectra peaks of nanocrystals by phonon
confinement model supports the average nanocrystal size
measurement in TiO2 and CeO2 nanocrystals based on size
restriction imposed by the pores and anchored through Ti–O–
Si linkages. Space restriction and chemical anchoring
( properties prevent the coalescence process, thus allow control
of the nanocrystal size via a linear mass increment.
8 REFERENCES
1. Mazali, I.O et al. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 66 (2005):37-46.
2. Mazali, I.O et al. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 68 (2007), 622-
627.
 Semiconductor Oxide Nanoparticles
A.Sharma*, A. Sharma**, R. Sharma***
*
Electrical Engineering Department, AKG College of Engineering, Uttar Pradesh Technical University,NH-24 Bypass,
Ghaziabad,UP India;**Nanotechnology Lab, Electrical Engineering Department, MP A&T University, Udaipur, Raj 313001
India; ***Center of Nanobiotechnology, TCC and Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32304.
ABSTRACT
The nanoparticle hybrid systems are improved
semiconductors. They are compared with their isolated
counterparts. We report the preparation of MO2 (M = Ti,
Ce, and Sn) and their synthesis. We report the controlled-
size semiconductor oxide nanoparticles based on the
impregnation and decomposition of transition-metal 2-
ethylhexanoate-based precursors in mesoporous hosts. The
pore size of the host material plays significant role to
control the size of the material synthesized within it. The
mass gain after each cycle in the synthesis process
determined the control of nanoparticle growth via a layer-
by-layer assembly. X-ray diffraction, transmission electron
microscopy, and Raman spectroscopy techniques were used
to characterize SnO2, TiO2 and CeO2 nanocrystals. Raman
spectroscopy measured nanocrystal size as characterization
tool.
Keywords: semiconductor, oxides, nanoparticles, size
control
1 INTRODUCTION
Nanotechnology defines as the creation of functional materials,
devices and systems through control of matter at the range of
1-100 nm scale. The term ‘nanosemiconductor’ covers metal
oxide and hybrid materials in one dimension (quantum dots
and thin films etc.), two dimension (nanofibers, nanowires,
nanotubes,etc.), and three dimension
(nanoparticles/nanopowders, nanocapsules, fullerenes,
dendrimers, molecular electronics, nanostructured materials,
nanoporous materials etc.). Due to their small grain size, these
materials exhibit unique mechanical, chemical, physical,
thermal, electrical, optical, magnetic, biological and also
specific high surface area properties, which cannot be found in
their bulk counterpart turn define them as nanostructures,
nanoelectronics, nanophotonics, nanobiomaterials,
nanobioactivators, nanobiolables, etc. Metallic nanoparticles
(Ag, Au, Ge, Mo, Si, Pt, Pd, and Ru etc.), semiconductor metal
oxide (Al2O3, CeO2, CdO, CoO,Co3O4, CuO,Cu2O, FeO,
Fe2O3, Fe3O4, Ga2O3, Hf2O3, In2O3, Ln2O3, MgO, MoO3,
MnO2, Mn2O3, Mn3O4, Nb2O5, NiO, PbO2, Pr2O3, Sb2O3, SiO2,
SnO2, V2O5, WO3, TiO2, ZnO, ZrO2, Ln2O3, LnVO4, NaYF4,
NaYF4:Ln NaLnF4, NaLnF4:Ln, LnPO4, LnPO4:La-Lu,
semiconductor quantum dots (AgS, AlN, CdS, CdSe, CdTe,
CuS, GaN, GaP, PbS, PbTe, ZnS, ZnSe, ZnTe etc caught
attention in electrodes, catalysis, solar energy conversion, field
emission, photonic devices, drug delivery, biosensors(DNA,
optical, chemical, gas and immunosensors. Semiconductor
crystals exhibit a broad spectrum of strong size dependent
properties for particle sizes below the Bohr radius of their bulk
exciton. The size dependence of the nanocrystal electronic
energy level has attracted special interest. It allows one to tailor
the materials optical and electronic properties by controlling
particle size, and many potential new applications such as
nanocrystal bio-tags, quantum dot lasers, polymer-based
nanocrystal solar cells, and single electron transistors.
How semiconductor works?
Quantum confinement of classical particle in a box
explains this problem. The effective mass of m* confined in a
crystal with a one dimension barrier at a distance of L, the
movement of the particle can be described with the
Schröedinger equation:
…………………….(Eq.1)
where Ψx) is the wave function and E is the energy of the
particle. This equation can be solved by using the boundary
conditions that Ψ(x) = 0 at x = 0 and x = L:
for n = 1,2,3…………..(Eq.2)
where kn is the allowed wave factors and kn = n  / L. When
this simplified solution is extended to a semiconductor
nanocrystal with a size close to the Bohr radius aB, the
resulting expression for the energy shift from the ground state
of the corresponding bulk materials is:
ΔEn = n2ħ2π2/2m*a2 (Eq.3)
where a is the size of the nanocrystal, m* is the reduced
effective exciton mass which is defined by 1/m* =
1/me*+1/mh*.me* and mh* are the effective mass of electron
and hole of the material, respectively. The Bohr radius of a
semiconductor can be obtained from the dielectric constant ε
and the reduced exciton mass m* : aB = εh2/m*e2.
Thus, the band gap of the material can be engineered to a
desired level by changing the size of the nanocrystals:
Eg, nanocrystal = Eg, bulk +ΔE =Eg,bulk + ħ 2p2/2m*a2 (Eq.4)
The band gap energy increases with a decrease in the size of
the nanocrystals. Since the optical transition is directly related
to the band gap, it is possible to tune the absorption and
photoluminescence wavelength of the nanocrystals just by
manipulating their size. Semiconductor metal oxide
nanocrytals show distinct properties shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Illustration of a semiconductor band structure
showing shift of energy band gap.
2. NANOCRYSTAL SYNTHESIS
Preparation methods are incorporation and thermal
decomposition of metal carbonyl clusters and alkoxides,
ion-exchange, metallo-organic decomposition (MOD), and
sol–gel processes. Layered solids, zeolites and, recently,
carbon nanotubes are the most popular porous hosts. MOD
method can be successfully used for producing inorganic
powders and thin films as technique does not require either
vacuum processing or gel preparation. The metallo-organic
precursor is treated under the appropriated conditions
(temperature, atmosphere, time) to yield the desired final
oxide. The advantages of this process include simplicity,
easy composition control, and lower temperatures of
synthesis, shorter times, better compositional uniformity
and high specific surface areas. MOD methodology is
appropriate for preparing materials in confined
environments because it is a wet based-method and the
liquid precursor can be efficiently inserted into the porous
host. This methodology is suitable for adjusting what is
called the impregnation-decomposition cycle (IDC) in order
to get good control of crystallite size as a function of the
number of IDC. The IDC method has been shown to be a
versatile bottom-up nanofabrication technique. In Figure 2
we show a scheme on how this technique is used for
preparing nanocrystals inside a porous host.
2.1.METALLO-ORGANIC-DECOMPOSITION
TECHNIQUE
