PROCESS CONTROL

Dr. Agus Saptoro

Faculty of Engineering & Science
Curtin University Malaysia Campus

Email: agus.saptoro@curtin.edu.my

ITENAS Bandung, Indonesia

2017
About me
Educational backgrounds
BEng (Hons, Gadjah Mada University, Indonesia)
PhD (Curtin University, Australia)
Research Fellowship (University of Hyogo, Japan)

Professional membership
- Senior Member of American Institute of Chemical
Engineers (AIChE)
- Member of Institution of Chemical Engineers (IChemE),
UK

2
 Contents

Part 1 Basic Principles of Process Control

Concept of Feedback Control
Why we need control?
Benefits from process control
Important terminologies in process control
Dynamic model
PID Controller

Part 2 PID Controller Enhancement

Cascade Control
Feedforward Control
Ratio Control
Main references

1. Riggs, J.B. and Karim, M.N. Chemical and Bio-Process Control. 3rd
ed. Ferret Publishing. 2006.
2. Cooper, D.J. Practical Process Control: Fundamentals of
Instrumentation and Process Control. Control Station, Inc. 2005.
3. Seborg, D.E., Mellichamp, D.A., Edgar, T.F. and Doyle III, F.J.
Process Dynamics and Control. 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New
York. 2010.
4. Romagnoli, J.A. and Palazoglu, A. Introduction to Process Control.
2nd ed. CRC Press. 2012.
5. Marlin, T.E. Process Control. 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, Inc. 2000.
6. Ogunnaike, B.A., Ray, W.H. Process Dynamics, Modeling and
Control. Oxford University Press. 1994.
7. Bequette, B.W. Process Control: Modeling and Simulation. Prentice
Hall, New Jersey. 2003.
8. Cooper, D.J. Practical Process Control using Loop-Pro Software.
Control Station, Inc. 2005.
 Unit learning outcomes

After completing this lecture, I should be able

to:

Understand the motivation of process control and

be familiar with important terminologies of process
control.
Explain and Apply the concept of feedback control
and its basic elements.
Understand and be able to apply the concepts of
enhanced PID controllers: Cascade, Feedforward
and Ratio Controllers.
Controlled variable: temperature of water

How to control the temperature of water:

If we want to have hotter water, we have to
adjust the valves in such away that more
hot water flowing to the shower.

If we want to enjoy colder water, we have to

adjust the valves in such away that more
colder water flowing to the shower

So here
Flowrates of the cold and hot water are
manipulated variables
and
our skin is the sensor.

Final control element: Valve

Sensor: our eyes

Controller: our brain

Controlled variable:
position of our car is in
the right and safe lane

Final control element: whee

 Process Control for Industry
Applications

Product
TC Steam
Stream

TT

Feed
Condensate
Heating of a colder stream using steam to produce a hotte
TC: Temperature T: Temperature C: Concentration
Controller F: Flowrate : Valve
LC: Level Controller h:height/level
Feedback Control - Concept

CONTROL To maintain desired conditions by adjusting selected

(input) variables in the system.

FEEDBACK CONTROL To use the output of the system to

influence input to the same system.

INPUT OUTPUT
(cause) (effect)
Classification of Input Variables
can be adjusted freely by a
human operator or a
control system..
represent the effect of the
surroundings on the Manipulated
process.

Input Variables
Measured

Disturbances

are not the result of an

adjustment by an operator
Unmeasured
or a control system.
Classification of Input Variables

Unmeasured disturbances
generate the most difficult
control problem !!!
 Classification of Output Variables

represent the effect of the

process on the surroundings Measured

Output Variables

Unmeasured
 General Process Representation
External Disturbances

Unmeasured (d) Measured (d)

Manipulated .... ....

Measured
Variables (m) Outputs (y)

.. PROCESS
..

....

Unmeasured Outputs (z)

 Terminologies for Process Control

The process variable (PV) is a

measure of the process output that
changes in response to changes in
the manipulated variable. thermostat
The set point (SP) is the value at controller

which we wish to maintain the set point TC TT

process variable at. temperature heat loss
sensor/transmitter (disturbance)
The manipulated variable (MV) is a
control
measure of resource being fed into signal
the process, for instance how much
thermal energy.

fuel flow furnace

A final control element (FCE) is the valve
device that changes the value of the Copyright 2007 by Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved
manipulated variable.
The controller output (CO) is the
signal from the controller to the final
control element.
 thermostat
controller
set point TC TT
temperature heat loss
sensor/transmitter (disturbance)

control
signal

fuel flow furnace

valve

Copyright 2007 by Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved

General Control Loop Block Diagram for Feedback Control
Motivation for Process Control

