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INTRODUCTION
PAVEMENT
Highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and
processed materials whose primary function is to transmit loads to the sub-base and
underlying soil. It is a structure which separates the tires of vehicles from the under lying
foundation.

TYPES OF PAVEMENT
1. FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT
Flexible pavement consists of a mixture of asphaltic or bituminous material and
aggregates placed on compacted granular material in layers over the sub-grade. A flexible
pavement distributes load to the sub-grade and depends on aggregate interlocking, particle
friction and cohesion.
STRUCTURE OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

Typical flexible pavement structure consists of:

i. SURFACE COURSE
This is the top layer and the layer that comes in contact with traffic and normally
contains the high quality materials. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness
and drainage. In addition, it also prevents the entrance of excessive quantity of surface
water into the underlying layers. Surface Course is sometimes subdivided into two layers:
Wearing Course
This is the layer in direct contact with traffic loads. The wearing course can be rehabilitated
before distress propagates into the underlying intermediate/blinder course.
Intermediate/Binder Course
This layer provides the bulk of the Hot Mix Asphalt (HMA) structure. Its main function is to
distribute load.

ii. BASE COURSE

This is the layer directly below the surface course and generally consists of
aggregates. It provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and frost
resistance. Base courses are usually constructed of:
Aggregates
Base courses are most typically constructed from durable aggregates that will not be
damaged by moisture or frost action. Aggregates can be either stabilized or un-stabilized.
HMA
In certain situations where high stiffness is desired, base courses can be constructed using
a variety of HMA mixes. It usually contains larger aggregate sizes, more graded and is
subjected to more moderate specifications.

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iii. SUB-BASE COURSE

This is the layer under the base course and is not always needed. The sub-base
course is between the base course and the sub-grade. A pavement constructed over a low
quality soil such as clay may require the additional load distribution characteristic that a
sub-base course can offer. Its primary functions are:
Improves drainage
Minimize frost action damage
Provides a working platform for construction

iv. SUB-GRADE
The sub-grade is the material upon which the pavement structure is placed. It
provides support to the overlying structure. If it is of good quality then base course can be
laid after its compaction without providing sub-base otherwise if it is poor then a sub-base
layer should be included.

2. RIGID PAVEMENT
A rigid pavement is constructed from cement concrete or reinforced concrete slabs.
Rigid pavements are those, which reduces the stress concentration and distributes the
reduced stresses uniformly to the area under the slab. Rigid pavements contain sufficient
strength to be able for sub-grade failures and areas of insufficient support.
STRUCTURE OF RIGID PAVEMENT

The typical rigid pavement structure consists of:

i. SURFACE COURSE
This is top layer which comes in contact with traffic load and normally constructed
of PCC or RCC. It provides characteristics such as friction, smoothness and drainage. In
addition, it also prevents the entrance of excessive quantity of surface water into the
underlying layers. The surface course can vary in thickness but is usually between 6 inches
for light loading and 12 inches for heavy loads.
ii. BASE COURSE
This is the layer directly below the surface course and generally consists of
aggregates. It provides additional load distribution and contributes to drainage and frost
resistance. Base courses are usually constructed out of:
Aggregates base
A simple base course of crushed aggregates is a common option since the early times and is
still used in many situations.

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Stabilized aggregate or soil

Stabilizing agents are used to bind loose particles to one another and provides strength and
cohesion. Cement treated bases (CTB s) can be built to as much as 20 - 25 percent of the
surface course strength.
Dense-graded HMA
In situations where high base stiffness is desired, base courses can be constructed using a
dense-graded HMA layer.
Permeable HMA
In certain situations where high base stiffness and excellent drainage is desired, base
courses can be constructed using an open graded HMA.
Lean concrete
It contains less Portland cement paste than a typical PCC and is stronger than stabilized
aggregates. Lean concrete bases (LCB s) can be built to as much as 25 - 50 percent of the
surface course strength which requires construction joints.

iii. SUB-BASE COURSE

This is the layer under the base course and is not always needed. The sub-base
course is between the base course and the sub-grade. A pavement constructed over a low
quality soil such as clay may require the additional load distribution characteristic that a
sub-base course can offer. It functions primarily as structural support but it can also:
Improves drainage
Minimizes frost action damage
Provides a working platform for construction

iv. SUB GRADE

Sub grade provides support to the overlying structure. If it is of good quality then
base course can be laid after its compaction without providing sub-base otherwise if it is
poor then a sub-base layer should be included.

STRESS CONSIDERATIONS
Different types of stresses tend to result in deformation of the concrete slab which
causes tensile, compressive and flexural stresses of varying magnitude. The main stresses
in rigid pavements are:
i. WHEEL LOAD STRESSES
Stresses in concrete pavements vary with position of the wheels at any given time.
Therefore, each slab should be analyzed at all points and most severe stresses evaluated
are used for design purpose. Westergaard examined three critical conditions of loading i.e.:
Corners (Tension at the top)
Edges (Tension at the bottom)
Interior of the Slab (Tension at the bottom)
ii. TEMPERATURE AND MOISTURE STRESSES
If a pavement slab is subjected to temperature gradient through its depth, its surface
will tend to deform. The tendency to deform is restrained by the weight of slab itself. These
stresses develop due to differential changes in the top and bottom surfaces of the slab.

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iii. STRESSES DUE TO FRICTION

If the slab is free to move (i.e. no friction between the slab and the sub-grade)
stresses will not result. However if friction exists between the slab and the sub-grade,
stress can results from the friction forces. Stresses in concrete slabs resulting from friction
on the sub-grade vary with slab length.
iv. COMBINED STRESSES
Stresses resulting due to both, wheel load and friction are called combined stresses.