The integrated chemical systems (nanocrystals anchored on
porous hosts) that we are going to discuss in the next
sections have two different hosts. We now shall briefly
describe the main properties of these hosts.
Figure 2. Scheme showing the steps used for preparing the
nanocrystals inside the porous hosts using the metallo-organic
decomposition method (MOD). Each cycle is called “one
impregnation-decomposition cycle – IDC”.
2.2 TEMPLATE-ASSISTED SYNTHESIS METHODS
Synthetic methods for nanomaterials by template methods
are widely used which confine the growth of materials
within a template (such as pores), followed by removal of
the template, provide a flexible synthetic route for a variety
of nanostructured materials. Both hard-templates (e.g.
porous materials, mesoporous silica, track-etched
polycarbonate film and carbon nanotubes) and soft-
templates such as polymer, self-assembly of surfactant
molecules and solvents could be used. Now biomolecules
such as DNA, tripeptide glutathione (GSH) and lysozyme
as template can be used for the synthesis of nanoparticles.
Figure 3 illustrates how nanotubes or nanowires can be
formed using porous materials template. Firstly, the
substrates are loaded into these nano-channels by various
methods such as vapor phase sputtering, liquid phase
injection, solution-phase deposition or electrochemical
deposition. Nucleation, growth and crystallization are
confined in these nanometer sized channels. Selective
removal of the porous template results in the formation of
nanorods, nanowires or nanotubes. The most commonly
used porous materials are porous polymer and alumina
films. One typical example is the use of porous anodic
alumina (PAA) templates to prepare ZnO nanowires and
nanotubes. The zinc-based sol particles were loaded into the
PAA nano-channel due to the electrostatic attraction. The
ZnO nanowires and nanotubes can be fabricated when the
sol particles sintered inside the channels. Outstanding
examples of arrays that has been generated by this route are
those of oxides nanotubes like TiO2, In2O3, Ga2O3, BaTiO3,
PbTiO3, In2O3 and Fe2O3, as well as nanorods of MnO2,
WO3, Co3O4 , V2O5, and ZnO. Other widely applicable
route to inorganic nanotubes and nanorods is to use CNTs
as templates. CNTs have been coated with a thin film of
secondary materials that builds up the tube wall of the
desire inorganic nanotube followed by removal of the
carbon nanotube. Most oxide nanotubes and nanorods, such
as V2O5, Al2O3, WO3, MoO2, Sb2O3 and MoO3, ZrO2, RuO2,
SiO2, and TiO2 have been prepared using CNTs as
templates. Self-assembly of surfactant molecules is another
important class of templates. Surfactant molecules can be
classified into cationic, anionic, non-ionic and zwitterionic
according to their polar head groups. When the
concentration of surfactant molecules is below its critical
micelle concentration (CMC), the surfactant molecules will
only lie up at the liquid-vapor interface or dissolve into the
liquid. However, once the concentration is over CMC, these
surfactant molecules can self-assemble into spherical
micelle, cylindrical micelle or lamellar structure depending
on the concentration and types of surfactant molecules.
Figure 3 depicts the structure of these micelles. These self-
assembled structures can be used as templates for the
growth of nanomaterials as shown in Figure 4. Reactants
can load into or grow outside the cylindrical template.
Subsequently removal of surfactant molecules gives
nanorods, nanowires or nanotubes. The uses of surfactant as
a template for nanomaterials synthesis have been widely
explored. Existing 1D nanomaterials such as nanowires and
nanotubes can also be used as a template for the synthesis
of other 1D nanomaterials. The substrates can coat onto the
nanowire or nanotubes for growth. Removal of the template
results in the formation of nanotubes. The substrates can
also react with the nanowires so that growth of the new
materials is directed by the existing nanowires. For
example, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs) were
used as a template for the synthesis of one-dimensional SiC,
BN nanostructures, ZnO nanorods, CoFe2O4 nanowires, β-
zeolite nanowires.
Figure 3. Schematic diagram showing the formation of 1D
nanomaterials using porous materials as templates. (a) Porous
materials such as porous anodic alumina with nanometer scale
channels. (b) Incomplete filling of the substrates in the channel.
(c) Formation of nanotube due to incomplete filling. (d)
Complete filling of the substrates in the channel. (e) Formation
of nanorod or nanowire due to complete filling.
Figure 4. Schematic diagram showing the structures of self-
assembled surfactant molecules. Arrows stand for the change
of structure as the concentration of surfactant molecules
increases. (a) Structure of spherical micelle; (b) Structure of
cylindrical micelle; (c) Lamellar structure; (d) Structure of
spherical reverse micelle; (e) Structure of cylindrical reverse
micelle.
Figure 5. Schematic diagram showing the formation of
nanorods, nanowires and nanotubes by cylindrical template. (a)
Cylindrical micelle formed by self-assembly of surfactant
molecules. (b) Substrate molecules attach onto the outer wall
of the cylindrical micelle. (c) Sintering of the substrate
molecules form a wall outside the cylindrical template. (d)
Selective removal of the surfactant molecules gives the desired
nanotubes. (e) Cylindrical reverse micelle formed by self-
assembly of surfactant molecules. (f) Substrate molecules load
into the cylindrical reverse micelle. (g) Nucleation, growth and
crystallization occurs inside the cylindrical template. (h)
Selective removal of the surfactant molecules gives the desired
nanorods or nanowires.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a noncontact and nondestructive
technique which can be used to determine the crystalline
phases present in materials, the structural properties of these
phases, the thickness of thin films, and atomic arrangements
of amorphous materials. The geometry of diffraction in a
single grain is described through the reciprocal lattice. If the
crystal lattices are defined by three vectors a, b, and c, there
are three reciprocal lattice vectors defined as:
a* = 2 πb x c / a. b x c (Eq.12)
as cyclic permutations thereof for b* and c*. These vectors
define the reciprocal lattice, with the significance that any
three integers (hkl) define a family of lattice planes with
spacing d = 2π/ | ha* + kb* + lc* |, so that the diffraction
vector K = ha* + kb* + lc* satisfies |K| = 2π / d = 4πsinθ / λ
(most chemists and some physicists define |K| = 1 / d =
2sinθ / λ). The intensity of the diffracted beam is governed
by the unit cell structure factor, defined as:
where Rj is the position of the jth atom in the unit cell, the
summation taken over all atoms in the unit cell, and fj is the
atomic scattering factor, tabulated in, e.g. the International
Tables for Crystallography, and is equal to the number of
atomic electrons at 2θ = 0, decreasing as a smooth function
of sin θ/λ.

