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A CASE STUDY ON SOIL EROSION RATE AND SEDIMENT

YIELD OF A PROPOSED INFRASTRUCTURAL
DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

Ting Huong Siong

Master of Environmental Science

(Land Use and Water Resource Management)
2013
 Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademii:
UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

A CASE STUDY ON SOIL EROSION RTE AND SEDIMENT

YIELD OF A PROPOSED INFRASTRUCTURAL
DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

TING HUONG SIONG

A thesis submitted
in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Environmental Science

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak
2013
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my sincerest and deepest appreciation to my supervisor, Prof.

Ir Dr. Law Puong Ling for his support and encouragement. His patience and generosity are

highly appreciated.

I would like to thank my former SLUSE coordinators, Dr. Lim Po Teen, Dr. Effendi

and current SLUSE coordinator, Dr. Tay Meng Guan for their encouragementand patienceto

provide guidance and support. Last but not least, I would like to thank my wife, Tang Jock

Kie, and my family for their continuous support and during the course of this research.

1
 ABSTRACT

Soil Erosion is a process of a portion of the soil profile or soil surface detachment to

the ambient environment. There are four major factors that affect erosion potential: soil

characteristics, vegetative cover, topography and climate. Predictions of soil erosion rate and

sediment yield during different construction stages were carried out at the proposed Project

site with respect to site clearing, earthworks/ sand filling and infrastructure works at light

industrial area, Kapit Division. The RUSLE and MUSLE were used to estimate the potential

erosion rate and the sediment yield, respectively during (i) pre-construction stage; (ii)

construction stage; and (iii) post-construction stage of the study area. During construction

stage, the disturbed soil surface would result from the site clearing, earthwork activities, and

slope grading would produce highest erosion rates and sediment yields as compared to other

construction stages. Significant amount of soil sediments would be washed and eroded

directly to the nearby watercourse, i. e., Batang Rajang and could result in deposition of the

sediments at the river bed and lead to degradation of the aquatic ecosystem. Erosion control

measures are recommended to minimize the potential erosion rates and sedimentation. A

comparison between "with BMP" and "without BMP" were carried out, it
and was found that

a reduction of more than 65% for both erosion rate and sediment yield with the

implementation of BMPs. However, sediment control practices such as silt trap, silt fence and

check dam would minimize the adverse effects of erosion rates to a certain extent.

Keywords: Soil Erosion, Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE), Modified

Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE), Best ManagementPractices (BMP)

ii
 ABSTRAK

Hakisan Tanah adalah satu sebahagian proses daripada profil tanah atau permukaan tanah

detasmen untuk persekitaran ambien. Terdapat empat faktor utama mempengaruhi potensi

hakisan tanah: ciri-ciri tanah, perlindungan tumbuhan, topografi dan iklim. Ramalan untuk

kadar hakisan tanah dan hasil enapan dalam peringkat pembinaan yang berbeza telah

dijalankan di cadangan pembersihan tapak, kerja-kerja tanah / pengisian pasir dan kerja-kerja

infrastruktur di kawasan perindustrian ringan, Daerah Kapit. RUSLE dan MUSLE telah

digunakan untuk menganggar kadar hakisan yang berpotensi dan basil pengenapan masing-

masing di seluruh i) peringkat pra-pembinaan ii) peringkat pembinaan; dan iii) peringkat

operasi di kawasan kajian. Semasa pembinaan, tanah terganggu dan terdedah yang

disebabkan oleh kerja-kerja pembersihan tapak, kerja tanah, dan penggredan cerun telah

menghasilkan kadar hakisan yang tertinggi dan penghasilan sedimen jika dibandingkan

dengan peringkat pembinaan yang lain. Jumlah besar tanah yang didedahkan akan dibasuh

dan dihakiskan terus ke arah saluran air yang berdekatan, iaitu Batang Rajang, dan akan

mengakibatkan pemendapan sedimen di dalam air sungai, pencemaran dan degradasi alam

sekitar terutamanya ekosistem akuatik. Oleh itu, langkah-langkah kawalan hakisan telah

dicadangkan untuk mengurangkan kadar hakisan yang berpotensi dan deposisi pemendapan.

Satu perbandingan antara BMP dan tanpa BMP telah dijalankan dan menunjukkan dengan

jelasnya pengurangan melebihi 65 peratus untuk kedua-dua kadar hakisan dan hasil

pengenapan dengan pelaksanaan BMPs. Amalan kawalan sedimen seperti perangkap

kelodak, pagar kelodak dan empangan semakan akan mengurangkan kesan-kesan buruk

daripada hakisan tanah kepada persekitaran ambien. Untuk mencapai keberkesanan optimum

BMPs di tapak pembinaan, semua langkah-langkah kawalan dinasihatkan supaya diperiksa

dan diselenggarakan dengan tetap masa.

