FLAW DETECTION OF MATERIALS AND COMPONENTS

1.DESTRUTIVE TESTING:

In destructive testing, or (Destructive Physical Analysis DPA) tests are carried out to the
specimen's failure, in order to understand a specimen's structural performance or
material behaviour under different loads. These tests are generally much easier to carry
out, yield more information, and are easier to interpret than non destructive
testing. Destructive testing is most suitable, and economic, for objects which will be
mass-produced, as the cost of destroying a small number of specimens is negligible. It is
usually not economical to do destructive testing where only one or very few items are to
be produced (for example, in the case of a building). Analyzing and documenting the
destructive failure mode is often accomplished using a high-speed camera recording
continuously (movie-loop) until the failure is detected. Detecting the failure can be
accomplished using a sound detector or stress gauge which produces a signal to trigger
the high-speed camera.

These high-speed cameras have advanced recording modes to capture almost any type of
destructive failure. After the failure the high-speed camera will stop recording. The
capture images can be played back in slow motion showing precisely what happen
before, during and after the destructive event, image by image.

Some types of destructive testing:

Stress tests

Crash tests

Hardness tests

Metallographic tests

Nondestructive Testing Methods

Magnetic Particle

Liquid Penetrant

Eddy Current

Radiography

Ultrasonic

Acoustic Emission

1. Magnetic Particle Testing

Magnetic particle inspection is a method that can be used to find surface and near
surface flaws in ferromagnetic materials such as steel and iron.

The technique uses the principle that magnetic lines of force (flux) will be distorted by
the presence of a flaw in a manner that will reveal it's presence.

The flaw (for example, a crack) is located from the "flux leakage", following the
application of fine iron particles, to the area under examination. There are variations in
the way the magnetic field is applied.

The iron particles can be applied dry or wet; suspended in a liquid, colored or
fluorescent. While magnetic particle inspection is primarily used to find surface breaking
flaws, it can also be used to locate sub-surface flaws. But it's effectiveness quickly
diminishes depending on the flaw depth and type.

Surface irregularities and scratches can give misleading indications. Therefore it is

necessary to ensure careful preparation of the surface before magnetic particle testing is
undertaken.

2.Liquid Penetrant Testing

Liquid penetrant inspection is a method that is used to reveal surface breaking flaws by
bleedout of a colored or fluorescent dye from the flaw.

Penetration

Fluorescent penetrant on surface seeps into the crack.

Emulsifies is applied to the penetrant. Emulsifier mixes with penetrant on the surface,
but penetrant in the crack is not emulsified. Emulsifier makes the mixture washable .

Emulsification

Water spray removes the emulsified penetrant. Water removes the surface film as well.
 Rinse

Developer draws the penetrant out of the crack.

developer

Black light causes the penetrant to glow in dark.

Black Light

Black Light
 Black Light

3.Ultrasonic Testing

Ultrasonic inspection uses sound waves of short wavelength and high frequency to
detect flaws or measure material thickness. It is used on aircraft, the power stations
generating plant, or welds in pressure vessels at an oil refinery or paper mill.

Usually pulsed beams of high frequency ultrasound are used via a hand-held transducer
which is placed on the specimen.
Any sound from that pulse that returns to the transducer like an echo is shown on a
screen which gives the amplitude of the pulse and the time taken to return to the
transducer.

Defects anywhere through the specimen thickness reflect the sound, back to the
transducer. Flaw size, distance and reflectivity can be interpreted. Because of its
complexity considerable technician training and skill is required.

4.Eddie Current Testing

 Eddy current
testing is an electromagnetic technique and can only be used on conductive materials.
It's applications range from crack detection, to the rapid sorting of small components for
either flaws, size variations, or material variation. Commonly it is used in the aerospace,
automotive, marine and manufacturinq industries.

When an energized coil is brought near to the surface of a metal component, eddy
currents are induced into the specimen. These currents set-up magnetic field that tend
to oppose the original magnetic field. The impedance of coil in close proximity to the
specimen is effected by the presence of the induced eddy currents in the specimen.

When the eddy currents in the specimen are distorted by the presence of the flaws or
material variations, the impedance in the coil is altered. This change is measured and
displayed in a manner that indicates the type of flaw or material condition.

5.Acoustic Emission Testing

Acoustic emission monitoring (AE) involves listening to the sounds (which are usually
inaudible to the human ear) made by a material, structure or machine in use or under
load and drawing conclusions about it's "state of health" from what is heard, just as a
Doctor would listen to your heart and lungs.

The noises may arise from friction (including bearing wear), crack growth, turbulence
(including leakage) and material changes such as corrosion.

The technique involves attaching one or more ultrasonic microphones to the object and
analyzing the sounds using computer based instruments.
The advantages of AE are that a whole structure can be monitored from a few locations,
the structure can be tested in use (without taking it out of service) and continuous
monitoring with alarms is possible. Microscopic changes can be detected if sufficient
energy is released and source location is also possible using multiple sensors.

Applications include testing pipelines and storage tanks (above and below the ground),
fibreglass structures, rotating machinery, weld monitoring and biological and chemical
changes.

6.Radiography(X-Ray Inspection)

X-rays are
produced by high voltage x ray machines whereas gamma rays are produced from
radioactive isotopes such as Iridium 192 .The x-ray or gamma rays are placed close to
the material to be inspected and they pass through the material and are then captured
on film. This film is then processed and the image is obtained as a series of gray shades
between black and white.

The choice of which type of radiation is used (x ray or gamma ) depends on the thickness
of the material to be tested. Gamma sources have the advantage of portability which
makes them ideal for use in construction site working.

X-rays and gamma rays are very hazardous. Special precautions must be taken when
performing radiography. Therefore the operator will use these inside a protective
enclosure or with appropriate barriers and warning signals to ensure there are no
hazards to personnel.