3 STRUCTURE OF NANOCRYTALS

TEM is the most useful method to provide direct

observation of pore structures and parameters. Details of
50nm can be resolved by scanning SEM.
Raman spectroscopy analyzes metal oxide infrared bands
at around 500-300 cm-1due to O-M stretching. The energy
range for infrared spectra measurements is 400-4000 cm-1
and the resolution 4 cm-1.

4 HYBRID NANOSEMICONDUCTORS

Cd1-xZnxTe (x = 0.04—0.1) with a stable chemical

composition provide a highly dense CdTe and Cd1-xZnxTe
ceramics with distinct characteristics shown in Figure 7.

5 EMERGING NANOELECTRONICS

Silicon nanotechnology is replaced with hybrid

nanocomposites. CMOS and MOSFET technology based
on Si-SiO2 interfacen will be replaced by single electron
MOS memory(SEMM) to provide quantized threshold
voltage with terabyte area on chip. Other development is in
single wall CNT graphite technology as transistors
rectifiers. Nanowires, quantum dots are new faces.
Graphene combines most exciting features from carbon-
Figure 7. (top row) XRD is shown for Cd0.9Zn0.1Te ceramics
nanotube, single-electron and molecular electronics as
produced at T = 20°C, p = 400 MPa on top; CdTe ceramics
alternatives to the silicon-based technology. Semiconductor
produced at T = 200°C, p = 650 MPa. In middle; and (bottom
laser technology is wider hope in improved plasmon,
row) CdTe ceramics produced at T = 20°C, p = 650 MPa, time
optical, photon technology.
under pressure t = 10 min[3].
(110)


Rutile



6 CONCLUSION
Relative Intensity (a.u.)

(101)


Rutile

 (a)
(101)
Anatase

(111)
Rutile
Relative Intensity (a.u.)

Metallic organic decomposition technique is advancing in

(210)
Rutile
(200)


Rutile




(b) (c)
 synthesis of nanosemiconductors. A technique is reported
(004)
Anatase



(b)
for CdTe and Cd1-xZnxTe (x = 0.04—0.1) nanopowders


(c)

consisting of 8-10-nm particles for hard ceramic materials.
(a)
20 30 40 50 60
1D nanomaterials such as nanowires, nanotubes,
2θ (degree)
20 25 30 35
2θ (degree)
40 45 nanomicelles are excitements.
Figure 6. (left) X-ray powder diffraction measurements of
SnO2 nanoparticles. (a) SnO2@PVG, (b) SnO2@α-NbPO5 7 REFERENCES
obtained with 10 IDC and (c) free SnO2. The solid circles 1. Mazali, I.O et al. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 66
identify the peaks from the rutile SnO2 phase taken from a (2005):37-46.
crystallographic database. (Right) Powder XRD patterns of the 2. Mazali, I.O et al. Journal of Physics and Chemistry of Solids 68
decomposition product of free Ti(OnPr)2(hex)2 at (a) 500 oC; (2007), 622-627.
3. Sharma R et al.
(b) 600 oC; (c) 700 oC. Dotted and dashed lines stand for TiO2A http://www.scribd.com/doc/25799862/Biotechnology-and-
[58a] and TiO2R [58b], respectively [1]. Nanotechnology
 Semiconductor Nanoparticles in Photocatalysis: Emerging Art and Perspectives
A Sharma1, A. Sharma2, R. Sharma3
1
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, AKG College of Engineering, UP Technical University,
NH-24 Bypass, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
2
Department of Electrical Engineering, MP A&T University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
3
Florida State University and Innovations And Solutions Inc.,3945 W Pensacola Street, Tallahassee, FL 32304
1
Adhar Sharma: Paper is an undergraduate BE Electrical Engineering project

ABSTRACT semiconductors broaden the number of nanophotocatalysts

A principle of semiconductor nanophotocatalysis – a new
trend in photochemistry deals with the photocatalytic redox-
reactions with the participation of semiconductor
nanoparticles. The origin of various size-dependent
explanations in the semiconductor photocatalysis are spot
light with the special attention paid to the quantum size
effects originating from a spatial confinement of the
photogenerated charge carriers (excitons) in ultra-small
semiconductor nanoparticles (quantum dots). Our focus was
the specifics of quantum-confined semiconductor
nanoparticles including the size-dependent optical properties
(the position and shape of absorption and
photoluminescence bands, the oscillator strength of
interband electron transitions, etc.), thermodynamic
characteristics (the band gap, the potentials of conduction
and valence band edges, the nature, number and depth of
charge trapping sites, etc.), as well as the dynamics of
photogenerated charge carriers (charge migration in semi-
conductor nanoparticles, its localization on the structure
defects, interfacial charge transfer, etc.). The consequences
of spatial confinement were characterized in semiconductor
nanoparticles affecting their photocatalytic behavior. The
development of the photocatalytic properties in narrow-
band-gap semiconductors at the nanoscale increased a
number of photocatalytic reactions for a given
nanocrystalline semiconductor as compared with the bulk
material. The acceleration of photocatalytic reactions
enhanced with the participation of semiconductor
nanoparticles due to their size-dependent growth of the
energy in charge carriers. The photoinduced polarization
caused by the accumulation of excessive charge by
semiconductor nanoparticles resulted an increase of their
photocatalytic activity. The specific features of the
photocatalytic behavior of semiconductor nanoparticles
were size-related phenomena in the photocatalytic metal
reduction, photocatalytic formation of binary semiconductor
nanoheterostructures, photoinduced polymerization of
acrylic monomers, photocatalytic reduction of sulfur
compounds, and photocatalytic water reduction with the
participation of semiconductor nanoparticles. The
photochemical behavior of quantum-confined
semiconductor nanoparticles was observed under powerful
pulse illumination. The simultaneous and additive influences
of different size effects showed dependence upon the
photocatalytic properties of semiconductor nanoparticles. In
conclusion, perspectives of future development of the
photocatalytic systems based on nanostructured
and photocatalytic processes, as well as the benefits of the
utilization of such systems in modern nanotechnology.
Keywords: semiconductor, nanoparticles, photocatalysis,
quantum dots
1 INTRODUCTION
Semiconductor nanoparticles (NPs) show remarkable
thermodynamic, photophysical, photochemical, magnetic
and dimensional organization other properties. Size Effects
in Semiconductor Nanocrystals originate from surface area
and layers. Quantum size effects are caused by changes in
the electronic properties of semiconductor nanocrystals in
the range of 1 nm (CuCl) to 100 nm (PbSe). Photonics of
semiconductor NPs is new research on quantum size effects
as changes in the electronic structure of semiconductor
crystals in the range of R < aB. The phase size effect makes
them stable to high-temperature or uncharacteristic phases.
2 SIZE EFFECTS OF SEMICONDUCTOR NPS
2.1 Surface Trapping and Interfacial Transfer of Charge
Carriers: During this process, electron trapping in TiO2
NPs generates Ti3+ cations giving rise to the characteristic
EPR signals and absorption bands at 600-900 nm. In the
presence of oxygen, the conduction band electron can be
captured in the form of anion-radical О2- The trapped hole
exists in TiO2 NPs as the radical ОН• or anion-radical О-
clearly visible in EPR spectra, and transient absorption
spectra as a band centered at 450-460 nm. In metal-sulfide
semiconductor NPs the hole trapping gives the anion-
radicals S-. Semiconductor NPs lack of band bending near
the semi solution boundary.
The charge carrier dynamics in semiconductor NPs
affects directly the secondary redox processes: in the
secondary "dark" chemical reactions participate trapped
electrons and holes, rather than free charge carriers; the
electron-hole recombination is suppressed considerably as
compared with microcrystalline semiconductors; the rate of
interfacial charge transfer is much higher in case of
nanocrystalline semiconductors because of lack of the band
bending on the semiconductor-solution interface boundary.
Nanometer crystals of Sr2Ta2O7 and SrSnO3 are more active
in the photocatalysis. The photocatalytic activity in iodide
oxidation and the photocatalyst dispersion were found for
many oxide semiconductors (ZrO2, MoO3, Fe2O3, ZnO,
CeO2). The reduction of TiO2 NP size from 300 to 20 nm is
accompanied by 50% growth of the quantum yield of
electron transfer from a RuII tris-bipyridyl complex
resulting from of an increase in the density of surface states
capable of electron. The maximal quantum yield of the 8.0
photocatalytic oxidation can be achieved for 10-15 nm TiO2

