FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Department of Civil and Building Engineering

YEAR III, SEMESTER II

LECTURE NOTES

By

KIBERU FAISAL

February 2012
 Table of Contents i

Course Structure
Third Year; Semester II
Core Course: Yes
Lecture Hours [L]: 45 Contact Hours [CH]: 60
Practical Hours [P]: 30 Credit Units [CU]: 4

Class Hours Day Evening

Thursday: 1400 1600 hrs 1700 1900 hrs

Course Assessment
Course Work: 40% [Assignments 15%, Tests 25%]
Final Examination: 60%

Normal Progress
Grade Point [GP] 2.0 [50%]

Course Outline
Introduction: History and Development of Urban Roads;
roads; Single and Double Carriageways;
Planning and Layout of Roads; Junctions;
Route Surveys; Intersections;
Selection of Routes; Roundabouts;
Site Investigation; Road Furniture;
Soil Survey; A Case Study of Uganda;
Types of Roads: Low Cost Roads, Granite Maintenance of Roads.
Sets, Flexible & Rigid roads;
Soils Technology for Roads; Field Exercise:
Soil Stabilisation; Planning of one Layout of Length of a New
Construction Techniques; Road Using Available Contoured Maps
Drainage;
Street Lighting;
Highways; i

Rural roads;

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 Table of Contents ii

Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................................. ii
List of Tables ...................................................................................................................................... vi
List of Figures .................................................................................................................................... vii
Symbols and Abbreviations ..............................................................................................................viii
1.0 History and Development of Roads ......................................................................................... 1
1.0 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Definitions of some common terms ......................................................................................... 1
1.2 Early Age Road Development ................................................................................................. 1
1.3 Middle Age Road Development .............................................................................................. 2
1.4 19th Century Roads ................................................................................................................... 4
1.5 Roads in the World Today ....................................................................................................... 4
1.5.1 References ................................................................................................................................ 6
2.0 Planning and Layout of Roads ................................................................................................. 7
2.1 Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 7
2.2 Goals and Objectives ............................................................................................................... 7
2.3 The Project Cycle ..................................................................................................................... 8
2.3.1 Components of the Project Cycle............................................................................................. 8
2.3.2 Problem Identification.............................................................................................................. 8
2.3.3 Pre-feasibility ........................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.4 Feasibility ................................................................................................................................. 9
2.3.5 Design ...................................................................................................................................... 9
2.3.6 Commitment and negotiation ................................................................................................... 9
2.3.7 Implementation ...................................................................................................................... 10
2.3.8 Operation ................................................................................................................................ 10
2.3.9 Monitoring and Evaluation .................................................................................................... 10
2.4 Overview of Road Appraisal in Developing Countries ......................................................... 10
2.4.1 Define Objectives ................................................................................................................... 11
2.4.2 Determining alternative ways of meeting Objectives ............................................................ 11
2.4.3 Preliminary considerations ..................................................................................................... 12
2.4.4 Assess Traffic Demand .......................................................................................................... 12
2.4.5 Design and Cost different Options ......................................................................................... 12
2.4.6 Determine Benefits of each Alternative ................................................................................. 13
2.4.7 Economic Analysis and comparison of alternatives .............................................................. 13
2.4.8 Recommendations .................................................................................................................. 13
2.5 A Typical Road Project Appraisal Process in Uganda .......................................................... 13
2.6 Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects ........................................................................... 16
2.6.1 Role of Economic Evaluation ................................................................................................ 16
2.6.2 Some Basic Principles............................................................................................................ 16 ii
2.6.3 Time Value for Money ........................................................................................................... 17
2.6.4 Costs and Benefits.................................................................................................................. 17
2.6.5 Evaluation Techniques ........................................................................................................... 20

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2.6.6 Comparison of the Various Methods of Economic Evaluation ............................................. 22