PAVEMENT DESIGN PRINCIPLE

1. FUNDAMENTAL PARAMETERS
Following are the fundamental parameters to be considered:
i. Wheel loads
ii. Design Factors
Design of paving mixtures
Structural design of pavement components
iii. Types of Distress
Structural distress
Functional distress
iv. Stresses
Stresses in flexible pavements
Stresses in rigid pavements
v. Vehicle and Traffic considerations
Equivalent Axle Loads
Equivalent Single-Wheel Loads
vi. Climate and Environment
Frost heave
Loss of strength during frost modeling
Permafrost
vii. Economic Factors
viii. Design Strategies

2. SECONDARY PARAMETERS
Following are the secondary parameters of pavement design.
i. Soil Classification
Soil horizons
Parent materials
Moisture-solid relationship
ii. Material Characterization
iii. Materials Considerations
iv. Surfaces
Functions
Types of materials
Skid qualities
Cracking

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v. Soil and Base Stabilization

vi. Base and Sub base Courses
Feasibility
Grading
Construction
vii. Sub-grades Strength Studies
Compaction
Strength-Density-Moisture Considerations

DESIGN APPROACHES
For flexible pavements, design is mainly concerned with determining appropriate
layer thickness and composition. The main design factors are stresses due to traffic load
and temperature variations. Two approaches of flexible pavement structural design are
common today:
1. EMPIRICAL APPROACH OF PAVEMENT DESIGN
An empirical approach is based on results of experiments or experience. Generally,
it requires a number of observations to be made to determine the relationships between
input variables and outcomes.
Many pavement design procedures use an empirical approach. Empirical design
methods can range from simple to complex pavements. The simplest approaches specify
pavement structural designs based on what has worked in the past. More complex
approaches are usually based on empirical equations derived from experimentation.

2. MECHANISTIC-EMPIRICAL APPROACH OF PAVEMENT DESIGN

One of the significant changes with this approach is that, the empirical approach has
effectively reversed. In empirical design methods, various inputs are considered and are
use to produce design requirements While in mechanistic-empirical, design of pavement
structure is initially assumed on a trial basis, along with inputs for traffic and climate.
This method requires the determination of critical stress, strain or deflection in the
pavement by some mechanistic methods and the calculation of resulting damages by some
empirical failure criteria. The failure criterion that is used most commonly for the design of
flexible overlays are fatigue cracking and permanent deformation, but for rigid overlays
only fatigue cracking is considered.
First, the condition or remaining life of existing pavement must be evaluated. Based
on the pavement condition or remaining life, the thickness of overlay is determined so that
damages will be within the allowable limits.

AXLE LOADS
One of the primary functions of a pavement is its load distribution. Therefore, in order
to adequately design a pavement something must be known about the expected loads it
will carry during its design life. Loads, the vehicle forces exerted on the pavement can be
characterized by the following parameters:
Tire loads
Axle and tire configurations
Repetition of loads

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Distribution of traffic across the pavement

Vehicle speed

STANDARD AXLE LOAD

An axle carrying a load of 18,000 lbs (8160 kg) was defined in the AASHTO road test
as a Standard Axle, with a damaging effect of unity.

EQUIVALENT STANDARD AXLE LOAD

This approach converts wheel loads of various magnitudes and repetitions to an
equivalent number of "standard" or "equivalent" loads based on the amount of damage to
pavement. The commonly used standard load is the 18,000 lb.
Using the ESAL method, all loads are converted to an equivalent number of 18,000
lb. A "Load Equivalency Factor" represents the equivalent number of ESALs:
Load Equivalency Factor (L.E.F) = (Tons/8.2 tons) 4

PAVEMENT DESIGN METHODS

1. GROUP INDEX METHOD
Group Index method of pavement design is an empirical method which is based on
the physical properties of soil sub-grade. Group Index is number assigned to the soil based
on its physical properties like particle size, Liquid limit and plastic limit. It varies from a
value of 0 to 20, lower the value higher is the quality of sub-grade. By sieve analysis test we
can determine Group index value of soil sub grade from below equation:
GI = 0.2a + 0.005 ac + 0.01bd
Where,
a = percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 35 per cent, not exceeding 75
b = percentage of soil passing 0.074 mm sieve in excess of 15 per cent, not exceeding 55
c = Liquid limit in per cent in excess of 40
d = Plasticity index in excess of 10

In G.I. method for designing of pavement, the thickness of pavement depends upon
the G.I. and the type of traffic.
Type of Traffic Commercial Vehicles per day
Light traffic volume <50
Medium traffic volume 50 to 300
Heavy traffic volume >300

2. CALIFORNIA BEARING RATIO METHOD

CBR method is used to determine total thickness of pavement. California Bearing
Ratio (CBR) is a penetration test, wherein a standard piston, having an area of 3 in2 is used
to penetrate soil at a standard rate of 0.05 inch per minute. The pressure at each 0.1 inch
penetration is recorded and its ratio to bearing value of standard crushed rock is termed as
the CBR. Data required for flexible pavement design is:
CBR value of soil subgrade

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CBR value of sub base course

CBR value of base course
Wheel load in KG or KN
Wheel load is classified into three groups based on traffic conditions:
Light traffic (3175 KG)
Medium traffic (4082 KG)
Heavy traffic (5443 KG)