V·106, M/min
6.0
particles. Different schemes explain the photoinduced
electron transfer in following schemes. 4.0

φ = φ0+Δφ φ = φ0 2.0

CB Δφ CB 0
3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0
φ0
W ~ 100 nm 2R, nm

Fig 1. The relationship between the rate of photocatalytic

VB
VB
ZnII reduction and the size of ZnS NPs (2R). [ZnS] = 1 10-3
r0 >> W M, [Na2SO3] = 1 10-2 M, [ZnCl2] = 2 10-3 M, pH 9.8
r0
r0 << W

Microcrystal Nanocrystal
How to increase the efficiency of the photocatalytic systems
based on the nanocrystalline semiconductor
photoelectrochemical systems?.
Scheme 1. Electric potential change on the semiconductor- Main choices are efficient spatial separation of charge
solution boundary for semiconductor micro- and carriers, minimization of the recombination losses in
nanocrystals. semiconductor NPs, and suppression of the secondary
reverse reactions.
E, В
ECB A2/A2•–
E* (i) coupled semiconductor nanostructures with concerted
ΔEB band energies, (ii) metal-semiconductor nanocomposites,
A1/A1 •–
Te ΔEe and (iii) coupled nanostructures comprising a semiconductor
EF and a conjugated polymer. The photocatalytic systems is
D/D•+ based on mesoporous semiconductors and semiconductor
ΔEh
Th NPs of anisotropic shape.
EVB EVB
Charge separation in coupled semiconductor
nanostructures: A combination of two nanocrystalline
а b
semiconductors differing in the band structure can favor
conditions of the photogenerated electron separation and
Scheme 2. Energy diagram of photocatalytic systems based hole on different parts of the nanocomposite. Scheme 3
on non-charged semiconductor NPs (case а) and the NPs in illustrates the charge separation in a coupled CdS/TiO 2
the state of photoinduced polarization (case b). nanostructure.
Е, В eCB–
2.2 Semiconductor NC size and Photocatalytic etr– e–
activity: The semiconductor photocatalysts have large band •+ A/A•–
D/D
gap (Eg > 2.2 eV). Size-dependent band gap expansion is
h+
helpful in development of photocatalytic properties in
CdS
nanocrystals of semiconductors.The rate constant of the
photoinduced electron transfer from CdS NPs is related with
TiO2
MV2+ and the size of semiconductor NPs as:
lg(k/kbulk) = - Е = - (ECB(R) – E0(MV2+/MV +)) (23)
Scheme 3. Charge separation in a coupled CdS/TiO2
where kbulk is the charge transfer rate constant for nanostructure.
bulk CdS, is a constant. A combined effect of the size-
dependent band edge potential growth and the photoinduced Photoexcitation of the CdS/TiO2 nanostructures: It
polarization of semiconductor NPs determines the pho- goes in one-way electron transfer from the conduction band
tocatalytic behavior of NPs as semiconductor of CdS NPs to TiO2 NPs. Many coupled semiconductor
Nanoheterostructures with Advanced Photocatalytic nanostructures with advanced photocatalytic and
Properties photoelectrochemical properties are in use CdS/TiO2,
The quantum yields of semiconductor-mediated
CdSe/TiO2, ZnS/TiO2, PbS/TiO2, Bi2S3/TiO2, CdS/MxSy
photocatalytic reactions are 0.1-0.2 due to loss of
photogenerated charge carriers in various recombination (MxSy = Bi2S3, Sb2S3, CuxS, Ag2S), CdS/ZnO, CdS/AgJ,
processes. So, maximal quantum yield of photocatalytic CdS/ZnS, ZnO/TiO2, Cu2O/TiO2, ZnO/SnO2, SnO2/TiO2,
processes may not be expected to be higher than 0.1. WO3/TiO2, WO3/ZnO, MnOx/TiO2, In2O3/TiO2, CeO2/TiO2,
Fe2O3/TiO2, ZrO2/TiO2, Cu2O/ZnO, InP/TiO2, AgBr/TiO2,
MoS2/TiO2, WS2/TiO2, CdTe/TiO2, etc.
 Generally, the charge separation rate in coupled sulfur with the participation of ZnO NPs and nanocrystalline
semiconductor nanostructures is very high. For example, the TiO2 films produces coupled ZnO/MS and TiO2/MS
rate constants of photoinduced electron transfer from CdS nanostructures (where MS = CdS, PbS, CuS).
(CdSe) NPs to ZnO or TiO2 NPs in the coupled CdS/ZnO, Colloidal ZnO nanorods 100-350 nm in length and 20-
CdS/TiO2 and CdSe/TiO2 nanostructures are as high as 1010- 150 nm in the inner diameter can be produced by the
1012 s-1. The electron transfer act occurs in 10-100 ps after
ultrasound treatment of bulk ZnO powder. The relative
the photoexcitation and can be as efficient as 100%,
competing with the surface trapping and recombination of positions of the potentials of conduction and valence band
charge carriers. edges of CdS, ZnO and TiO2 is favorable for the fast and
The increased efficiency of primary charge separation irreversible spatial charge separation in ZnO/CdS and
results in growth of the quantum yields of photocatalytic TiO2/CdS nanostructures forming in photocatalytic reaction
reactions mediated by the coupled semiconductor (Scheme 4).
nanostructures. For example, the said charge separation in Step I. Step II. Step III.
Photocatalytic Formation of Growth of CdS
the CdS/TiO2 nanostructures is accompanied by acceleration deposition of ZnO/CdS nanotubes
of the oxidative photocorrosion of CdS NPs and Cd II primary CdS NPs nanocomposites