Safety First:
people, environment, equipment
The Profit Motive:
meeting final product specs
minimizing waste production
minimizing environmental impact
minimizing energy use
maximizing overall production rate
Benefits from Process Control

Without Feedback Control

Benefits from Process Control
Motivations of control is to reduce
variability of key variables and
increase profits

With Feedback Control

Improved Process Control Higher Profit

Concentration
Concentration

Limit Limit

Impurity
Impurity

Time Time
Old Control: with Large Improved Control: with
variability Smaller variability

How to Gain Benefits from the improved

process control?
Simply improving the control will not lead
to better profit!!
What else we need to DO ??
Benefits of Improved Process Control

Key Idea to make more $$$: Improved control performance

allows us to move the desired value closer to the constraint,
thus reaping more benefits i.e. profit.
Concentration

Concentration
Limit Limit
Impurity

Impurity
Time Time
OLD Control NEW Control

Last time I sold 20 kg of water per 100 kg of my product, now I

can sell 35 kg of water per 100 kg of product. It increases my
profit by almost 20%. Thanks to the new control, I can sell more
water now without violating the maximum limit.
Design of Complete Control System
Two main steps:
1.Control structure design (selection of measurement,
controlled variables, manipulated variables, structural
interconnections)
2.Controller algorithm design (selection of controller
types and tuning)

Control Structure Design problem is a very complex,

open-ended problem where there is no single unique
best solution to the problem.
This problem has become the central issue to be
resolved in modern process control and is normally
expressed as the Control Philosophy of the overall
plant.
Control Design Problem

d(t)

u(t) y(t)
? Process
Process

Open-Loop Control
Control Design Problem

d(t)

Feedback Control

u(t) y(t)
? Process
Control Design Problem

d(t)

u(t) y(t)
?? Process

Feedforward Control
 Control Design Problem

d(t)

u(t) y(t)
? Process
Process

Feedforward-Feedback Control

Introduction to Process Control Romagnoli & Palazoglu

Optimization and Control
OPTIMIZATION: To find operating conditions leading to optimum performance
measure e.g. optimum profit.
CONTROL: To maintain the desired values (setpoints) related to the selected
operating conditions in the face of disturbance occurrence.
Temperature
Setpoint
Optimizer

Flow Setpoint Temperature

Controller

FC

FT Feed

TT
Steam

Product
 You should know the process before
making any attempt to control it, else the
result can be disastrous

Anonymous

We normally represent our understanding

about the dynamic behaviour of a process in
the form of mathematical model, which can
be used to design a proper control for the
process. Such an action is called modeling
of process dynamic
Introduction

The engineer must understand the dynamic

behavior of a physical system in order to:
design the equipment,
select the operating conditions, and
implement a proper automation strategy.

The knowledge of dynamic behavior required for

process control is formalized in mathematical
models.
Modeling & Control

Modeling plays such a central role in the

theory and practice of process control that
the statement is often made that modeling is
the key element in the successful
application of a control strategy!!
Intelligent Use
Detailed Process
of
Understanding Modern Control
Systems

Improved
Profitability
$
 Process Modeling
How we see the process..
How the controller sees the process..

Inputs Outputs

LI QI

Types of Models:
Mechanistic Models (rigorous)
Empirical Models (input-output)

Introduction to Process Control Romagnoli & Palazoglu

Linear-Lumped -Deterministic
Nonlinear
The theory of control is well
developed for linear,
deterministic, lumped-parameter
models.

Linear Distributed
Deterministic
Lumped

Stochastic
Simple!! But not
necessarily the best
Why we need dynamic model?

Knowledge about the process dynamic is very

important in order to design good control
---
So, what do we need to know about the process ?

U Y If I increase U by 10%,
Process
important questions:
How far Y will change?

In which direction Y will

Answering these questions change?
required dynamics information
and knowledge about the process How fast Y will change?
!
We need dynamic model !
Why we need dynamic model?
 First Order Process
dy(t )
p y(t ) K pu (t ) Differential equation
dt
Kp
G p ( s) Transfer function
ps 1
Note that gain and
time constant define
the behavior of a
Kp process gain indicates How Far
and Which Direction output (y) responds first order process.
to input (u) change
p - time constant indicates How Fast
output responds to input change
 Empirical Model - FOPDT

First Order Plus

Dead Time (FOPDT)
Model
To represent the
dynamics of many
processes
FOPDT dy(t )
MODEL P y (t ) K P u (t P )
dt
Kp process gain indicates How Far and Which Direction output (y)
responds to input (u) change
p - time constant indicates How Fast output responds to input change
p dead time indicates How Long it takes for output to start responding to
an input change
FOPDT Model How to obtain Kp ?