3. AASHTO DESIGN METHOD

The basic objective is to determine significant relationship between no. of repetition
of specified axle loads and performance of different thickness of pavement layers.
The design is based on the equivalent 80kN single-axle load. The original equation is
applicable only to the specific environmental and soil conditions. To make it applicable to
other areas of the nation, the equation is modified by introducing an effective roadbed soil
resilient modulus MR and two drainage coefficients m2 and m3 for granular base and sub
base, respectively. This equation is widely used and has following form:
{log10 (PSI4.2 1.5)}
Log10 (W18 ) = Zr So + 9.36 log10 (SN + 1) 0.20 + + 2.32 Log10 ( ) 8.07
0.4 + {1094 }
(SN + 1)5.19
Where,
W18 = predicted number of 80 kN (18,000 lb.) ESALs
Zr = standard normal deviation
So = combined standard error of traffic prediction and Performance prediction
PSI = difference between initial design serviceability index po, and design terminal
Serviceability index pt
MR = sub-grade resilient modulus (in psi)
SN = Structural Number (an index that is indicative of total pavement thickness
Required) which can be calculated by:
= 1 1 + 2 2 2 + 3 3 3 +
ai = ith layer coefficient
di = ith layer thickness (inches)
mi = ith layer drainage coefficient

STEPS FOR PAVEMENT DESIGNING

Before going to design the pavement we must know the structure of pavement:
i. Calculate total thickness (T) by different charts
ii. Calculate the thickness of sub-base course (tsb)
iii. Calculate thickness of base and surface course (tb & ts) by:
Thickness of surface and base course = total thickness sub-base thickness
= T tsb
iv. Then we can easily calculate the value of thickness of the base course,
Tb = T-tsb-ts
Steps in design process include:
i. Review Pavement Management Data to determine the appropriate scope of work
and treatment type.

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ii. Evaluate existing pavement to confirm the scope of work and determine preliminary
design and appropriate construction strategy.
Research roadway history and traffic data
Perform field trips to make site inspections
iii. Evaluate sub-base and sub-grade for drainage characteristics and bearing capacity.
iv. Make structural calculations like the traffic, soils and existing pavement data.
v. Set specifications such as pavement materials, construction methods and finished
project requirements.
vi. The Designer must ensure that plans, specifications and estimate are clearly defined.

FOUNDATION
The lowest artificially built part of a structure which transmit the load of the
structure to the soil lying under it, is called foundation. It includes the portion of the
structure below ground level and other artificial arrangements in the form of concrete
blocks, raft, piles etc. The purpose of foundation is:
To distribute the load over a large bearing area
To prevent lateral movement of supporting material
To secure a level and bed for building operations
To increase the stability of structure

FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
Foundation engineering applies knowledge of soil mechanics, rock mechanics,
geology and structural engineering to design and construction of foundations for buildings
and other structures.
The most basic aspect of foundation engineering deals with the selection of the type
of foundation, such as using a shallow or deep foundation system. Another important
aspect of foundation engineering involves development of design parameters, such as the
bearing capacity of foundation.

CLASSIFICATION OF FOUNDATIONS
There are two main types of foundations:
1. SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS
The foundation provided immediately beneath the lowest part of the structure near
to the ground level is known as shallow foundation. Such foundations are mostly placed on
the first hard strata available below the ground level. The depth is generally D/B < 1 but
may be more.
TYPES
i. Stepped Footing
The foundation having its bed in the form of steps of concrete is known as stepped
foundation. For this, excavation is done into steps having short length and uniform height.
If there is any possibility of slipping of structure, then RCC piles can be driven along its base
concrete on the slopping side.
Advantages
Simplicity of design
Cheap familiar technology

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Less workers required

Disadvantages
Comparatively low durability
High cost in the final stages of construction
Inability to make monolithic binding of the floor to the basement

ii. Mat Foundation

The foundation consisting of a thick RCC slab covering the whole area is known as
mat or raft foundation.
It is most suitable foundation when the soil at site is of low bearing capacity. Mat
foundation is constructed of RCC slab covering whole area of bottom of structure. The slab
is provided with steel reinforcing bars in both directions. When column loads are heavy,
the main beams and secondary beams are provided monolithically with raft slab.
Advantages
Most suited in clayey soil as the whole area under the foundation contributes to load
distribution and this is more effective.
Economic due to combination of foundation and floor slab.
Requires little excavation.
Reduces differential settlement.
Disadvantages
Mat foundation requires specific treatment for point loads.
Edge erosion occurs if not treated properly.

iii. Spread Footing

The foundation constructed be increasing the area at the base of structure by means
of offsets is called spread footing. In such foundations, spread is given under the base of
wall or column by proving off sets. A spread footing is circular, square or rectangular slab
of uniform thickness.
Advantages
It is used if bearing capacity of soil is high at shallow depth.
Helps to reduce settlement.
No piling is required, hence reducing the cost.
Disadvantages
If weight of structure is high, the load of structure is distributed unequally.
Bearing capacity of top surface soil is less.
If water level is high, it is uneconomical to pump out the water.

iv. Combined Footing

A combined footing supports two columns when two columns are so close to each
other that their individual footings would overlap. Combined footing is also provided when
property line is so close to one column. It may be rectangular or trapezoidal in plan.
Advantages
Can be used when Columns are very near to each other.
Can be used for less bearing capacity soil.
Uniform pressure below the entire area of footing.