reduction on the surface of TiO2 NPs. The coupled ZNO

hv
ZNO
hv
ZNO
hv
e
CdS/TiO2 nanostructures show advanced photocatalytic e CB ... h
+
VB
e e
properties in methylviologen reduction, oxidation of organic Cd
II
CdS CH3CH2OH
СH3CHO
0 СH3CHO
dyes, trichloroethylene and dimethylsulfide, dehalogenation S e CB CH3CH2OH
d
of tetrachlorobenzene and hydrogen evolution from Growing CdS NP
CdS

solutions of sacrificial donors. The CdSe/TiO2 and Grown CdS NP ZnO

Bi2O3/TiO2, In2O3/TiO2 and ZrO2/TiO2 nanostructures h
+
VB

toward oxidation much higher. The -Fe2O3/TiO2

nanostructures act as an efficient photocatalyst of nitrate Scheme. 4. Photocatalytic formation of CdS nanotubes on the
anion reduction with simultaneous sucrose oxidation. tips of ZnO nanorods.
Nanocomposites MS/Fe3O4 (M = Zn, Cd, Pb, etc.) and
Ag/TiO2/SiO2/Fe3O4 show photocatalytic properties in The secondary reactions with spatially isolated electrons
solutions. Examples of narrow-band-gap semiconductor are and holes, resulting in CdS deposition and formation of
CdS/TiO2 and CdS/ZnO, CdSe/TiO2, CdSxSe1-x/TiO2, nanotubes (in case of ZnO) or nanorods (in case of TiO2 films),
CdTe/TiO2, Bi2S3/TiO2, PbS/TiO2, WS2/TiO2, Cu2O/TiO2, occur apparently on the interface boundary between the metal-
InAs/TiO2, and CdTe/ZnO nanostructures showing quantum oxide and growing CdS NPs.
size effects of CdS NPs (ECB-EVB) levels(photocatalytic Photocatalytic processes with the participation of coupled
activity of Na2S/Na2SO3 solution). semiconductor-metal nanostructures. The rate of
photocatalytic reduction is limited by efficiency of the
3 CdS, ZnO, TiO2, SnO2 NANOCOMPOSITES: interfacial electron transfer from the surface traps of
AN EXCITING ART semiconductor NPs to electron acceptors. Semiconductor
photocatalyst NPs coupled with metal NPs enhance efficinecy.
Photoinduced charge transfer in the coupled The metal-semiconductor nanostructures are synthesized by
nanostructured nanocomposites of polymers with TiO2, ZnO mixing semiconductor and metal NPs on the surface of
and CdSe, can act as sensitizer of wide-band-gap semicon- nanocrystalline semiconductor. Scheme 7 illustrates the energy
ductor NPs and the hole-transporting layer and show high level structure of metal-semiconductor nanocomposite along
efficiency of the charge separation as well as the with the changes induced by the photoinduced polarization. The
semiconductor and metal NPs being got into contact, a
photocatalytic and photoelectrochemical activity.
collective Fermi level establishes instantly (EF3 on Scheme 5) in
The efficiency of photocatalytic reactions with the
the gap between the Fermi levels of the starting NPs (EF1 and
participation of nanocrystalline titanium dioxide can be
EF2).
substantially increased by combining TiO2 NPs with nano- 1 2 3 4
structured carbon materials nanotubes, graphite, – EF5
CB CB eCB CB
fullerenes, etc. For example, the nanocomposites of TiO2
NPs with multi-wall carbon nanotubes show higher EF1 EF4
EF3
hv hv
photocatalytic activity in oxidation of dyes. The EF2
photocatalytic synthesis of coupled semiconductor
VB
nanostructures, coupled TiO2/MoS2 and TiO2/WS2 VB VB hVB+
nanostructures can be prepared by the photocatalytic Metal
decomposition of (NH4)2MoS4 and (NH4)2WS4, respectively,
TiO2/MoS2 and TiO2/WS2 NPs show high photocatalytic Scheme 5. Energy level structure of a metal-semiconductor
activity toward oxidation. The photocatalytic reduction of nanocomposite.
 The photoexcitation of composite NPs is accompanied by
the interfacial transfer of electrons from the conduction band of
the semiconductor to metal NPs resulting in an increase of the
collective Fermi level (EF4). Metal-semiconductor NPs TiO2/Pt,
TiO2/Pd, TiO2/Rh, TiO2/Au, TiO2/Ag, TiO2/Cu, ZnO/Pd,
ZnO/Ag, ZnO/Au, CdS/Pt, CdS/Au, and Fe2O3/Au show
acceleration of the photocatalytic reactions. For example,
deposition of Ag NPs onto the surface of nanocrystalline TiO2
enhances the photocatalytic activity. The binary TiO2/Au
nanostructures show high photocatalytic activity. Deposition of
Rh NPs onto the surface of nanocrystalline TiO2 enhances the
photocatalytic activity of the semiconductor in benzene
oxidation. The coupled ZnO/Ag NPs have high photocatalytic
activity in dyes destruction.
The quantum yield of photocatalytic hydrogen production
from aqueous solutions is close to zero. Acceleration of the
photocatalytic hydrogen evolution was observed for CdS/Pt,
CdS/Rh, CdS/Ni, ZnIn2S4/Pt, TiO2/Pt, TiO2/Au, TiO2/Ni,
TiO2/Cu, and TiO2/Ag nanostructures. The coupled ZnO/Ag
NPs are more active in the photocatalytic reduction of
copper(II).
The phenomena discussed are most probably associated
with the size effects in metal NPs. The growth of the size of a
metal NP is accompanied with the growth of its capacity,
which, in turn, dictates the efficiency of the charge transfer
from a neighboring semiconductor NP. For example, the rate of
photoinduced electron transfer from TiO2 NPs to Au
nanoclusters increases by two orders of magnitude as the
composition of gold NPs changes from Au38 to Au4033.
In the systems with the ohmic contact between the
semiconductor and metal NPs, for example, TiO2/Pt or ZnO/Pt,
the size-dependent increment of the capacity of metal NPs is
accompanied by the enhancement of electron-hole
recombination and the decrease of the rate of competing
photocatalytic reactions.
Growth of the metal NP size in the nanostructures with
non-ohmic (Schottky) semiconductor metal contact, for
example, TiO2/Au, TiO2/Ag , ZnO/Au, ZnO/Ag results in
lowering of the collective Fermi level and gradual disappearing
of the photocatalytic properties. Mesoporous and 3D-organized
semiconductor nanophotocatalysts have higher surface energy
and reduced surface tension. It needs less agglomeration and
arrest growth of semiconductor crystals on the phase of NP
formation. The mesoporous materials show (i) a developed
surface area (100-300 m2/g) and the nanometer pore size
favoring to substrates adsorption on the inner pore surface till
the capillary condensation; (ii) a prolonged time of the substrate
retention in the mesopores allowing protracted contact between
the semiconductor NPs and a substrate; (iii) migration of the
photogenerated charge carriers among the adjoining
semiconductor NPs and their accumulation in the points of NPs
contact; and, finally, (iv) in case of mesoporous hollow micro-
spheres. Mesoporous semiconductor materials show much
higher photocatalytic activity than corresponding non-porous
materials.
The mesoporous Cu2O, CeO2, and V2O5 show higher
photocatalytic activity. Semiconductor NPs nanorods, nano-
sheets, nanowires, etc., reveal higher photocatalytic properties
as compared with the spherical- or faceted-shaped NPs of the
same composition because of photogenerated electrons travel
along the nanosheet and reduce the metals on the nanosheet
edges. For example, MnO2 NPs are deposited on the surface of
nanosheets as a results of MnII oxidation by the valence band
holes indicating random hole movement. The rutile TiO2
nanorods show higher photocatalytic activity in phenol
oxidation as compared with the spherical titania NPs. The
ordered nanocrystalline TiO2 films formed by the nanorods,
oriented perpendicular to the substrate, are more efficient
photocatalysts of water splitting than the conventional TiO2
films formed by fractal aggregates of TiO2 NPs.
The nanocrystalline semiconductor nanocrystalline TiO2
electrodes involves coating of a conductive glass plate with
paste containing TiO2 NPs mixed with waxy agents followed by
the calcination at 350-400 °C. The photoctalysis in
nanocrystalline titania is usable in oxidation of dyes, glucose,
sodium benzylsulfonate and dodecylsulfonate; mineralization of
formic, oxalic, and succinic acid, some aminoacids, and 4-
chlorophenol; vapor-phase oxidation of formaldehyde;
disruption of the cell membranes of bacteria, and hydrogen
evolution from water-alcohol solutions.
The porous films of nanocrystalline WO3 and TiO2
nanotube arrays show the photoelectrocatalytic activity toward
pentachlorophenol oxidation. The nanocrystalline Nb6O17,
Ca2Nb3O10, Ti0.91O2, Ti4O9, and MnO2 electrodes have the
photoelectrocatalytic properties in methanol oxidation. The
nanocrystalline Bi2MoO6 films are photoelectrocatalytically
active in dyes destruction.
The photoelectrocatalytic activity in water splitting and
water reduction at the expense of sacrificial donors was
observed for the nanotubes of titania and alkali metal titanates,
nanocrystalline films of TiO2, TiO2/Au, WO3, Cu2O, and TiO2
nanowire arrays. High efficiency of light-to-current conversion
was observed for the nanocrystalline electrodes composed of
nitrogen-, boron-, silicon- , carbon-doped titanate nanotubes,
the films of TiO2 hollow microspheres, dye-sensitized
nanocrystalline films of TiO2, Nb2O5, SrTiO3, ZnO, and -
Fe2O3, the self-assembled films of titania nanosheets,
ZnO/TiO2, NiO, Bi2S3, CdS and CdS/Au, and -In2S3
4 CONCLUSION
The photocatalytic action of a semiconductor crystal,arises
from the photogeneration of electrons and holes.
Nanosemiconductor crystals show quantum size effects.
Nanophotocatalysis is useful in a design of coupled
semiconductor nanostructures, photoinduced polarization of
semiconductor NPs, photopolarization effect in the
nanocrystalline semiconductors. Now optical and electronic and
photocatalytic photophysical and photoexcitation of
semiconductor crystals, and quantum phenomena is new
excitement in the ultra-small semiconductor particle.
 Polymer Nanocomposites: Characterization and Applications
A.Sharma*, R.Sharma**,***
*
Electrical and Electronics Engineering Department, AKG College of Engineering, Uttar Pradesh Technical University,
NH-24 bypass, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh, India
**
Nanotechnology Lab, Electrical Engineering Department, MPA&T University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India
3
Tallahassee Community College, Apple Yard Road, Tallahassee 32304
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Innovations And Solutions Inc. USA, 3945 West Pensacola Street, Suite 98, Tallahassee, Florida 32304, USA