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Kata-kata kunci: Hakisan Tanah, Semakan Tanah Universal Kehilangan Persamaan (RUSLE),

Ubahsuai Tanah Universal Kehilangan Persamaan (RUSLE), Amalan Pengurusan Terbaik (BMP)

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 Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademie.
UNIVERSM MALAYSIASARAWAK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgement i
Abstract 11

Table of Contents V
List of Appendices VI

List of Tables vii

List of Figures viii

Chapter 1- Introduction
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Problem Statement 3
1.3 Objectives of Study 6
1.4 Scope of Study 7
1.4.1 The Study Area 7
1.4.2 Topography 9
1.4.3 Geology and Soil 9
1.4.4 General Climate 9
Chapter 2- Literature Review
2.1 Soil Erosion 12
2.1.1 Types of Soil Erosion 13

2.2 Soil Erosion Modeling 17

2.2.1 Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE) 18
2.2.2 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) 19
2.2.3 Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) 23

Chapter 3- Methodology

3.1 Identification of Study Area 27

3.2 Scopeof Study 28
3.3 Prediction of Soil Erosion Ratesand Sediment Yield 28
3.3.1 Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) 28
3.3.1.1 Rainfall Erosivity, R 29
3.3.1.2 Soil Erodibility Factor, K 30

3.3.1.3 Slope Length and Slope Steepness Factor, LS 32

3.3.1.4 Cover Management Factor, C 37
3.3.1.5 Erosion Control Practice Factor, P 38

V
 3.3.2 Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation 39
3.3.2.1 MUSLE 39
3.3.2.2. Peak Flow 40
3.3.2.3 Volume of Runoff 42
3.4 Best ManagementPractices(BMP) for Erosion Control 46
3.4.1 Silt Trap / Sediment Trap 47
3.4.2 Silt Fence 48
3.4.3 Check Dam 48
Chapter 4- Results and Discussion
4.1 Introduction 50
4.2 Prediction of Erosion Rate 50
4.2.1 Mean of Rainfall Intensity and Rainfall Factor, R 51
4.2.2 Soil Erodibility, K 51
4.2.3 Slope Length and Slope SteepnessFactor, LS 54
4.2.4 Cover Management Factor, C 56
4.2.5 Erosion Control Practice Factor, P 57
4.2.6 Estimation of Peak Discharge, Qp 58
4.2.7 Volume of Runoff, V 65
4.2.8 Prediction of Erosion Rates and Sediment Yields 67
4.3 Summary 70
Chapter 5- Conclusion 71
References 73
List of Appendices
Appendix A Meteorological Data A-I

Appendix B Soil Investigation Data A-4

Particle Size Distribution

Hand Auger Log
Organic Matter Content

Appendix C Construction Drawing A-5

Slope Protection Works

vi
List of Tables
3.1 Cover Management Factors, C (Construction Site) 37
3.2 Erosion Control Practice Factor, P 39
3.3 Runoff Coefficients (Rational Equation) 41
3.4 Runoff Curve Numbers (Undeveloped Land) 43
3.5 Hydrology Soil Groups 45
3.6
Estimated Relative Erosion SedimentControl Effectiveness for Different
46
Best Management Practices (BMP)
4.1 Particles Size Analyses for Samples Collected from 6 Boreholes (BH) 53

4.2 Estimated Soil Erodibility, K (Nomograph) 54

4.3 LS Factors for Each Slope during Pre-Construction Stage 55
4.4 LS Factors for Each Slope during Construction / Operation Stages 56
4.5 Cover Management Factors, C 57
4.6 Erosion Control Practices Factor, P 58
4.7 Runoff Coefficient 59

4.8 Runoff Peak Flow, Qp 64

4.9 Curve Number of Runoff 65

4.10 Runoff Coefficient 66

Summary of Erosion Rates (without BMP) in Different Construction 68
4.11
Stages
Summary of Sediment Yield (without BMP) in Different Construction 68
4.12
Stages
4.13 Summary of Erosion Rates (with BMP) in Different Construction Stages 69
Summary of Sediment Yield (with BMP) in Different Construction 69
4.14
Stages