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2. DEEP FOUNDATIONS
Foundation constructed sufficiently below ground level with some arrangements
such as piles, wells etc at their base, is called deep foundation. In deep foundation depth to
width ratio is usually greater than 4 to 5. This is usually at depths >3 m below ground level.
TYPES
i. Pile Foundation
A foundation consisting of spread or grillage supported on piles is called pile
foundation. Piles distributes the load of structure to the hard stratum by friction alone or
with bearing at their ends. Two main components of pile foundation are:
Piles are long and slender members which transfer the load to deeper soil or rock of
high bearing capacity.
Pile caps are thick slabs used to tie a group of piles together to support and transmit
column loads to the piles.
Advantages
Piles can be precast to the required specifications.
Piles of any size, length and shape can be made.
As soil compacts the adjacent soil, the bearing capacity of pile is increased.
Disadvantages
Must be properly reinforced to withstand stresses during transportation & driving.
Advance planning is required for handling and driving.
Requires heavy equipment for handling and driving.

ii. Well Foundation

The main difference between well and a pile foundation is that, pile is flexible under
horizontal loads while well undergoes rigid body movement under such loads. Wells have
different shapes like circular wells, Double-D wells, double octagonal wells, single and
double rectangular wells, multiple dredged holed wells.
Advantages
Provides solid and massive foundation for heavy loads
Greater bearing capacity because of large area
Can resist large horizontal forces
Disadvantages
Increase cost
Large number of workers required
Use of machineries and equipments

iii. Caisson Foundation

Caisson foundation is also known as pier foundation. Caisson is a cylinder or hollow
box that is sunk into ground to a specified depth by making a deep hole into the strata. The
cylinder or box is then back filled with concrete, thus creating the foundation. This type of
foundation is most often used when constructing bridge piers and other such foundations
that will be beneath bodies of water.
Advantages
Easily adaptable to varying site conditions
High axial and lateral load capacity

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Very economical
Reduce vibrations
Disadvantages
Lack of expertise
Cannot be placed on contaminated sites because of risk of further contamination
throughout the site
Construction procedures is very sensitive

GENERAL REQUIREMENTS OF FOUNDATION DESIGN

i. The foundation, including the underlying soil and rock, must be safe against a
structural failure that could result in collapse.
ii. During the life of structure, foundation must not settle in such a way as to damage
the structure or impair its function.
iii. The foundation must be feasible, both technically and economically and practical to
build without adverse effects on surrounding property.
iv. Strength of foundation components shall not be less than that required for load
combinations.
v. The bearing capacity of foundation soil shall be sufficient to support the structure
with all prescribed loads.

TYPES OF PILES
1. BASED ON THEIR FUNCTION
i. Bearing Piles
The piles which rest on hard strata and act as columns to bear the load of the
structure i.e. they acts as a medium to transmit the load from the foundation to the stratum
are known as bearing piles. These piles are used to bear the vertical loads.
ii. Friction Piles
The piles which do not rest on hard strata and bear the loads on account of frictional
resistance between their outer surface and the soil in contact, are called friction piles. In
friction piles, load is carried by friction developed between the sides of pile and
surrounding ground.
iii. Friction-Cum-Bearing Piles
The piles which rest on hard strata and resist the structural load partly by bearing
and partly by their skin friction are known as friction-cum-bearing pile. These piles are
used when bearing capacity of soil strata lying under them is not sufficient to resist the
load of structure.

2. BASED ON MATERIAL
i. Steel piles
The pile consisting of steel section are called steel piles. These pile may be made in
the form of I or H section beams. H section beams are mostly used for steel piles these days.
The size of H section varies from 240 to 400 mm depth with thickness of usually 12 mm.
These piles are available in the form of sheet pin piles, sheet piles, disc piles and screw
piles.

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ii. Timber piles

The timber to be used as a pile should be free from defects, decay etc and it should
be well seasoned. A main consideration regarding timber piles is that they should be
protected from rotting hence it will last for a long time below the groundwater level. These
piles are driven by blows of drop hammer.
iii. Concrete Piles
Concrete piles may be precast, prestressed, cast in place or of composite
construction. Concrete piles are typically made with steel reinforcing and prestressing
tendons to obtain strength, to survive handling & driving and to provide sufficient bending
resistance. Pile joints can be used to join two or more short piles to form one long pile.

PILE INSTALLATION METHODS

1. DROP HAMMER METHOD
It is the simplest method of pile driving. In this method, a hammer is raised to a
suitable height and released to strike the pile head. Hammer is generally dropped from the
height of 1.5 to 4.5 m and its weight is about 2.25 to 9 kN for short piles and 9 to 23.50 kN
for long and heavy piles. The hammer is raised by pulling rope manually or by engine. The
pile driving frame is kept in vertical position by suitable ropes.

2. STEAM HAMMER METHOD

In this case, a heavy hammer is dropped on to the pile through a small height but in
quick succession. Single acting or double acting hammers are available. These hammers are
raised with high pressure steam and dropped under gravity or by steam. Special devices
are used to protect the heads of piles from damage due to excessive blows.

3. BORING METHOD
Sometimes piling is done by boring holes of suitable diameter to the required depth
and then dropping piles in them. Generally cat-in-situ piles are laid by this method. Boring
can be done by:
i. Continuous Flight Auger (CFA)
CFA consists of a carrier fitted with a flight auger which is rotated into the ground to
required depth by hydraulic motor. On reaching the required depth, highly workable
concrete is pumped and under the pressure of concrete the protective cap is detached.
ii. Under Reaming
Under reaming tool is fitted inside pile shaft and then expanded at bottom of pile to
produce under ream. Normally, after installation and before concreting, man carrying cage
is lowered and shaft and the under ream of pile is inspected.

4. WATER JET METHOD

Pile driving can also be done by displacing the material at or near the foot of pile by
means of one or more water jets under pressure. The pressure of jet should be sufficient to
displace soil and removed material for driving piles quickly and satisfactory.

