Professional Documents
Culture Documents
BY
ALEX E. CARDENAS
DONALD D. MAGURA
119
120
response of multistory
concrete structures
to lateral forces
HIGHLIGHTS
There is limited information ~egarding the strength of shear walls in build-
ings. Prior to the publication of ACI 318-71 (1), only the Uniform Building
Code (2) contained design provisions for shear walls. The UBC provisions
were based on shear tests of deep beams (3, 4) with and without web rein-
forcement.
To develop basic information, the Portland Cement Association initiated a
laboratory investigation of reinforced concrete shear walls in high and low-
rise buildings. The main features of the high-rise wall tests are:
1. Tests of six large rectangular shear wall specimens.
2. Consideration of gravity and lateral loads.
3. Distribution of lateral loads to simulate interaction
between frames and shear walls.
Results obtained from these six tests and seven others on low -rise walls*
were used to develop design provisions for shear walls (5), The provisions
are included in Section 11. 16, Special Provisions for Walls, of ACI 318-71.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions can be drawn as a result of this investigation:
1. The strength of most rectangular reinforced concrete
shear walls in high-rise buildings is governed by
flexure rather than shear.
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
BACKGROUND
Concrete walls in high-rise buildings are often used to carry lateral loads
in conjunction with frames or frame-tubes (6, 7). Since they carry the story
shear they are generally called "shear walls." However, this terminology
does not indicate that the carrying capacity of the wall is controlled by its
shear strength.
Basic design information on the nature and magnitude of wind and earth-
quake loads has been described in detail (2, 6, 8, 9). The analysis of the
response of shear wall structures has also received wide attention. Some
of the papers presenting analytical methods are contained in Ref. (10-14).
Computer programs intended for use in design are also available (15, 16).
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION
Shear .walls for high-rise buildings are usually designed to interact with
other structural elements. One of the most common systems found in
122
response of multistory
concrete structures
to latera I forces
* Acontributing
frame, as defined here, includes all beams,
to lateral stiffness.
spandrels and floor systems
** A shear wall comprises one wall or a combination of shear walls extending
ove.r all or part of the height of the structure.
123
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
Two other specimens having the same cross sectional dimensions, but with
a height of 12 ft. (3, 66 m) were also tested.
The part of the specimen labeled "restrained area" in Fig. 3 was intended to
represent the restraint condition at the base of the wall. In the design of the
test rig and loading equipment, particular care was taken to provide a fixed
end condition at the base of the wall. In addition, instrumentation was pro-
vided to measure base rotations due to elastic deformations of the restrained
area and the loading equipment.
Figure 4 shows the test rig used for the specimens with a height~ = 21ft.
(6. 40 m), The loading rods going through the laboratory test floor apply the
lateral forces to the wall specimen. Post-tensioning rods shown longitudin-
ally in the figure, apply the gravity loads. The vertical steel tubes attached
to each side of the wall were used to simulate lateral restraint and prevent
large lateral deflections. A more detailed explanation of materials, instru-
mentation and test procedures used is given in Appendix A.
TEST RESUt.TS
Specimen Characteristics
Dimensions and material properties for the six high-rise shear wall speci-
mens tested are listed in Table 1. All specimens had the same rectangular
cross section, 3 in. by 75 in. (7. 5 em by 190 em).
Specimens SW-1, frvv-2, and SW-3 had the same height, ~=21ft. (6.40 m).
Their corresponding moment to shear ratio calculated at a distance tw/2
from the base of the wall was M/V = 2. 0 tw. The only variable was the
amount of uniformly distributed vertical or flexural reinforcement which
ranged between 0. 27 and 3. 0 percent.
Specimens 'i:NJ-4 and SW-5 had a height of~ = 12ft. (3. 66 m). The corre-
sponding moment to shear ratio was M/V = 1, 0 tw. Both specimens were
designed for the same flexural strength but containing different distributions
of flexural reinforcement. Fig. 5 shows the two distributions of flexural
reinforcement used. Specimen SW -4 had uniformly Qistributed reinforce-
ment, while SW -5 had concentrated reinforcement.
Specimen SW -6 was similar to SW -3 except for the distribution of flexural .
reinforcement. In SW -6, the bars were concentrated near the ends in the
same manner as for SW-5.