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List of Figures

1.1 Locality Plan of Study Area 8

1.2 Site Plan of Study Area 8
1.3 Topography of Study 11
2.1 SheetErosion 14
2.2 Rill Erosion 14
2.3 Gully Erosion 15
2.4 Types of Erosion 16
2.5 The Wind Erosion to an Open Field 17
3.1 Soil Erodibility Nomograph 31
3.2 Details of Slope Elevation, Length and Steepness 33
3.3 Design Platform Level 34
3.4 SegmentArea and Slope Lengths during Pre-Construction Stage 35
3.5 Slope Lengths During Construction and Post-Construction Stage 36
3.6 Typical Details of Check Dam 49
Analysis on the Runoff Flow Pattern on Existing Topography 60
4.1
During Pre-construction Stage
4.2 Analysis on the Runoff Flow Pattern During Construction Stage 61
CatchmentAreas on Existing Topography During Pre-construction 62
4.3
Stage
4.4 Catchment Areas During Construction Stage 63

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 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION'

1.1 Introduction

Soil Erosion is a processwhereby a portion of the soil profile or soil surface is

detachedto the ambient environment. It can be occurred by the natural physical forces

of water and wind or disturbances of human activities on the land. Rapid growth in

industrial production, urban development, mono-cropping and cultivation to support

the demand of rapid-growth of population and world economic has led to the

acquirement of more land especially the forest area. Deforestation and land clearing

are the major attributions to industrial development.

The forest, which serves as temporary water storage, biological diversity

conservation, production of ecosystem goods, carbon storage, and soil protection has

been rapidly destroyed that leading to significant soil erosion. The removal of soil-

trapping trees during the process of deforestation near waterways causes the upper

layer of soil more vulnerable to the water and wind erosion. Sediments and soil

carried by the runoff after rainfall from cleared lands can damage the river, lake and

marine and destroy the ecosystems.Several effects may caused by excessive erosion

such as reduction of soil productivity, landscapedegradationswhich are complex and

have diverse nature and land dimensions, and production of sedimentsthat may result

damagesof downstream.

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 Soil erosion has become the major environmental problems in Malaysia. The

coastal zone between Sungai Sementa and Sungai Puloh in Malaysia has been

severely eroded up to 120-200 meters since 1963 at a rate of 5 to7 meters per year

(Port Klang ICM Project Management Office, 2004). The eroded soil flows to the

waterways causes the sedimentation and siltation to the waterways and makes it

shallow and reduces the flood carrying capacity of the river. When the trees are

removed, the land no longer absorbs the water when it rains, the water flows more

quickly to the waterways, causing erosion and flashfloods. The floods that break the

river banks worsen the soil erosion problems by changing the path of the river.

In order to control the erosion effectively and protect the natural environments,

the factors of influencing soil erosion should be defined. The mitigation measures,

control plans and Best Management Practices (BMP) should be planned and

implemented in order to reduce the soil erosion and sedimentation problems

especially at the construction site. Department of Irrigation and Drainage Malaysia

(DID) has introduced a design guidelines and manual named Urban Stormwater

Management Manual for Malaysia (MSMA) in year 2001 purposed for project

developers,planners, engineers,and contractors to engagein planning, designing and

implementing the BMP that to be adopted on construction site. In 2011, DID has

further published a new specific design guideline and manual entitled Guideline for

Erosion and Sediment Control in Malaysia (DID, 2011). Besides, Department of

Environment (DOE), Malaysia has establishedthe requirement of Erosion Sediment

Control Plan (ESCP) to all the projects which involve soil disturbing activities and

in
site preparation year 2011 as part of the EIA approval under the Environmental

Impact Assessment(EIA) Order, 1987.

2
 Thus, the mathematical model, such as Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)

or Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is an important tool in

management system by predicting the erosion processes, and conservation planning

and design for sediment control. Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE) is one of the

presently used models to predict the potential soil erosion hazard resulted from human

activities such as rural and urban extension, industrial developments

.

1.2 Problem Statement

Rapid increase in construction industrial involving varieties of construction

activity such as construction practices and materials, waste, vehicles, and equipment

managementhave potential to pollute stormwater and contamination to the waterways.

Erosion is a major environmental problem for most of the construction projects

especially those construction projects located in sensitive areas such as the highland,

near rivers and streams. Water is the most significant agent of soil erosion, and the

removal of vegetative cover which breakdown and loosen the soil structure and

organic matte often reduce infiltration and accelerate runoff and the entrainment of

soil particles. Malaysia, which influences by the tropical climate with high rainfall

intensity has led to several erosion problems. The soil-trapping forest which protects

the soil to be washed away by the runoff is removed during the construction which in

turn leading to the erosion. Surface runoff generated from high climatic conditions

and steep terrains are highly erosive to the exposed soil surface within the

construction area, eg. New Light Industrial Estate located at Kapit Division. The

eroded soil has causedsedimentationand siltation to the waterways and destroyedthe

water ecosystems.