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USES OF PILES
i. To carry vertical compression load
ii. To resist tension or uplift load
iii. To transmit buildings loads to the foundations and the ground soil layers
iv. To install loose cohesion less soil through displacement and vibration
v. To control settlements
vi. To build a structure within the water and on water river or canal bed
vii. To increase the bearing capacity of soil by compaction piles

PILE SPACING
Pile spacing is based on the heat necessary to convert water to ice at no change in
temperature. If the spacing between piles is too close, the zones of stress around pile will
overlap and the ultimate load of pile group is less than the sum of individual capacities of
pile. Generally center to center spacing between piles is kept between 2.5d and 3.5d, where
d is the diameter of the pile.

NEGATIVE SKIN FRICTION

Negative skin friction is a downward shear pull acting on the pile surface due to
relative downward movement of soil surrounding the pile. The following are some of the
causes of negative skin friction:
Due to pile or pile segment passing through compressible soil
Due to placement of a fill on compressible soil layer
Lowering of ground water table causing the shrinkage of expansive soils
Under consolidated natural or compacted soils
The negative skin friction of a single pile is given by:

= ()


And total downward load= negative skin friction load + live load+ dead load

FACTORS IN FOUNDATION DESIGN

1. Loads from Building
The first factor considered is loads from building on the foundation. This load is a
combination of dead load and imposed loads on buildings. Other loads such as wind loads,
earthquake loads, snow loads etc. are also considered.
2. Type of Soil
The soil near surface is called as top soil and below a depth of 300mm is called as
sub soil. Generally subsoil is used as base for foundation for small buildings. However, soil
investigation should be carried out to know the nature of soil and to know the bearing
capacity of soil at different levels.
3. Type of Structure in Neighborhood
The selection of foundation can also based on type of foundation selected for
neighboring buildings. Based on the success or failure of foundations for such buildings,
decision can be taken for the selection of foundation.

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4. Types of Foundation
Types of foundation such as isolated foundations, combined footings, pile
foundations and raft or mat foundations etc. based on the type of soils and loads can be
selected based on suitability and requirement.
5. Water Table fluctuation
A lowered water table increases the effective pressure and may cause additional
settlements. A raised water table may create problems like floating the structure by making
it unstable or tilting it and reducing the effective pressure by causing excessive settlement.
6. Factors of Safety
Factors of safety represent capacity which a foundation has against collapse for a
given set of loads. Therefore in choosing design approach, designer should consider
significance of project, degree of uncertainty in the design parameters and the probability
of failure due to both collapse and functional errors.
7. Foundations on Permafrost
Permafrost is a condition of permanently frozen ground, where the ground
temperatures are never higher than 0oC. Construction in these areas requires that the
foundations be placed below this material.

BEARING CAPACITY
The maximum load which the soil can take per unit area without yielding or
displacement is called bearing capacity of ultimate bearing capacity. The stability of
structure depends upon the strength of soil, which is expressed as bearing capacity usually
in terms of tone per square meter. While the workable bearing capacity of soil, which is
considered for design is known as safe bearing capacity.

BEARING CAPACITY EQUATIONS

There is currently no method of obtaining the ultimate bearing capacity of a
foundation other than an estimate:
1. THE TERZAGHI BEARING-CAPACITY EQUATION
One of the early sets of bearing-capacity equations was proposed by Terzaghi in
1943. Terzaghi's equations were produced from a slightly modified bearing-capacity theory
developed by Prandtl in 1920 to examine punching of a rigid base into a softer material.
Bearing-capacity equations were intended for shallow foundations.
All shape factors Si = 1.00, but the Ni factors were computed differently.
Used = .
Only used shape factors with the cohesion Sc and base S terms.
Never explained very well how he obtained Kp to compute bearing-capacity.
The general Terzaghis equation is:
= + + .

If values of Nq , Nc , Nr , and Kp are not given than use formulas or take values from table 4-
2 on Pg#222:
2
Nq =
cos2 (45 + 2)

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Nc = (Nq 1)cot
tan Kp
Nr = ( 1)
2 cos2
Kp = See table

= e(0.75 2 )tan

While for sc and sr,

Footing STRIP ROUND SQUARE
sc 1.0 1.3 1.3
sr 1.0 0.6 0.8

2. MEYERHOF 'S BEARING-CAPACITY EQUATION

Meyerhof proposed bearing-capacity equation similar to that of Terzaghi but
included a shape factor sq with depth term Nq. He also included depth factors di and
inclination factors ii for cases where the footing load is inclined.
Obtained his N factors by making trials.
Using the inclination factors to reduce bearing capacity when the load resultant was
inclined from the vertical.
When the i factor is used, it should be self-evident that it does not apply when =
0o .
All ii factors = 1.0 if the angle = 0o .
The difference becomes more different at larger D/B ratios.

3. HANSEN'S BEARING-CAPACITY METHOD

This equation is further extension of Meyerhof work. Hansen's shape, depth and
other factors makes up general bearing capacity equation. These represent revisions and

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extensions from earlier proposals. The extensions include base factors in which footing is
tilted and for possibility of a slope to give ground factors. The equation allows any D/B and
thus can be used for both shallow and deep foundations. Hansen used:
i. For Shallow Foundations
D
dc = 1 + 0.4
B
D
dq = 1 + 2tan(1 sin)2
B

ii. For Deep Foundations

D
dc = 1 + 0.4tan1
B
D
dq = 1 + 2tan(1 sin)2 tan1
B

4. VESIC'S BEARING-CAPACITY EQUATIONS

The Vesic procedure is essentially the same as the method of Hansen with select
changes. The Nc and Nq terms are those of Hansen but N is slightly different. There are also
differences in the ii, bi and gi terms. The Vesic equation is somewhat easier to use than
Hansen's because he uses i terms in computing shape factors si whereas Vesic does not.