PV = 1.0 m

PV 1.0 m m
Kp = = = 0.1
CO 10% %

CO = 10 %

Copyright 2007 by Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved

FOPDT Model How to obtain p ?

PV63.2

P
Copyright 2007 by Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved

t PVstart t 63.2
FOPDT Model How to obtain p

Copyright 2007 by Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved

p
tCOstep
t PVstart
The FOPDT Model is All Important

Model parameters (KP, P and P) are used in correlations to

compute initial controller tuning values
Sign of KP indicates the action of the controller
(+KP reverse acting; KP direct acting)
Size of P indicates the maximum desirable loop sample time
(be sure sample time T 0.1P)
Ratio P /P indicates whether MPC (Smith predictor) would
show benefit
(useful if P P)
Model becomes part of the feed forward, Smith Predictor,
decoupling and other model-based controllers
Proportional Band
100%
PB
Kc
Another way to express the controller gain.
Kc in this formula is dimensionless. That is,
the controller output is scaled 0-100% and
the error from setpoint is scaled 0-100%.
In more frequent use 10-15 years ago, but it
still appears as an option on DCSs.
Conversion from PB to Kc

Proportional band is equal to 200%.

The range of the error from setpoint is 200
psi.
The controller output range is 0 to 100%.

100% 100%
K
D
c 0.5
PB 200%
100%
K c 0.5 0.25 % / psi
200 psi
Process Nonlinearity Behaviour

cause changing (nonlinear)

response in real processes
equal CO steps

Copyright 2007 by Control Station, Inc. All Rights Reserved

Why responses are different at

different values of input?

Nonlinearity !!
 Second Order Process
2
d y(t ) dy(t )
2
p 2
2 p y(t ) K pu(t )
dt dt
Differential equation

Kp
G p ( s) 2 2 Transfer function
p s 2 p s 1
Note that the gain,
time constant, and
the damping factor
define the dynamic
behavior of 2nd
order process.
Underdamped vs Overdamped
 Effect of on Underdamped
Response

2
=0.1
1.5
0.4
y(t)/AKp

0.7
1

=1.0
0.5

0
0 4 8 12
t/ p
 Effect of on Overdamped
Response

=1
0.8 =2
=3
y(t)/AKp

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 4 8 12
t/ p
 Characteristics of an
Underdamped Response

Rise time
B C 5% Overshoot
(B)
Decay ratio
y(t)

T (C/B)
D Settling or
response
time
Period (T)
Time
trise trt
Transfer Function (TF)

Definition: The TF of a linear dynamic system is

given as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output to the Laplace transform of the input.

u(t) y(t)
Process

Laplace Transform of the Output y (s )

Transfer Functiong s
Laplace Transform of the Input u(s )

u(s) y(s)
g(s)
General Feedback Control Loop

D(s)

Gd(s)

Ysp(s) E(s) C(s) U(s) Y(s)

+- Gc(s) Ga(s) Gp(s) ++

Ys(s)
Gs(s)
Closed Loop Transfer Functions
From the general feedback control loop and
using the properties of transfer functions, the
following expressions can be derived:

Y ( s) G p (s) Ga (s) Gc (s)

Ysp (s) G p (s) Ga (s) Gc (s) Gs (s) 1

Y ( s) Gd (s)

D(s) G p (s) Ga (s) Gc (s) Gs (s) 1
Characteristic Equation
Since setpoint tracking and disturbance rejection
have the same denominator for their closed loop
transfer functions, this indicates that both setpoint
tracking and disturbance rejection have the same
general dynamic behavior.
The roots of the denominator determine the
dynamic characteristics of the closed loop
process.
The characteristic equation is given by:

G p (s) Ga (s) Gc (s) Gs (s) 1 0

 Feedback Loop with Sensor Filtering
D(s)

Gd(s)

Ysp(s) E(s) C(s) U(s) + Y(s)