ABSTRACT 2 WHAT MAKES NANOCOMPOSITES

Organic polymeric composite materials are useful in
applications sucgh as light emitting diodes, electrochromic
displays, smart windows, and field transistors,
electromagnetic interference shielding devices, energy
storage products such as batteries, super capacitors and fuel
cells. Nanoparticles of conducting polymers are formed by
chemical or electrochemical synthesis by precipitation,
crystallization, sol–gel transformation, emulsion
polymerization. Molecular template nucleation is a method to
design specific size, morphology and control. These reactions
are important in design of wires, tubes, globules and discs.
Conducting polymer nanowires are alternatives to silicon
nanowires and carbon nanotubes due to their tunable
conductivity, flexibility, chemical diversity, and ease of
processing. The paper reports the characterization of
nanocomposites, templated electrochemical conductance, and
applications. The main challenges are to build and control
engineered polymeric materials at the nanometer (nm) scale
important for current and future development of
nanomaterials for a wide range of applications. The
„phenomenal effect‟ of these nanoparticles combined with
bulk material makes them lighter, stronger, with high
ductility in bioapplications. The size of the nanoparticle
grains displayed specific properties in the bulk material. We
describe easier processing, mixtures with other polymeric
/non polymeric matrices to develop conducting polymer
based nanocomposites or nanoconducting polymers.
Key words: energy storage tanks, storage polymers,
nanocomposites, synthesis
VALUABLE?
The following process parameters affect fiber structure:
viscosity, concentration, net charge density (conductivity),
surface tension of the polymer fluid, molecular weight,
molecular weight distribution, topology (branched, linear
etc.) of the polymer, electric potential, flow rate of the
polymer solution, distance between the capillary-end and
target/ collection screen, ambient parameters (temperature,
humidity and air velocity in the chamber), motion of target
screen, Internal diameter of the nozzle/capillary.
3 CHARACTERIZATION TECHNIQUES
X-ray diffraction (XRD) and transmission electron
microscope (TEM) are choice in process kinetics, monitoring
the position, shape, but poor spatial distribution of the clay
layers. Some techniques are cited here in table 1.
3.1.Mechanical Properties
The mechanical behavior of nanocomposites is based on the
nature of the polymer matrix, particularly crystalline or
amorphous nature of the polymer, and the interaction between
the filler and matrix. The elastic modulus, filler–matrix
interaction.
3.1.1.Viscoelastic Properties
Inter particle distance in nanocomposites explains elastic
modulus and strength of these materials at micron-sized
particles.