BEARING CAPACITY PROBLEMS

EXAMPLE 1
What will be the gross and net safe bearing pressure of sand having equal to
36o & effective unit weight of 1.8 g/cc under the following cases ?
i. 1.0 m wide strip footing
ii. 1.0 x 1.0 m square footing
iii. Circular footing of 1.0 m dia

Given Data:
= 36o
C=0
= 1.8 g/cc = 1.8 T/m2
Df= 1 m (Assumed)

Required:
CASE-I: 1.0 m wide strip
qu =
qs =
qnet =
When, = 36o
Nq =49.5
N =55.9

For strip footing,

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Sc = 1
S = 1
1
= + +
2
qu 1.8(1.0) (49.5) + (1.8) (1) (55.90) (1)
qu 139.41 T/m2
qs qu / F .O.S
qs 139.41/3
qs = 46.47 T/m2

qnet qs q
qnet 46.47 (1.8) (1)
qnet = 44.67 T/m2

CASE-II: 1.0m x 1.0 m square footing

qu =
qs =
qnet =
When, = 36o
Nq = 49.5
N = 55.9

For square footing,

Sc = 1.3
S = 0.8
1
= + +
2
qu 1.8(1.0) (49.5) + (1.8) (1) (55.90) (0.8)
qu 129.34 T/m2
qs qu / F .O.S
qs 129.34/3
qs = 43.116 T/m2

qnet qs q
qnet 43.116 (1.8) (1)
qnet = 41.316 T/m2

CASE-III: 1.0m x 1.0 m circular footing

qu =
qs =
qnet =
When, = 36o
Nq = 49.5
N = 55.9

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For circular footing ,

Sc = 1.3
S = 0.6
1
= + +
2
qu 1.8(1.0) (49.5) + (1.8) (1) (55.90) (0.6)
qu 119.286 T/m2
qs qu / F .O.S
qs 119.286/3
qs = 39.762 T/m2

qnet qs q
qnet 39.762 (1.8) (1)
qnet = 37.962 T/m2

EXAMPLE 2
What will be ultimate Bearing capacity of a soft sensitive clay, in which, when
a vane shear test was conducted (vanes of 10 cm height & 8 cm diameter), the soil
failed at a maximum Torque of 500 kg / cm. consider a footing of square shape and
density of soil as 1.7 gm/cm3. Use Terzaghis Theory.

Given Data:
500 1
= 500 kg / cm = 1000 100 = 0.005

Height of vane H = 10 cm = 0.1 m

Diameter of vane D = 8 cm = 0.08 m
Density of soil = 1.7 g/cm3 = 1.7 T/m3
Df = 1.0 m (assumed)
Required:
qult = ?
qs = ?

= = 2.762
2 ( + )
2 6

C' = 2/3C = 1.84

= 0 (Soft clay)
N = 0
Nc = 5.7
Nq = 1.0
1
= + +
2
= (1.3x1.84x5.7) + (1.7x1x1.0)

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= 15.33 T/m2
qs = qult/F.O.S.
qs = 15.33/3
qs = 5.11 T/m2

EXAMPLE 3
What will be the maximum safe load for is 1.6 T/m3 , is 27 , footing size is
2.5 x 2.5 m , Df is 1.5 m and the soil is loose sand?

Solution:

For Local Shear Failure and = 27 we have from chart,

Nc = 17.0 , Nq = 7.0 , N = 4.0

qult = 1.3CNc + DNq + 0.4BN

= (1.3)(0)(17) + (1.6)(1.5)(7) + (0.4)(1.6)(2.5)(4)
= 23.2 T/m2

qs = Qult/3 = 23.2/3 = 7.73 T/m2

Safe Load = 7.73 x 2.5 x 2.5 = 48.33 T

EXAMPLE 4
A strip fisting 1m wide at its base, at a depth of 0.8m, r=18t/m, c = t/m, angle =
20 degree. If n/T is 1.5m below the ground surface find out bearing capacity of soil.

Solution:

As angle <28 Df = 0.8m, So it is a local shear failure.

When the ground water table is located at a depth below the foundation less than width of
foundation then we will use the equation;

qu=CNc+Qnv+1/2BNr rav Where rav = 1/B{rD+r(B-D)](for D<B)

C = 2/3C=2/3*3 = 2T/m

Angle = 1/tan(2/3tan angle) = 13.63o

and,
Nc=0.86 Nq=230 Nr=0.75*(0.8)

So,
qu = (2)(0.86)+(1.8)(2.30)+(0.5)(1)(0.75)*1/1[(1.6\8*0.7)+(1/2.31)(1-0.7)
qu = 21.644T/m

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EXAMPLE 5
A strip footing of width 3m is founded at a depth of 2m below the ground
surface in a (C-) soil having = 18 KN/m3, C= 30 KPa, = 36. Determine the
ultimate bearing capacity of soil by Rankine method.
Solution:
According to Rankine method;
= (2 1) + 2 ( + 1) + 2
Where,
N = tan2 (45 + /2)
N = tan2 (45 + 36/2)
= 3.85o

qu = 18 3 3.85 (14.83 1) + (2 30)3.85 (3.85 + 1) + (18 2)(3.85)2

qu = 1471.20 KN/m2

EXAMPLE 6
A square footing of size 3 x 3 m rests at a depth of 2 m in medium dense sand.
The water table is at the base level of the footing. The corrected average SPT value is
30 for the soil below the base for a depth equal to the width of foundation. Compute
the net ultimate bearing capacity of soil by Tengs Method.