+- Gc(s) Ga(s) Gp(s) +

Yf(s) Ys(s)
Gf(s) Gs(s)
PID Algorithm

1 d e(t )

t
c(t ) c0 Kc e(t ) e(t )dt D
I 0 dt
Reverse
acting
1 d e(t )

t
c(t ) c0 Kc e(t ) e(t )dt D
I 0 dt

Direct acting
Function of the Derivative Term

Proportional term considers how far PV is from SP at any

instant in time and adds or subtracts from CObias accordingly
(recall e(t) = SP PV)
Integral term addresses how long and how far PV has been
from SP by continually summing e(t) over time
Derivative term considers how fast e(t) is changing at any
instant using the rate of change or slope of the error curve

rapidly changing e(t) = large derivative = large impact on CO

Derivative doesnt consider if e(t) is positive, negative or how

much time has passed, just how fast e(t) is changing
Definition of Terms
e(t)- the error from setpoint [e(t)=ysp-ys].
Kc- the controller gain is a tuning parameter
and largely determines the controller
aggressiveness.
I- the reset time is a tuning parameter and
determines the amount of integral action.
D- the derivative time is a tuning
parameter and determines the amount of
derivative action.
 Controller Tuning: A Motivational Example

Fig. 12.1. Unit-step disturbance responses for the candidate controllers

(FOPTD Model: K = 1, 4, 20). 60
Enhanced PID Controllers

1. Cascade Control
2. Ratio Control
3. Feedforward control
 Cascade Control Strategy
Consider a jacketed CSTR with an exothermic reaction where the
temperature of the reaction mixture is kept at a desired point by the
flow of the coolant in the jacket.
Control Objective:
Feed (Fi, Ti) Keep T at Tsp

Manipulated Variable:
Tsp Tmeas Coolant Flow Fc
TC
Possible
Disturbances:
Ti and Tc
CSTR
(V, T)
Product (F, T)
Coolant (Fc, Tc)
Cascade Control Strategy

This control configuration would handle disturbances in Ti well, but

any variations in Tc could only be compensated after the disturbance
affects the temperature of the reaction mixture and is detected by the
temperature sensor.

This delayed action is undesirable.

The controller should be be able to

reject both disturbances
effectively.
 Cascade Control Strategy

A cascade control configuration ensures rapid response to variations

in Tc as well as in Ti .
The reactor temperature
Feed (Fi, Ti) controller provides the
set-point for the coolant
temperature controller.

Tsp Tmeas
TC
Tc,sp
Tc,meas
TC

CSTR
Product (F, T)
Coolant (Fc, Tc)
Example
PT
Steam
TT

Feed

Condensate

Draw schematic: A temperature controller on

the outlet stream is cascaded to a pressure
controller on the steam which is cascaded to
a control valve on the condensate.
Solution

RSP
TC PC PT
Steam
TT

Feed

Condensate
Multiple Cascade Example
RSP
TT TC AC

RSP

FC
FT
AT

This approach works because the flow

control loop is much faster than the
temperature control loop which is much
faster than the composition control loop.
Cascade Control Strategy

2 In cascade control, there are two control

loops:

u Primary loop (receives the set-point from the

operator)
u Secondary loop (receives the set-point from
the primary loop)
Cascade Control Block Diagram

d1

d2

gd1
gd2
u1sp y
ysp u2 u1
gc1 gc2 gp2 gp1

gm2

Secondary Loop
Secondary Loop
gm1

Primary Loop
 Cascade Control Transfer
Functions
The secondary feedback loop yields the following
transfer function (assuming gm2 gf 2 1 ):

g c 2g p 2 gd 2
u1 u1sp d2
1 g c 2g p 2 1 g c 2g p 2

u1 GCL
sp
u
2 1sp G d2
CL 2d 2
 Cascade Control Transfer
Functions
The open-loop process for the primary loop is
given by:
y g p1u1 gd1d1

y sp
g p1 GCL2u1sp GCL2d2
d2
g d 1d1

y sp
g p1GCL2u1sp g p1GCL2d2
d2
gd1d1
 Cascade Control Transfer Functions

The key for the success of a cascade control

configuration is the speed of response of the
secondary loop.

Disturbance d2 should be rejected quickly:

d
GCL2 0
The set-point for u1 is reached immediately:

sp
GCL2 1
 Cascade Control Transfer Functions

The output y will not necessarily be at its desired

value due to the presence of the disturbance d1.
To reject d1 we need to close the primary loop.

For the primary loop:

sp d2
gc1g p1GCL g p1GCL gd 1
y 2
y sp 2
d2 d1
1 gc1g p1GCL2
sp
1 gc1g p1GCL2
sp
1 gc1g p1GCL2
sp

y GCL
sp
y
1 sp G d2
d
CL1 2 G d1
CL1d1
Cascade Control Design

Controllers and are often chosen from standard

feedback controllers (i.e. P, PI or PID). A P-
controller usually suffices for gc .2

The design of the controllers should ensure that

the secondary loop has a faster closed-loop
response than the primary loop to take full
advantage of the cascade configuration.
Cascade Control Design

l Tuning strategy for cascade control:

Tune the secondary loop first.