3
 Ngoi and Choo (2012) mentioned some of the erosion and sediment hazards

caused by uncontrolled construction activities:

1) Changes in water runoff, earth movement and accumulation of

sedimentation;

2) Water pollution and change in river bed levels due to accumulation of

sedimentswashed from the construction site; and

3) Damages to the aquatic life habitat and hydrology which affect the

fishery and agriculture industries.

As stated in DID's Urban Stormwater Management Manual for Malaysia

(MSMA, 2001), gullies are the major source of erosion at the exposed construction

site. Downcutting of any slope is the dominant gully enlargement process as gullies

increase in size more rapidly on fill materials instead of cut slopes. In 1996, DOE

categorized the impacts on soil erosion, sedimentation, siltation, and deposition into

"On-site" and "Off-site":

1) On-Site

a. Loss of topsoil and resulting coststo communities,

b. Undermining of roads and utilities,

c. Sediment and mud on roads with associatedtraffic problems and road

safety issues,

d. Clogged drains and increasednuisanceflooding,

e. Sedimentationand bank damageon construction sites,

f. Increased down-time on construction and building sites after storm

events,

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 Pusat Khidmat Maklumat Akademik
UMVERSTTIMALAYSIASARAWAK

g. Unsightly appearanceof construction works,

h. Sedimentation and accelerated loss of capacity in sediment basins, and

i. High cost for reconstruction and maintenance.

2) Off-site

a) Sedimentation in reservoirs and other storage structures, with resulting

loss of water storagecapacity;

b) Instability of stream channelscausedby increasedrunoff and sediment

loads: channel change and bank erosion may affect adjacent buildings

and other infrastructure;

c) Siltation and sedimentation of rivers will cause a reduction in channel

capacity leading to greater frequency of floods;

d) Proliferation of exotic weeds within watercourses due to the high

nutrient content of silt and sediments;

e) Smothering of aquatic and marine flora and fauna as high turbidity in

rivers excluding light penetration affecting fish life;

f) Land degradationcausedby gully erosion and sediment deposition;

g) Increasedpollution of rivers and streams;

h) Loss of navigable reachesof a river or watercourse;

i) Adverse ecological effects of high sediment loads, deposition, and

dredging and de-silting of waterways;

j) Decline or total loss of recreational and commercial fishing,

particularly as a result of increasedturbidity; and

k) Reducedrecreational and aestheticvalue of riverbanks and waterways.

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1.3 Objectives of Study

The objectives of this study are to estimate and compute soil erosion rates

during pre-construction, construction, and post construction of the proposed site

clearing, earthworks/ sandfilling and infrastructure works at light industrial area.

To reduce the environmental impacts associatedwith soil erosion, the erosion

control and the best managementpractices are recommendedto reduce the effects of

soil erosion from the construction site. In this study, the percentageof reduction by

implementation of control measuresis going to be defined.

The specific aims of the study are to:

1) Identify a study area - the Proposed Site Clearing, Earthworks, Sand

Filling and Infrastructural Works of Light Industrial Area for Food

Processinglocated at Kapit Division, Sarawak;

2) Collect project details and relevant information, i. e. locality and site

plans, geology and geotechnical information, structural design of slope

protection works, soil investigation data, etc.;

3) Literature review - annual soil erosion rates, best managementpractices

(BMP), etc.;

4) Tabulate slopesof construction site baseon topography data, and estimate

other relevant parameters of Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation

(RUSLE);

5) Estimate soil erosion rates by using RUSLE;

6) Recommend appropriate BMP; and

6
 7) Estimate soil erosion rates by using RUSLE and tabulate percentage of

erosion reduction by implementing BMP.

1.4 Scope of Study

This study estimates the erosion rates and sediment yield on the disturbed soil

surfaces during; i) pre-construction stage; ii) construction stage; and iii) post-

construction stage. A series of data shall be collected from an undergoing project,

Proposed Site Clearing, Earthworks, Sand Filling and Infrastructural Works of Light

Industrial Area for Food Processing located at Kapit Division.

1.4.1 The Study Area

The study area is located on the south bank of Batang Rajang, approximately

2.3km west of Kapit Township as shown in Figure I. I. It encompassesan area of

approximately 9.34ha (23.07 acres). The study area is accessible by car and other

motor vehicles via Jalan Bleteh, Kapit. The study area is a classified as Mixed Zone

Land and is in the category of Country Land. Figures 1.1 and 1.2 show the locality

and site plan of the study area,respectively.