Solution:

N = 30 , B=3m , D=2m
Rw = 1.0 , Rw = 0.5

qult = 0.32 [N2 B Rw + 3(100 + N2)D Rw ]

= 0.32 [(30)2 (3) (1) + 3(100 + (30)2)(2) (0.5) ]
= 0.32 [ 2700 + 3000]
qult = 1824 KN/m2

EXAMPLE 7
At what depth should a raft of size 6 * 9 m be founded to provide a factor of
safety 3, if the soil is stiff clay having an unconfined compressive strength of 120
KN/m2. The unit weight of the soil is 18 KN/m3. The pressure transferred by the raft
to its base is 150 KN/m2.

Given Data:
rectangular footing = 6 * 9 m
F.O.S. = 3
qu = 120 KN/m2
= 18 KN/m3
qs = 150 KN/m2
= 0 (for stiff clay)

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Df =?
Solution:
tan' = (tan) = 0 ' = 0
for ' = 0; Nc' = 5.7, Nq' = 1, N = 0
For rectangular footing,
Sc = 1 + .2 (B/L) = 1 + .2 (6/9) = 1.13

c = qu/2 = 120/2 = 60 KN/m2

= () = 60 = 40 /2

= . . . = 150 3 = 450 /2
1 + .3 (B/L) = 1 + .3 (6/9) = 1.2

Again using formula,

qult = Scc'Nc'[1 + .3 (B/L)] + DfNq' + BN'S
= (1.13 40 5.7 1.2) + (18 1) + 0
= 309.17 + 18Df
or, Df = (450 309.17)/18 = 140.83/18 = 7.82 m

EXAMPLE 8
A strip footing, 1m wide at its base, at a depth of 0.8m, =1.8 T / m2, C =3
T/m2, = 20, if W/T is 1.5m below the ground surface, find out baering capacity of
soil.

Given data:
B = 1m,
Df =0.8m
=1.8 T/m
C = 3 T/m2
= 20
Solution:
Nc = 17.5 , Nq = 7.4 , N = 5
Sc = 1 , S = 1
qult = ScCNc + DfNq + 0.5BNS
= 1(3)(17.5) + (1.8)(0.8)(7.4) + (0.5)(1.8)(1)(5)(1)
qult = 67.656 T/m2

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PAST PAPERS
SP-13
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHALLOW AND DEEP
SHALLOW
Light, flexible structure: older residential construction which include a basement,
and in many commercial structures etc
Nice soil condition: hard, uniform soil
Cheaper than deep foundation
Easier construction
DEEP
Heavy, rigid structure such as large bridge, tower etc
Poor soil condition: liquefaction, soft clay and sands
Typically more expansive
More complex to construct and more time than shallow foundation

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLEXIBLE AND RIGID PAVEMENTS

1. In flexible pavements load distribution is primarily based on layered system. While,
in case of rigid pavements most of the load carries by slab itself and slight load goes
to the underlying strata.
2. Structural capacity of flexible pavement depends on characteristics of every single
layer. While, structural capacity of rigid pavement depends on the characteristics of
concrete slab.
3. In flexible pavements, load intensity decreases with the increase in depth. While
in case of rigid pavement, maximum intensity of load carries by concrete slab itself.
4. In flexible pavement deflection basin is very deep because of its dependency on the
underlying layers. While in case of rigid pavement, deflection basin is shallow.
5. Flexible pavement has very low modulus of elasticity (less strength). Modulus of
elasticity of rigid pavement is very high, because of high strength concrete and more
loads bearing capacity of the pavement itself.

SEAL COAT
Sealcoat is a liquid that is applied to asphalt to protect it from oxidation and the damage
caused by winter cracking, as well as UV rays and traffic. It provides:
A waterproof layer to protect the underlying pavement.
Increased skid resistance.
A filler for existing cracks or raveled surfaces.
An increased reflective surface for night driving.

TACK COAT
A tack coat is sprayed on the surface of an existing asphalt or concrete pavement.
The goal is to achieve uniform coverage over the entire surface. It is also used to seal
together layers of precast concrete (PCC). Tack coats should be applied uniformly across
the entire pavement surface.

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PRIME COAT
A prime coat is an application of a low viscosity asphalt to a granular base in
preparation for an initial layer of asphalt. The principal function of prime coat is to protect
the sub-grade from moisture and weathering. The purpose of the prime coat is:
to coat and bond loose material particles on surface of base
to harden base surface to provide work platform for construction equipment
to avoid voids in base course surface to prevent migration of moisture
to provide adhesion between base course and succeeding asphalt course

DIFFERENTIAL SETTLEMENT
Differential settlement occurs when the soil beneath structure expands, contracts or
shifts away and foundation settles unequally. This can be caused by drought conditions, the
root systems of maturing trees, flooding, poor drainage, frost, vibrations from nearby
construction or poorly compacted soil. Differential settlement can cause:
cracks in a structures foundation and interior walls
bulging walls
leaking through openings and sunken slabs
Bending and deflection of structure supported by foundation

SP-11
TOTAL SETTLEMENT
When foundation settlement occurs at the same rate throughout all portions of a
building, it is termed total settlement. If the settlement is total, the structural failure will
not take place. However, if total settlement is very excessive than its function is impaired.
For example, utility services such as water supply and sewage lines, electric and telephone
poles etc. may not function properly even the structure remain sound structurally.