2.6.7 Selection of the Discount Rate ............................................................................................... 22
2.7 Selection of Routes ................................................................................................................ 25
2.7.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 25
2.7.2 Overview of the Location Process ......................................................................................... 26
2.7.3 Location Surveys in Non-Built-Up Areas .............................................................................. 26
2.7.4 Road Location in Built up Areas............................................................................................ 28
2.7.5 References .............................................................................................................................. 29
3.0 The Road User and the Vehicle ............................................................................................. 30
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 30
3.2 Human Factors Governing Road User Behaviour ................................................................. 30
3.2.1 Human Body as a complex System........................................................................................ 30
3.2.2 Vision ..................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.3 Hearing ................................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.4 Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition ..................................................................... 31
3.3 Pedestrian Characteristics ...................................................................................................... 31
3.3.1 Speed ...................................................................................................................................... 31
3.3.2 Space Occupied by Pedestrians.............................................................................................. 31
3.4 Vehicle Characteristics .......................................................................................................... 31
3.5 References .............................................................................................................................. 32
4.0 Geometric Design of Highways ............................................................................................. 33
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 33
4.2 Highway Design Standards in Uganda .................................................................................. 34
4.3 Division of Roads into Functional Class................................................................................ 34
4.4 Design Controls and Criteria ................................................................................................. 34
4.4.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 34
4.4.2 Topography ............................................................................................................................ 35
4.4.3 Traffic..................................................................................................................................... 35
4.4.4 Design Vehicle Dimensions ................................................................................................... 37
a) Design Vehicles ..................................................................................................................... 37
b) Dimensions of Design Vehicles ............................................................................................. 37
c) Selection of the Design Vehicle ............................................................................................. 38
4.4.5 Design Speed.......................................................................................................................... 38
4.4.6 Control of Access ................................................................................................................... 38
4.5 Sight Distance ........................................................................................................................ 39
4.5.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 39
4.5.2 Stopping Sight distance, SSD ................................................................................................ 40
4.5.3 Full Overtaking Sight Distance, FOSD.................................................................................. 42
4.5.4 Sight Distance for Multi-Lane Roads .................................................................................... 43
4.5.5 Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves....................................................... 43 iii
4.6 Horizontal Alignment ............................................................................................................ 46
4.6.1 Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles on Curves............................................................ 46
4.6.2 Value of the Coefficient of Lateral Friction, ...................................................................... 48

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4.6.3 Maximum super-elevation Value, emax .................................................................................. 48

4.6.4 Super-elevation Rates ............................................................................................................ 48
4.6.5 Radii of curves for which no super-elevation is required ...................................................... 49
4.6.6 Method of Attainment of Super-elevation ............................................................................. 49
4.6.7 Transition Curves ................................................................................................................... 52
4.6.8 Curve Widening ..................................................................................................................... 54
4.6.9 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment .......................................................................... 57
4.7 Vertical Alignment................................................................................................................. 58
4.7.1 Major Requirements of Vertical Curves ................................................................................ 58
4.7.2 Gradients ................................................................................................................................ 58
4.7.3 Climbing Lanes ...................................................................................................................... 59
4.7.4 Cross falls............................................................................................................................... 59
4.7.5 Vertical Curves ...................................................................................................................... 60
4.7.6 Vertical Crest Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements ............................................ 63
4.7.7 Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements .............................................. 64
4.7.8 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment .................................................................... 66
4.8 Cross-Sectional Elements ...................................................................................................... 70
4.8.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 70
4.8.2 Road Reserve ......................................................................................................................... 71
4.8.3 Carriageway Width ................................................................................................................ 71
4.8.4 Central Reservation (Median) Strip ....................................................................................... 71
4.8.5 Shoulders................................................................................................................................ 72
4.8.6 Laybys and bus bays .............................................................................................................. 72
4.8.7 Kerbs ...................................................................................................................................... 72
4.8.8 Camber ................................................................................................................................... 73
4.8.9 Side slope ............................................................................................................................... 73
4.9 Intersection Design and Capacity .......................................................................................... 73
4.9.1 General ................................................................................................................................... 73
4.9.2 At-grade and Grade Separated Junctions ............................................................................... 74
4.9.3 Basic Forms of At-grade Intersections................................................................................... 74
4.9.4 Overview of the Design Process ............................................................................................ 75
4.9.5 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) ...................................................... 75
4.9.6 Capacity of a T-Junction ........................................................................................................ 83
4.9.7 Design Reference Flow (DRF) .............................................................................................. 85
4.9.8 Delay ...................................................................................................................................... 85
4.9.9 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts)....................................................................................... 87
4.10 References .............................................................................................................................. 93
5.0 Design of Flexible Pavements................................................................................................ 94
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................ 94
5.2 Types of Pavements ............................................................................................................... 94 iv
5.2.1 Flexible Pavements ................................................................................................................ 94
5.2.2 Rigid Pavements .................................................................................................................... 95
5.3 Elements of a Flexible Pavement and their significance ....................................................... 95

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5.3.1 Surfacing ................................................................................................................................ 95

5.3.2 Roadbase ................................................................................................................................ 95
5.3.3 Subbase .................................................................................................................................. 96
5.3.4 Capping Layer (Selected or Improved Subgrade).................................................................. 96
5.3.5 Subgrade................................................................................................................................. 96
5.4 The Pavement Design Process ............................................................................................... 96
5.4.1 Traffic Assessment................................................................................................................. 97
5.4.2 Subgrade Assessment............................................................................................................. 97
5.4.3 Material Selection .................................................................................................................. 97
5.5 Approaches to Design ............................................................................................................ 97
5.6 Highway Design Standards .................................................................................................... 98
5.6.1 Uganda Road Design Manual ................................................................................................ 99
5.6.2 Kenya Road Design Manual .................................................................................................. 99
5.6.3 TRL Road Note 31 ................................................................................................................. 99
5.7 The AASHTO Approach to Pavement Design ...................................................................... 99
5.7.1 The AASHTO Design Equation ............................................................................................ 99
5.7.2 Regional Adjustment............................................................................................................ 100
5.7.3 Design Tables ....................................................................................................................... 100
5.7.4 Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design ............................................................. 102
5.8 References ............................................................................................................................ 107