Shear or horizontal reinforcement was constant for all six specimens at
0. 0027 times the concrete gross area. All reinforcement used met require-
ments of ASTM Designation: A-615-68, Grade 60 (4200 kgf/cm 2 ). The
124
response of multistory
concrete structures
to lateral forces
nominal concrete compressive strength was 6000 psi (420 kgf/cm 2 ) while the
axial compressive stress in all specimens was nominal 420 psi (29 kgf/cm 2 ).
Table 2 summarizes the test results for all six specimens. The mode of
failure for each specimen is also listed.
Load-Deformation Relationships
Moment-curvature or load-deflection relationships of shear walls are signif-
icantly influenced by the amount and distribution of vertical reinforcement
and the presence of axial load. Fig. 6 shows idealized moment-curvature
diagrams for rectangular shear walls with different amounts of uniformly
distributed vertical reinforcement. For these diagrams, no axial load was
considered and the shear capacity was assumed to be adequate to develop the
flexural strength.
For comparison purposes, the flexural strength and ultimate curvature of a
shear wall with an amount of vertical reinforcement, Pv == 0. 25 percent,
were assumed to be 100 percent.
Figure 7 shows idealized moment-curvature relationships for walls with
vertical reinforcement concentrated near the edges. As in Fig. 6, the curve
for Pv == 0. 25 percent represents minimum reinforcement uniformly distrib-
uted across the wall. Comparison of trends in Figs. 6 and 7 show that, for
the same total amount of vertical reinforcement, shear walls having more
reinforcement near the ends have both higher moment capacity and ultimate
curvature than those with uniformly distributed reinforcement. The inelas-
tic range of deformations is also improved by the concentration of the rein-
forcement. As a result, concentration of reasonable amounts of vertical re-
inforcement near the ends of tall shear walls may prove advantageous.
Axial compression on shear walls increases the moment capacity. Axial
tensile loads decrease it. However, axial compression reduces the ultimate
curvature. Consequently, neglecting the presence of compressive loads in
the design of shear walls may result in an overestimate of ultimate curva-
ture and energy absorption.
Figure 8 shows measured moment-curvature relationships for the four test
specimens with M/V == 2. 0 t . Figure 9 shows similar relationships for the
two specimens with M/V == 1':'0 i.w, Moments were measured at the base of the
shear wall and curvatures in Fig. 8 are average rotations measured by
LVDT' s over a 40-in. (1. 00 m) gage length near the restrained area. Cur-
vatures in Fig. 9 are average rotations measured over a 12-in. (30 em)
gage length. Values of measured and calculated ultimate moments and
curvatures and ratios of ultimate to yield moments and curvatures are
listed in Table 3. Calculated values for ultimate moments and curvatures
were based on a limiting concrete compressive strain of 0. 003, strain
compatibility and measur.ed materiaLpraperties.
125
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
response of multistory
concrete structures
to latera I forces
For hand calculations, a simplified equation for flerural strength was de-
veloped. The development of this simplified approach is
described in detail in Appendix B. The flexural strength of rectangular
shear walls containing uniformly distributed vertical reinforcement and sub--
jected to an axial load smaller than that producing a balanced failure condi-
tion can be approximated as:
.... (1)
where
Mu == design resisting moment at section, in. -lbs.
As == total area of vertical reinforcement at section. sq. in.
fy specified yield strength of vertical reinforcement, psi.
~ == horizontal length of shear wall, in.
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
Energy Absorptio.D
The area under the moment-curvature, M - 1/J, diagram is a measure of the
energy absorbing capacity of reinforced concrete members. Consequently,
the variables that affect the energy absorption of walls are the same as those
affecting their moment-curvature characteristics.
Figure 13 shows idealized M -1/J relationships for two rectangular shear wall
sections subjected to bending. In constructing these curves, it was assumed
that the amount of shear reinforcement was sufficient to develop the full
flexural strength of the two walls. One of the sections considered was as-
sumed to contain vertical reinforcement placed near the extreme tension and
compression fibers. For the other case, the reinforcement was assumed to
be uniformly distributed along the cross section. The total area of vertical
reinforcement provided is such that both sections have the same flexural
strength.
The energy-absorbing capacity of the shear wall with reinforcement near the
rmds only can be calculated on the basis of the equations presented by
Blume, Newmark and Corning ( 9).. The equations are based on the simpli-
fying assumptions that the yield moment is equal to the ultimate moment and
the M - 1/J relationship is elasto-plastic.