1 INTRODUCTION
Organic polymer with electrical, electronic, magnetic and
optical properties of a metal/metal oxide “intrinsically
conducting polymer” (ICP) or “synthetic metal” (i.e., nano-
rods, -tubes, -wires, and -fibers). Chemical and
electrochemical synthesis of conjugated polymer nanotubes
and nano-wires: polyaniline(PANI) ,polypyrole (PPy), polyn-
methylpyrrole (PNMPy), polythiophene (PTh) and
polyethylenedioxythiophene (PEDOT) in the form of nano-
arrays, nano-tubes and nano-fibers) is a “conjugate polymer
nanomaterial”. As example, polyaniline (PANI) is explored
in this paper.
*
Part of undergraduate project by Adhar Sharma, BEE(II)
3 CONDUCTION IN NANOCOMPOSITES
Polymers can be electrically conductive when doped with
oxidizing or reducing agents.
Pn [Pn+ A–] [Pn+A–] [Pn2+2A–], [ Pn +A–]+Pm [(Pn Pm) +A–]
(reduction oxidation) (reduction oxidation)
Polyconjugated structures if treated with an oxidizing or a
reducing agent (doping) makes polymer salts with electrical
conductivities. P-type doping: removal of electrons from the
valence band by the oxidizing agent, leaving the polymer
with a positive charge. N-type doping: it encompasses
donation of an electron to the empty conduction band by a
reducing agent. Polyconjugated structures if treated with an
oxidizing or a reducing agent (doping) makes polymer salts
with electrical conductivities. P-type doping: removal of
electrons from the valence band by the oxidizing agent,
leaving the polymer with a positive charge. N-type doping: it
encompasses donation of an electron to the empty conduction
band by a reducing agent.
 Table.1. Common characterization techniques for clay
based polymer nanocomposites.
The first step is the formation of a cation (or anion) radical,
which is called a soliton or a polaron. The p-type or n-type
doping, electrons concept is changed now after discovery of
polyacetylene(PA) polyparaphenylene (PPP), and polypyrrole
(PPy)~ can display conductivity (no need of unpaired
electrons but spin less charge carriers) for conduction. So,
molecule geometry distortion in the ionized state or elastic
energy Edis leads to an upward shift ΔE of the highest
occupied molecular orbital (HOMO) and a downward shift of
the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (LUMO). In
nanocomposite, ionization energy ΔE>Edis, makes polaron
(radical ion spin) associated with a lattice distortion ΔE - Edis
(Erel) polaron binding energy. Second electron removal makes
polymer chain a bipolaron (pair of like charges associated
with a strong local lattice distortion) shown in Figure 1. Edis >
Edis for the polaron. The p-(n-) type doping show bipolaron
empty gap(fully occupied or spin less) and show two optical
transitions below the band gap transition: for p-type doping,
from the VB to the lower bipolaron level and from the VB to
the upper bipolaron level.
Fig.1. The bipolarons are thus spin less. The presence of bipolarons on
polymer chains result in the possibility of two optical transitions below
the band gap transition: for p-type doping, from the VB to the lower
bipolaron level and from the VB to the upper bipolaron level.
4 GENRAL APPLICATIONS
4.1 Luminescence
Electronic excitation of the polymer from π to π* states, and
π* to π states show: fluorescence, phosphorescence, or
radiation less decay (rotational or vibrational motion within
the polymer and its surroundings). Absorption - emission
maxima (Stokes shift) occurs when emission from the lowest
vibrational excited state relaxes to various vibrational levels
of the electronic ground state. Emission efficiency of the
polymer is quantum yield of luminescence Φpl or the ratio of
the number of photons emitted to the number of photons
absorbed, as shown:
Figure 2. Emission mechanism.
The Φpl is related to the rates of radiative (τr) and non-
radiative (τnr) decays. Electroluminescence (EL) in polymer
as Light Emitting Diodes (LED) is shown in Fig.3 made of
Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) and polymer), with low work
function metal cathode such as calcium. Light emitting diodes
are bipolar devices, where holes (h+) and electrons (e-) are
transported in the polymer is revolution.
Nanotechnology is currently enabling the production of
high-efficiency organic photovoltaics (OPVs). Conducting
nanowires poly(propylene) PP, PANI, and PEDOT (~100–
200 nm in diameter), Al2O3-based masks with nanopores
show considerable promise for use as nanoemitters in
emission displays in field-effect transistor (FET)
configuration shown in Fig 4 and I–V characteristics of these
transistor structures are nonlinear, as are the I–V curves of
individual PANI fibrils shown in Fig. 4(b). The field mobility
of carriers in a polymer fibril μFET I–V curve of a traditional
MOSFET is shown in Fig.4(c). The carrier mobility μFET
from the transistor conductance gm:
Figure 3 LED structure and its energy level diagram.
Figure 4: (a) Field effect transistor (FET) based on individual
PANI fibril(b) IV characteristics of FET based on polyaniline
fibril(20 nm) (c) IV characteristics of P3HT fibril.
4.2 Photovoltaics
Organic photovoltaics are nanostructured thin films
composed of layers of semiconductor organic materials
(polymers or oligomers). CNT devices hold promise to
revolutionize solar energy harvesting, ink-jet or screen
printing, enabling rapid mass-production while scaling down
cost. In recent years, bulk hetero-junction polymer
photovoltaic devices and photodiodes have been constructed
with composite films of CPs as electron donors and CNs as
electron acceptors. Optical and photovoltaic properties of a
composite based on MWNTs and PPV to make stable LEDs
high conductivity, good quantum efficiency (1.8% at 2.9–3.2
eV).CP/SWNTs composites are hybrid organic semi-
conducting material promise for organic photovoltaic cells as
organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) and photovoltaic cell.
Dispersion of SWNTs in a host polymer(m-phenylene-
vinylene-co-2,5-dioctoxy-p-phenlene-vinylene) (PmPV) (hole
conducting) traps the holes, depending on the applied voltage,
in a double emitting organic light emitting diode (DE-
OLED). SWNTs dispersed in PEDOT is p-type semi-
conductor. Devices made with SWNTs dispersed in PEDOT
emit green light at 2.37 eV with significant decrease in the
electroluminescence (EL). OLEDs with the structure of ITO-
coated glass/PEDOT:PSS/SWNTs-PVK (poly-carbazole)
nanocomposite /( 4-(dicyano methylene)-2-methyl-6-(p-
dimethyl aminostryryl)-4H-pyran (DCM)-doped) Alq3-Li
Al.SWNTs are emerging SWNTs-PVK nano- composites
with spin-coated on the PEDOT:PSS-ITO-coated glass with
high quantum efficiency improved by a factor of 2–3 for
SWNTs concentration up to 0.2 wt%.
4.3 Solar Cells
Solar cells are devices, which operate inversely to OLEDs,
transform radiation from the optical range into electricity.
Under illumination, a transfer of electrons to the acceptors
takes place and the holes transported through the CP/NC
(photo-induced charge transfer). SWNTs-doped polymer
composites demonstrate low percolation threshold, composite
reinforcement, mechanical stability (tensile strength ca.20
GPa), thermal management in large area thin film array.
Photovoltaic systems incorporate nanostructure-SWNT
complexes into the polymer.
4.4 Biosensors
Recently, CN-based gas sensors of the field effect- transistor
at room temperature due to a drastic change in the electrical
conductivity upon the adsorption of various gases, have
received a great deal of attention. SWNTs used for gas