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 List of Tables vi

List of Tables
Table 1.1: International Comparison of Road Statistics ...................................................................... 4
Table 1.2: Car Ownership Rates (Cars per 1000 persons) ................................................................... 6
Table 2.1: Computation of NPV, B/C Ratio and IRR........................................................................ 23
Table 4.1: Terrain Classification ........................................................................................................ 35
Table 4.2: Conversion Factor of Vehicle into Passenger Car ............................................................ 36
Table 4.3: Dimensions of Design Vehicles ........................................................................................ 37
Table 4.4: Level of Access Control ................................................................................................... 39
Table 4.5: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Ground for Wet Pavement Condition ........................ 41
Table 4.6: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO....................................... 48
Table 4.7: Maximum Grades as recommended by MoWH&C ......................................................... 58
Table 4.8: Minimum Radii for Crest Curves as Recommended by MoWH&C ................................ 63
Table 4.9: Minimum Radii for Sag Curves as recommended by MoWH&C .................................... 63
Table 4.10: Types of At-grade Intersections as recommended by MoWH&C .................................. 76
Table 4.11: The Limits of the Parameters used in Roundabout Capacity Equation .......................... 89
Table 5.1: Subgrade Classes ............................................................................................................ 100
Table 5.2: Traffic Groups................................................................................................................. 101
Table 5.3: Average Vehicle Equivalence Factors, Ci ...................................................................... 101
Table 5.4: Traffic Classes ................................................................................................................ 101
Table 5.5: Determination of DSN for different Subgrade and Traffic Classes................................ 101
Table 5.6: Layer Coefficients........................................................................................................... 102
Table 5.7: Compacted Thickness Ranges ........................................................................................ 102

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 List of Figures vii

List of Figures
Figure 1.1: Cross Section of Early Roads .......................................... Error! Bookmark not defined.
Figure 2.1: Typical Road Project Appraisal in Uganda ..................................................................... 14
Figure 4.1: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances on a crest curve .................................................. 43
Figure 4.2: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S L ...................................... 44
Figure 4.3: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S > L ...................................... 45
Figure 4.4: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve ............................................................ 46
Figure 4.5: Stages involved in attainment of super-elevation ............................................................ 50
Figure 4.6: Attaining Super-elevation by revolving about the centre line ......................................... 51
Figure 4.7: Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions ...................................... 52
Figure 4.8: Widening on Curves ........................................................................................................ 54
Figure 4.9: Climbing Lane outside the ordinary lane ........................................................................ 59
Figure 4.10: Highway Cross falls ...................................................................................................... 59
Figure 4.11: Typical Vertical Curves................................................................................................. 60
Figure 4.12: A Simple Symmetrical Parabolic curve ........................................................................ 60
Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S L and b) when S > L .............................. 62
Figure 4.14: Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements ................................................................. 70
Figure 4.15: Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements ................................................................... 71
Figure 4.16: Basic Intersection Forms ............................................................................................... 75
Figure 4.17: Typical Access Layout showing Visibility Requirements ............................................ 76
Figure 4.18: Typical T-Intersections .................................................................................................. 77
Figure 4.19: Typical Designs for Control Intersections..................................................................... 78
Figure 4.20: Selection of Intersection Category based on Safety ...................................................... 80
Figure 4.21: Selection of Intersection Category based on Capacity .................................................. 81
Figure 4.22: Selection of Priority Intersection type based on Safety................................................. 82
Figure 4.23: Selection of Control Intersection Type.......................................................................... 83
Figure 4.24: Selection of Control Intersection Type.......................................................................... 84
Figure 5.1: Definition of Pavement layers ......................................................................................... 95
Figure 5.2: Summary of the Pavement Design Process ..................................................................... 98

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 Symbols and Abbreviations viii

Symbols and Abbreviations

AADT Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO American Association of State Highways and Transportation Officials
ADT Number of average daily traffic
ALD Average Least Dimension
CBR California Bearing Ratio
E.S.A Equivalent Standard Axle
GB3 Granular Base-material type 3
GIS Graphical Information Systems
HW Allowable Headwater depth
KUTIP Kampala Urban Transportation plan
LL Liquid Limit
LS Linear Shrinkage
M.S.A Millions of equivalent standard axle
MC Moisture Content
MDD Maximum Dry Density
OMC Optimum Moisture Content
ORN Overseas Road Note
PI Plasticity Index
PL Plastic Limit
TRRL Transport Road Research Laboratory

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 History and Development of Roads 1

1.0 History and Development of Roads

1.0 Introduction
Everybody travels, whether it is to work, play, shop, do business, or simply visit people. All
foodstuffs and raw materials must be carried from their place of origin to their place
consumption [OFlaherty, 2002].