For the shear wall with the uniform distribution of vertical reinforcement,
the simplifying assumptions of Ref. (9) cannot be directly applied. As
shown in Fig. 13, the moment at first yield is appreciably lower than that
at ultimate. Consequently, the transition from the yield to the ultimate
capacity requires an increase in load. This increase in load depends on the
amount of vertical reinforcement and the presence of axial load.
In practice, most rectangular shear walls contain a distribution of vertical
reinforcement which is intermediate between those illustrated in Fig. 13.
As a result, the shape of their M - 1/> relationship lies somewhere between
the boundaries illustrated.
Table 3 lists the moment-curvature characteristics for the six specimens
tested in this investigation. Characteristics of each specimen and mea-
sured and calculated test results are presented in Tables 1 and 2. For spec-
imens fNJ -1, fNJ -2 and fNJ -3 containing increasing amounts of uniformly
distributed vertical reinforcement, the ductility ratio 1/1 I 1/J decreases with
increasing amounts of reinforcement. Measured value~ ale the average
curvature over a 40-in. (1. 00 m) gage length near the base of the walls.
Calculated values were obtained taking into account strain hardening of the
reinforcement and using the assumptions of Chapter 10 of ACI 318-71.
The influence of concentrating some of the vertical reinforcement near the
ends of the cross section is illustrated by the results of specimens fNJ -3
128
response of multistory
concrete structures
to lateral forces
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
27. Kani, G. N. J., "How Safe are Our Large Reinforced Concrete Beams?"
ACI Journal, Proceedings, V. 64, No. 3, March 1967, pp. 128-141.
28. Hognestad, E., Hanson, N. W., Kriz, L. B., and Kurvits, 0. A.,
''Facilities and Test Methods of PCA Structural Laboratory," Journal of
the Portland Cement Association, Research and Development Labora-
tories, V. 1, No. 1, pp. 12-20 and 40-44, 1959; V. 1, No. 2, pp. 30-
37, 1959; V. 1, No. 3, pp. 35-41; PCA Development Bulletin D33.
29. Hanson, N. W., Hsu, T. T. C., Kurvits, 0. A., and Mattock, A. H.,
"Facilities and Test Methods of PCA Structural Laboratory -Improve-
ments 1960-65," Journal of the Portland Cement Association, Research
and Development Laboratories, V. 3, No. 2, pp. 27-31, May 1961;
V. 7, No. 1, pp. 2-9, January 1965; and V. 7, No. 2, pp. 24-38, May
1965; PCA Development Bulletin D91.
PCA R/0 Ser. 1498
132
response of multistory
concrete structures
to latera I forces
APPENDIX A
DETAILS OF TEST SPECIMENS
This appendix describes the fabrication, instrumentation and testing of six
shear wall specimens. Methods and procedures employed were those nor-
mally used at the PCA Structural Laboratory ( 28, 29).
Fabrication
Because of the relatively large size of the specimens, 28 ft. 9 in. (8. 76 m)
by 6ft. 3 in. (1.91 m), and the small thickness, 3 in. (7. 5 em), all speci-
mens were cast in a horizontal position. This procedure facilitated both the
manufacture of formwork and placement of reinforcement and concrete.
Figure A1 shows one of the specimens before casting. The formwork con-
sisted of a double 3/4 -in. plywood base supported on 2x4 and 2x6 stringers.
The stringers were supported on 2x4 vertical struts properly braced. The
height of the struts was selected to accommodate a tilt-up assembly under-
neath the double 3/4-in. plywood base.
Reinforcement conforming to ASTM Designation: A-615-68, Grade 60 (4200
kgf/cm 2 ) deformed bars and annealed deformed wire was used in all speci-
mens. The deformed bars were used as flexural (vertical) reinforcement
and the annealed wire as shear (horizontal) reinforcement. Deformed bar
sizes were No. 4 and No. 5. Measured yield stresses for specific groups
of bars used in each specimen are listed in Table 1.
The D4 (A = 0. 04 sq. in. == 0. 26 sq. em) deformed wire reinforcement used
conformed\o ASTM Designation: A-496-64. Because of the relatively high
yield stress of the wire, it was necessary to anneal it to obtain a yield stress
of about 60 ksi. Results of trial runs in the laboratory indicated that an-
nealing the wire at 1100 F for one hour would provide the characteristics
needed. Based on these results, all deformed wire reinforcement was com-
mercially annealed at 1100 F in a gas-fired furnace for a period of one
hour.