STRAP FOOTING
When the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is called
a strap footing. It is used when the distance between columns is so great that a combined
footing becomes quite narrow, with high bending moments. In this case the column is
provided with its independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings.

PILE GROUP
Group of piles means when we have more than 1 pile in a row. Many factors
influence the pile group stability. The major factors are Geometry of group, soil conditions
and direction of loads.

TRAFFIC REGULATION AND CONTROL

Road traffic regulation and control involves directing vehicular and pedestrian
traffic thus ensuring the safety of emergency response teams, construction workers and the
general public. Traffic control also includes use of CCTV and other means of monitoring
traffic by local or state roadways authorities.

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Traffic control devices are markers, signs and signal devices used to inform, guide
and control traffic, including pedestrians, motor vehicle drivers and bicyclists. These
devices are usually placed adjacent, over or along the highways, roads, traffic facilities and
other public areas that require traffic control.
TRAFFIC SIGN
Traffic signs are signs which use words and/or symbols to convey information to
road users. These devices are made with materials that reflect light from headlights back
towards driver's eyes to achieve maximum visibility especially at night. Traffic signs can be:
Regulatory signs are traffic signs used to convey traffic rules and regulations such as
intersection controls, weight limit, speed limit, one way, no parking and others.
These signs are generally rectangular in shape and uses white, black and/or red as
primary colors.
Warning signs are traffic signs that are used to warn road users about a potential
danger. These signs are usually diamond in shape and have black legends and
borders on a yellow background.
Guide signs help road users navigate to their destination. These signs are generally
rectangular in shape and have white text on green backgrounds.
TRAFFIC SIGNAL
Traffic control signals are used to assign right-of-way to traffic moving in conflicting
directions at an intersection. Traffic lights feature three different lights that conveys
different meanings. The red light means the vehicle must come to a complete stop. A green
light means the vehicle may proceed when it is safe to do so. A yellow light indicates that a
red light will follow and vehicle drivers must stop if it is safe to do so.
PAVEMENT MARKING
Road surface markings are traffic control devices that are applied directly to the
road surfaces. They are used to guide and channel traffic by assigning lanes and indicating
stopping points at intersections. Pavement markings may be permanent or removable.

HIGHWAY DRAINAGE
It includes collecting, transporting and disposing off surface/subsurface water
originating on or near the highway right of way or flowing in streams crossing bordering
right of way. Drainage of highway is important because water damage highway structure in
many ways. The water which are dangerous for highways are:
Rainwater
Groundwater
Water body
Merits
It prevents erosion by runoff from the hill.
It stop water, not allowing it to enter side drain which may cause greater discharge
in side drains.
It remove water from the road surface.
Prevent scour and/or washout of pavement, shoulder, better slopes, water courses
and drainage structures.

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DRAINAGE METHODS
1. SURFACE DRAINAGE
Surface drainage is concerned with removing all water that is present on the
pavement surface from which it may flow into the pavement. If not removed, this water can
accumulate underneath and weaken the pavement structure. There are three primary
means used to prevent water infiltration and accumulation:
i. Impermeable pavement surface
An impermeable surface will protect the underlying sub-grade from water sources
above. Permeability surfaces are different for flexible and rigid pavements.
ii. Slope
The pavement section should be sloped to allow rainwater to sheet flow quickly to
the edge where it is typically collected in a curb and gutter system or a roadside
ditch. A generally accepted standard is a 2 percent cross slope.
iii. Grade
The curb and gutter or roadside ditch must be properly graded to allow flow to
central collection points such as catch basins or detention ponds. A generally
accepted standard is a grade of 0.5 percent or more.

2. SUB-SURFACE DRAINAGE
Subsurface drainage is concerned with removing water that percolates through or is
contained in underlying sub-grade. This water, typically result of high water table or
specially wet weather, can accumulate under the pavement structure by two chief means:
Gravity flow
Water from surrounding areas can be absorbed by soil then flow by gravity to areas
underneath the pavement structure. In pavement with high air voids, water can percolate
down through the pavement structure itself.
Capillary rise
Capillary rise is the rise in a liquid due to a upward force produced by attraction of
water molecules to soil. Capillary rise can be up to 6m or more. In general, smaller the soil
grain size, greater the chance for capillary rise.

TYPES OF DEEP FOUNDATION

Pier foundation
Well foundation
Caisson foundation
Pile foundation
TYPES OF SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Spread footing
Combined footing
Grillage footing
Stepped footing
Mat or raft foundation

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AASHTO LOADINGS
The American Association of State and Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO)
has a series of specifications for loadings. In general, loading depends on the type of bridge,
its location and type of traffic anticipated. AASHTO specifications also allow to represent
the truck as a single concentrated load and an uniform load.
There are two basic types of standard truck loadings described in the current
AASHTO Specifications:
Hypothetical trucks, called the H (with two axles)
HS (with three-axles)
The first type is a single unit vehicle with two axles spaced at 14 feet and elected as
a highway truck or H truck. The weight of the front axle is 20% of the gross vehicle weight,
while the weight of rear axle is 80% of gross vehicle weight. The second type that is HS
loading, consists of truck with semi-trailer i.e. that pull trailers are chosen as HS.
In many cases, vehicles may bounce or sway as they move over a bridge. This
motion produces an impact load on the bridge. AASHTO has develop an impact factor to
increase the live load to account for bounce and sway of vehicles:
50
I= 0.3
L + 125
Where,
L is the span in feet.
Impact loading is intended to transfer loads from superstructure to substructure.
Impact shall not be included in loads transferred to footings or to those parts of piles or
columns that are below ground.

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