7
 Batang Rajang
Project Site f- V---
,I*-_
'.'"k
: .-_.

Figure 1.1: Locality Plan of Study Area

Figure 1.2: Site Plan of Study Area

8
1.4.2 Topography

The study areahas undulating terrain and the elevation rangesfrom 4m to 76m

with reference from TBM 1 (RL=37.91m) as shown in topographical map (Figure

1.3). The undulating terrain easestowards the riverbank and continues towards the

south of the study areawhere the elevation is progressively higher.

1.4.3 Geology and Soil

The geological deposits of the study area are mainly of rocks from tertiary

period with Paleoceneand Eocene sedimentary deposits. The rock formation is of the

Kapit Member of Belaga Formation, consisting primarily of shale, slate, phyllite and

sandstone with marlstone, calcerous sandstone,conglomerate and limestone lenses

with weak regional metamorphism. The study area is covered mainly by skeletal soils

(Kapit Series) and red-yellow podzolic soils (Kapit Series) consisting of very shallow

to moderately deep loamy sands to clays. The soils are formed on sedimentary, acid

igneous and metamorphic rocks and are distributed in areasof steep and mountainous

land (Appendix A- Soil Map).

1.4.4 General Climate

Characteristic features of the climate in the regional and the study area are

uniform temperature, high humidity and high rainfall, typical of equatorial regions.

Winds are generally light. There are two monsoon regimes, i. e. the Southwest

9
Monsoon (May to September)and the Northeast Monsoon (November to March). The

Northeast Monsoon brings heavy rainfall and the Southwest Monsoon normally

signifies relatively drier weather. Due to the proximity of the Equator, East Malaysia

is not directly exposedto the monsoons,wherefore there is a more climatic conditions

show less seasonalvariance and peaks comparedto other south-eastAsian regions.

10
Figure 1.3: Topography of Study

11
 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a natural process that is essential for soil formation which

occurred throughout geological history. It is an unavoidable phenomenon associated

on sloping land. Soil erosion is mainly causedby water that does not infiltrate into the

soil and direct runs over the soil surface resulting erosion damages over the sloping

land, and removesmost of the topsoil that contains nutrients.

The human activities such as deforestation and resulting soils depleted may

boost the natural progress of soil erosion. Natural soil erosion rate could not haved

occurred constantly with consistent rates: for example, and soils and semi-arid soils

which have less protective vegetative covers may erode at average rates of 10-50

times greaterthan those humid climate soils (Miller and Donahue, 1990).

Soil erosion has caused more than 80% of land degradation, of which 56% are

due to water-induced soil erosion (Oldeman, 1992). UN Environmental Program

that on about 20 million hectares could be reduced to zero

reported crop productivity

annually due to the soil induced degradation or soil erosion (UNEP, 1991). Without

proper soil erosion and sediment control measures, soil erosion from construction

sites may loss of 8-80 tones/ha/year, which is 20 times greater than the loss from the

agricultural land (NRCS, 1999). Soil erosion has become the major environmental

problems in China. Approximately 400 million tons of sediment settles in the Lower

12
Yellow River annually (Ministry of Water Resources,the People's Republic of China,

2011).

2.1.1 Types of Soil Erosion

According to New South Wales Department of Primary Industries (NSWDPI

n.d.), there are six major types of soil erosion:

(i) Splashor Raindrop Erosion:

It is the first stage of erosion that resulted from the raindrop impacts on

bare soil surface and destructs surface soil aggregatesis termed as splash

erosion. The splashedsoil particles will fill up the void of soil aggregates,

so the soil will be sealed and infiltration process will be reduced. Thus,

surfacerunoff is introduced.

(ii) SheetErosion:

Removal of thin layers of soil by the impacts of the raindrop and shallow

surface water flow is termed as sheet erosion (Figure 2.1). The soil

particles that are removed by sheet erosion contain most of the organic

matters and nutrients of the soils. It occurs where there is little vegetative

cover that can anchor the soil.

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 Figure 2.1: Sheet Erosion

Source: (Ritter, 2012)

(iii) Rill Erosion:

A form of water erosion where a numerous of shallow drainage less than

300mm depth and straight channels are produced. Rill erosion (Figure 2.2)

is common in freshly cultivated soil where the soil aggregates is loosened.

This type of erosion starts to develop when surface water concentrates to

flow on the same channels and erodes the soil.

Figure 2.2: Rill Erosion

Source: (Ritter, 2012)

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