Yield stresses obtained for individual groups of reinforcement are listed in
Table 1. Figure A2 shows representative stress-strain curves for both the
deformed bars and deformed wire reinforcement used in all specimens.
The normal weight concrete used was made with a blend of Type I cement and
3/4-in. maximum size Elgin aggregate. Design cylinder compressive
strength at test age, usually 10 days, was 6000 psi (420 kgf/cm 2 ). Measured
concrete strengths are listed in Table 1 in the text. Concrete quality con-
trol was based on a measured slump of 3 1 in. All specimens were cured
under polyethylene sheets for a period of 3 days.
133
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
Instrumentation
Reinforcing bars were instrumented with electrical resistance strain gages.
Vertical bars were instrumented at a section near the base of the wall and
also at a section a distance tw from the base of the wall. Instrumented ver-
tical bars permitted measurement of the strain distribution along the wall at
these two sections. Several horizontal bars placed within a height Jw from
base of the wall were also instrumented. These gages provided an indication
of the strains produced by the shear deformations.
Gages were also placed on the concrete surface. These gages were located
near the base of the wall and at the extreme tension and compression fibers.
other gages were placed at mid-length of the wall.
Rotations near the base of the wall were measured with LVDT 1 s placed near
the extreme tension and compression fibers of the specimens. The LVDT1 s
were connected to directly measure angle changes. Gage lengths for mea-
sured average rotations were 40-in. (1. 00 m) for the 21-ft. (6. 40m) high
walls and 12-in. (30 em) for the 12-ft. (3, 66 m) high walls.
Lateral deflections of all specimens were measured at 3 ft. (91 em) or
18-in. (45 em) intervals from the base of the wall. Graduated scales were
read with a precision level (28) that has an optical micrometer reading to
0. 001 in. Out-of-plane deflections were measured near the cantilever end
of the wall using mechanical dial gages reading to 0. 001 inches.
Applied axial and lateral loads were measured with load cells. Reactions at
the restraining portion of the specimens were also measured with load cells.
All of this instrumentation was connected to continuous oscillographic re-
corders or strain indicator boxes as required. Figure A3 shows some of
the locations where instrumentation was used in the specimens.
Test Procedure
After the specimens were set in the test rig, readings were taken to assess
the effects of dead weight and loading equipment. The axial compression
force was then applied in increments. At the end of each increment, out-
of-plane deflections were checked. When necessary, adjustments were
made in the position of the hydraulic rams to insure that no large out-of-
plane deflections occurred.
After the full axial load was applied, lateral load was applied by hydraulic
rams. The number of increments of lateral load to obtain failure was
usually between 10 and 15. After each increment, all instrumentation was
read and cracks were marked and recorded. In addition, load versus de-
flection and load versus maximum compressive strain were continuously
monitored on X-Y recorders throughout the test.
134
response of multistory
concrete structures
to latera I forces
APPENDIX B
EQUATIONS FOR FLEXURAL STRENGTH
As a part of this investigation, a simple equation to calculate the flexural
strength of rectangular shear walls with uniformly distributed vertical rein-
forcement was developed. The solution is developed in accordance with
Section 10 . 2, Assumptions, of ACI 318-71 (1).
Figure B1(a) shows the cross section of a rectangular shear wall subjected
to combined bending and axial load. The total area of reinforcement, A ,
is assumed to be a continuous line of steel albng the fulllmqth of the wa11.
The assumed strain distribution at ultimate is shown in Fig. B1(b). This
distribution implies that the load producing failure is smaller than that at
balanced failure conditions.
From equilibrium of forces as shown in Figs. B1(c) and Bl(d):
pifl (tw - c (1 + /3)] ~ + Nu == 0, 85 f~ {31hc + pJlc (1- {3) fy , .... (1)
where
Pv As/twh
h thickness of shear wall, in.
tw depth or horizontal length of shear wall, in.
c == distance from extreme compression fiber to neutral axis, in.
f3 ey~o.003
where
135
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
w (3)
and
Nu
01 =: .... (4)
J.whf~
The ultimate resisting moment, Mu, of the cross section becomes:
Nu ) (1 {31 c )
Mu == Asfytw [ ( 1 + A I "2' - IT - T
c2 - 1
\ + 3{! 'J
- (31 )
s y w w
..... (5)
Equation (5) can be approximated, without significant loss of accuracy, by -
eliminating the terms containing c2 I t:V and dropping (31 Equation (5) then
reduces to:
.... (6)
Figure B2 shows a comparison of results using Eqs. (5) and (6) for different
amounts of uniformly distributed flexural reinforcement. Two values of
axial compressive load are plotted: Nu == 0 and Nu == 0. 25 f~ J.wh. The re-
sults show that for the case of pure bending, N == 0, the approximate Eq.