sensors must be semiconducting. CN/CP nanocomposites
based on a SWNTs/PPY showed n-type behavior.
SWNT/PPy nanocomposite towards NO2 show with high
surface area of the coated PPy and high sensitivity due to
synergetic effect of the steric hindrance of the substituents on
the aromatic rings and the presence of MWNTs inside the
polymer matrix. Electrochemical biosensors can be intimate
coupled with biomolecule (enzyme) and generates electrical
signal. It needs immobilization of the biomolecule as well as
its affinity for and accessibility towards the target analyte.
Many amperometric biosensors are oxidase-based require a
use of charge-transfer mediators or electro catalysts. CNT act
as transducers, stabilizer and mediators for biosensor
applications (immobilized enzyme-nanotube surface) to
enhance redox reaction and the electron transfer in HEME
proteins. Hydrogen Storage-New technology makes 8 wt%
(reversible) hydrogen gas storage in doped 3 forms of the
organic conducting polymers such as polyaniline and
polypyrrole.
 4.5 BIOMEDICAL APPLICATIONS
DNA Hybridization Analysis-A revolution- MWNTs offer
CPs-based biosensors (PPy based glucose oxidase system for
detection of glucose, DNA-doped PPy film coated on the CN
modified electrode) for free DNA hybridization detection by
impedance measurements. Problem: DNA duplex formation
not related with change in redox signal. CPs, PPy, allow
biological recognition element associated with potential
reporter polymer chain for direct electrochemical detection of
DNA hybridization by AC impedance measurement. For
example, MWNTs functionalized with carboxylic group
(MWNTs-COOH) can be modified on the glassy carbon
electrode (GCE) and the oligo-nucleotide probes were doped
with the electro polymerized PPy films as the sole counter
anion during the growth of the conducting films. It decreases
impedance before and after hybridization reaction with the
complementary DNA sequencesdue to low electrode
resistance (a reagent less DNA hybridization analysis).
Nanomedicine- is „the monitoring, repair, construction, and
control of human biological systems at the molecular level,
using engineered nanodevices and nanostructures‟ by
nanoscale manipulation for clinical application, diagnosis,
prevention, and treatment of disease and disease mechanisms.
Examples: 1. Nanodevices (eg, Q-dots, dendrimers),
nanoparticles, drug delivery systems, emulsions, carriers for
delivering vaccines and nanomaterials(high strength,
hardness, reduced friction, and improved biocompatibility),
nanomachines (move through the body, troubleshooting and
repairing tiny brain or cardiovascular lesions). 2.Growth
factor or enzymes combine as dopant with biosensor CPs.
Biocompatible CP can catalyze a bioreaction and enzyme can
measure concentration of metabolites (e.g. glucose,
cholesterol, penicillin). Emeraldine (EM), nigraniline (NA),
and leucoemeraldine (LM), polypyrrole coated woven fabrics
(Context TM) are biocompatible with lower conductivity
(103 ~104Ω/ square) and better cellular response. In vitro
applications of conducting CP polymer redox state effect
electrical stimulation of cell growth by protein adsorption
(fibronectin), DNA synthesis and enhanced neurite length.
3.Poly-Lactic acid and carbon nanotubes stimulate osteoblasts
growth(increased proliferation, concentration of calcium in
extra cellular matrix, and up regulation of mRNA expression
for collage type I) upon cells exposed to 10µA at 10Hz
electric stimulation. 4. Nanodrug delivery at nanometer scale
is interest for controlled drug delivery and biomedical
devices. Electrochemical actuators-Conducting polymer‟s
response to electrochemical oxidation or reduction changes
its conductivity, color and volume, electron transport in and
out between polymer and electrolyte (Piezoelectronics-
expands or contracts). Polymers doped with bioactive drugs
can be used as micro fluidic pumps. 5. Controlled release of
anti-inflammatory drug response of neural prosthetic devices,
conducting-polymer nanotubes decrease the impedance and
increase the charge capacity of the recording electrode sites
on micro fabricated neural prosthetic devices.
5.Microelectrode neural probes for single neuron (central
nervous system and peripheral nervous system). 7.Polymers
polypyrrole (PPy) and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene)
(PEDOT) reduce impedance over large surface area for ionic-
to-electronic charge transfer in neural prosthesis applications.
8. The reposne of dexamethasone by external electrical
stimulation of PEDOT nanotubes. 9. Nanofibers of poly(L-
lactide) (PLLA) or poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) or
PLLA/ PLGA are dexamethasone-incorporated PLGA
nanoscale fibers.10. Nanowire Immunosensor act as field-
effect transistors that change conductance upon binding of
charged macromolecules to receptors linked to the device
surfaces as biosensors. 11. Bioreceptor (antibody)-
functionalized nanowires for label-free, real-time, rapid,
sensitive and cost-effective detection of multiple pathogens in
water. 12.Functionalized polypyrrole nanowires- high
controllability, high-density for biosensor arrays of
poliovirus, hepatitis-A virus and rotarvirus by electrostatic
charges from binding of the pathogens to the antibodies show
sensitivity, selectivity and durability of poliovirus, HAV and
rotavirus antibodies.13.Enzyme nanomotors- encapsulation
act as „electronic nose‟ biosensor arrays for breath alcohol
levels, automotive exhaust safety inspection, and
identification of toxic gases using chip chemical sensing and
signal processing on enzyme nanosensors „stripes‟
(lithographically patterned sensor arrays), example: proteins
(avidin, streptavidin, catalase), biotin to polymer-bound
avidin opens possibility of bio-friendly fuels such as glucose
to power these nanoscale motors.14.Nanopackaging Systems-
packaging films are moisture absorbent sachets, oxygen
scavengers, transport shock resistant materials, time and
temperature detectors for thawed frozen goods, antimicrobial
coatings, conducting polymers (artificial metals) for
transistors and semi-conducting devices. Thermochromic,
electrochromic and chemo chromic inks, optical patterns
(holograms and other optical variable devices
(OVDs).Example-PANI can detect changes in meat and dairy
products, polyaniline, ammonia in meat and milk industry.
15. Energy Actuators- Polypyrrole, Si/SiO2/Ti/Al, PANI, CP
and CNT converse electrical energy to mechanical energy
with a material response to applied electrical voltage.
Eamples: artificial muscle robotics, optical fibre switches,
optical displays, prosthetic devices, microscopic pumps and
anti-vibration systems. 16. Nanotoxicology- health and
environmental impacts, disease detection, imaging, and
treatment, immune system, reuse ultrafine particles, industrial
pollution to cause pulmonary toxicity. MWNTs,TiO2 crystals
can do oxidative DNA damage. SWNTs-C-nanotubes, C-
fullerenes as „green‟ nanomaterial show concern of surface
area, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory effects of
nanoparticles in the lung.
5 CONCLUSION
Nano conducting polymers: Biodegradable polymer-based
nanocomposites are useful in aerospace, automotive, food
packaging, solar cells, electrical and electronic goods, inkjet
markets, cosmetics, and body moldings, engine covers and
catalytic converts, batteries, computer chips, memory
devices, biosensors for diagnostics. Bio-nanotechnology is in
infancy. Reference: http://scribd.com/doc/25799862/Biotechnology-
and-Nanotechnology/