Specify P or PI controller

Close the secondary loop and then tune the

primary loop.
This controller can be P, PI or PID.
 Feedforward and Ratio Control
Feedback control is an important technique that is widely used in the
process industries. Its main advantages are as follows.

1. Corrective action occurs as soon as the controlled variable deviates

from the set point, regardless of the source and type of disturbance.
2. Feedback control requires minimal knowledge about the process to
be controlled; it particular, a mathematical model of the process is
not required, although it can be very useful for control system
design.
3. The ubiquitous PID controller is both versatile and robust. If
process conditions change, retuning the controller usually produces
satisfactory control.

76
However, feedback control also has certain inherent disadvantages:

1. No corrective action is taken until after a deviation in the controlled

variable occurs. Thus, perfect control, where the controlled variable
does not deviate from the set point during disturbance or set-point
changes, is theoretically impossible.
2. Feedback control does not provide predictive control action to
compensate for the effects of known or measurable disturbances.
3. It may not be satisfactory for processes with large time constants
and/or long time delays. If large and frequent disturbances occur,
the process may operate continuously in a transient state and never
attain the desired steady state.
4. In some situations, the controlled variable cannot be measured on-
line, and, consequently, feedback control is not feasible.

77
Introduction to Feedforward Control
The basic concept of feedforward control is to measure important
disturbance variables and take corrective action before they upset the
process. Feedforward control has several disadvantages:

1. The disturbance variables must be measured on-line. In many

applications, this is not feasible.
2. To make effective use of feedforward control, at least a crude process
model should be available. In particular, we need to know how the
controlled variable responds to changes in both the disturbance and
manipulated variables. The quality of feedforward control depends on
the accuracy of the process model.
3. Ideal feedforward controllers that are theoretically capable of
achieving perfect control may not be physically realizable.
Fortunately, practical approximations of these ideal controllers often
provide very effective control.

78
Figure 15.2 The feedback control of the liquid level in a boiler drum.

79
 A boiler drum with a conventional feedback control system is shown in
Fig. 15.2. The level of the boiling liquid is measured and used to adjust
the feedwater flow rate.
This control system tends to be quite sensitive to rapid changes in the
disturbance variable, steam flow rate, as a result of the small liquid
capacity of the boiler drum.
Rapid disturbance changes can occur as a result of steam demands
made by downstream processing units.

The feedforward control scheme in Fig. 15.3 can provide better

control of the liquid level. Here the steam flow rate is measured, and
the feedforward controller adjusts the feedwater flow rate.

80
Figure 15.3 The feedforward control of the liquid level in a boiler
drum.
81
 Figure 15.4 The feedfoward-feedback control of the boiler drum level.

In practical applications, feedforward control is normally used in

combination with feedback control.
Feedforward control is used to reduce the effects of measurable
disturbances, while feedback trim compensates for inaccuracies in the
process model, measurement error, and unmeasured disturbances. 82
 Ratio Control
Useful when the manipulated variable scales directly with
the feed rate to the process.
Dynamic compensation is required when the controlled
variable responds dynamically different to feed rate
changes than it does to a changes in the manipulated
variable.
Ratio control is a special type of feedforward control that
has had widespread application in the process industries.
The objective is to maintain the ratio of two process
variables as a specified value. The two variables are usually
flow rates, a manipulated variable u, and a disturbance
variable d.
Typical Performance Improvements
using Ratio Control
Impurity Concentration

w/o ratio control

w/ ratio control

Time
Ratio Control for Wastewater
Neutralization

RSP

FC

FT FT
NaOH
Acid Solution
Wastewater

pHC pHT

Effluent
Analysis of Ratio Control Example

The flow rate of base scales directly with

the flow rate of the acidic wastewater.
The output of the pH controller is the ratio
of NaOH flow rate to acid wastewater flow
rate; therefore, the product of the
controller output and the measured acid
wastewater flow rate become the setpoint
for the flow controller on the NaOH
addition.
 Ratio Control Applied for Vent
Composition Control

AC

FT AT
FC
Feed
FT Vent

Steam
Product

TT
Ratio Control Requiring Dynamic
Compensation

FT DC

Feed

AC

RSP

FC
FT
AT
Example
FT TT

Flue
Gas

FT
Process
Fluid
Fuel

Draw schematic: For a control system that adjusts

the ratio of fuel flow to the flow rate of the process
fluid to control the outlet temperature of the
process fluid. Use a flow controller on the fuel.
Solution
Ratio
TC

FT TT

Flue
RSP Gas

FC
FT
Process
Fluid
Fuel
Discussion and Q & A sessions