(6) compares very well with the results of the fAore exact Eq. (5).
The above derivations are limited to rectangular shear walls with uniformly
distributed reinforcement and subjected to an axial load smaller than that
producing balanced flexural failure. In practice the magnitude of the axial
compression load is almost always smaller than Nu == 0. 25 f~ i.wh. Since
Eq. (5) is applicable up to Nu == 0. 425 {31 f~ J.wh, the proposed flexural
strength equations should apply to most rectangular shear walls found in
practice. Similar equations can be derived for different shear wall cross
sections and for distributions of vertical reinforcement other than uniform.
136
response of multistory
concrete structures
to lateral forces
APPENDIX C
NOTATION
strength of high-rise
shear walls-
rectangular cross sections
(31 fraction defining location of the neutral axis, (Section 10. 2. 7, ACI
318-71)
capacity reduction factor (Section 9. 2, ACI 318-71)
== Av/sh
A/.ewh
curvature at ultimate load
curvature at yield load
-
w
00
Concrete Reinforcement
Compressive Tensile Vertical Horizontal
Mark Height Strength* Splitting Amount Yield Amount Yield Axial
Strength* Stress Stress Stress
~ f'
c f~p p
v ** f y ph fy Nu/i.wh
ft. psi psi psi psi psi
d'
.....
n
CD
en
~
-.
(!)
::::'1
(C
.....
:::r
-
0
( /)
:::r
gJ
~
;;;
TABLE 2- Test Results
Based on compressive concrete limiting strain of 0. 003, strain compatibility and measured material properties including strai."l harderJng
of steel.
Calculated from ACI 318-71 Code shear strength equations.
+ According to Eq. (1).
++ d used is 0. Btw or greater.
(1 kip-ft. = 0.138 ton-m; 1 kip= 0. 453 ton; ~psi = 0. 265 .jf~ kg:f/cm)
....
w
c.c
140 response to lateral forces
1 millionth/in. = 0. 4 millionths/em
strength of shear wa lis 141
_.r-----~----~.
v\17~
N
(a) Shear Diagram (b) Moment Diagram (c) Forces on Lower Portion
Post-tensioning
representing
Area
gravity load
~h=3"
fJv =A 8 /\wh
(a) Uniform (b) Concentrated
Fig. 5. Distribution of vertical reinforcement in
test specimens
1200
I
I
1000
800
I
I
I
I
I
r
lw=25h
=fO.Itw
__...10.25%
0.8tw
~=0.003
u c
Moment,M,
percent
600
I
\
\
\
\
1 JOI~ fiji
\ Cross Strain Distribution
Section at Ultimate
\
',~Limiting curvatures
p =0.5%
v
' .......
.......
---
0 60 80 100
Curvature, ojl, percent
SW-6
Moment,M,
k.-ft.
1200r----r---,r---.----,----,----,,---.---~--~
Moment,M,
k.-ft.
't ~JJ
~~
Moment, M
My
'/lu
Curvature, '/1
I\
148 response to lateral forces
100.---------------------------------------~
Annealed Wire
80
60
Deformed Bars
Stress,
ksi 40
00~----------~~------------~----------~
0.01 0.02 0.03
Strain
~
.
150 response to lateral forces
0.003 0.851~ fy
H H H
~ I
c ,8 ,c
__!_
lw
~ 71y
(a) Cross (b) Strain Distribution; (c) Concrete Stress (d) Steel Stress
Section f!y Distribution
.B=o:oo3 and Axial Load Distribution
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
2.0 I
I
I
I
I fy= 60,000psi (4219kgf/cm 2 )
Flexural I
51 rength, \
f~= 4,000 psi (281 kgf/cmZ)
A8 fy\w ''
\
\
\ '\ Eq.(5)
1.0
Eq.(6)~',,.,.
-c. Eq.(5)
---.~---"T---=------======aa=O
=0.25
7
..,.:::=:----------
" .....
Eq.{6)