Historically, people have travelled and goods have been moved by:
a) Road i.e. using cars, wagons, cycles and motor vehicles;
b) Water i.e. using ships and boats;
c) Rail i.e. initially using animals and then the steam oil or electric powered
locomotives to pull passenger carriages and goods wagons;
d) Air i.e. using airships and aeroplanes (20th Century)

1.1 Definitions of some common terms

Some terms like highways, roads and streets have precise meanings, though they are
often used loosely in practice.

A highway is an arterial road facility designed for high speed and high volume traffic in
non-urban areas. For example, the national road network of a country is called the National
Highway Network.

A road is a lower order facility, designed for relatively lower speed and lower volume
traffic in the non-urban areas. For example, they can be district roads or village roads.

A street is an urban road facility.

An Expressway or Express Highway is a superior type of highway facility with full or

partial control of access. It is generally consists of divided carriageway that caters for very
high speeds.

1.2 Early Age Road Development

The origin of roads dates back to the period before the advent of recorded history. While the
birth of the road is lost in the mist of antiquity, there is no doubt but that the trails
deliberately chosen by early man and his pack animals to facilitate his movements were the
forerunners of todays road.

As civilization developed and peoples desire for communication increased, the early trails
became pathways and the pathways evolved into recognized travelways. Many of these
early travel ways-termed ridge ways- were located high on hillsides where the underbrush
was less dense and walking was easier; they were also above soft ground in wet valleys and
avoided unsafe wooded areas. 1
As civilization advanced, the growth of agriculture took place and human settlements began
to be formed. The invention of the wheel in 5000BC and the domestication of animals saw
the advent of chariots and carts. These carts enabled heavy loads to be carried more easily

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 Middle Age Road Development 2

and gave rise to wider travelways with firmer surfacings capable of carrying concentrated
loads, but with less steep connecting routes down to/up from valleys and fordable streams.
Thus trackways evolved along the contours of lower slopes e.g. they were sufficiently above
the bottoms of valleys to ensure good drainage but low enough to obviate unnecessary
climbing.

The trackways eventually become well established trade routes along which settlements
developed and these gave rise to hamlets and villages - Some of which, eventually, became
towns and cities.
Early manufactured roads were stone-paved streets of Ur in the Middle East (4000BC), the
corduroy log paths near Glastonbury, England (3300BC), and brick pavings in India
(3000BC): The oldest existing wooden pathway in Europe, the 2km long Sweet Track, was
built across (and parts subsequently preserved in) marshy ground near Glastonbury. The
oldest existing stone road in Europe was built in Crete in 2000BC.

1.3 Middle Age Road Development

Notwithstanding the many examples of early man-made roads that are found in various parts
of the world, it is the Romans who must be given credit for being the first professional
road-makers.

At its peak the Roman road system, which was based on 29 major roads radiating from
Rome to the outermost fringed of the empire, totalled 52,964 Roman miles (approx.
78,000km) in length.

Started in 312BC, the roads were built with conscripted or forced labour; their purpose was
to hold together the 113 provinces of the empire by aiding imperial administration,
extension of the territorial limits of the empire and quelling rebellions after a region was
conquered.

The roads were commonly constructed at least 4.25m wide to enable two chariots to pass
with ease and legions (large group of soldiers) to march abreast. It was common practice to
reduce gradients by cutting tunnels, and one such tunnel on the Via Appia was 0.75km long.
Most of the Roman roads well built on embankments 1m to 2m high so as to give the troops
a commanding view of the country side and make them less vulnerable to surprise attacks;
this had the engineering by-product of helping to keep the carriage way dry.

The roads mainly comprised of straight sections as they provided the most direct routes to
the administrative areas; however deviations from the straight line were tolerated in hilly
regions or if suitable established track ways were available.

The withdrawal of the legions from Britain in AD 407; foreshadowed the breakdown of the
only road system in Europe until the advent of the 17th century.

While the Roman roads in Britain continued to be the main highways of internal
communications for a very long time; they inevitably began to decay and disintegrate under
the actions of weather, traffic and human resourcefulness. Eventually, their condition
became so appalling that when sections became impassable, they were simply abandoned
2
and new tracks created about them.

The onset of the 18th century also saw foreign trade become more important to Great
Britains steadily developing manufacturing industries and soon long trains of carts and

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 Middle Age Road Development 3

wagons were common sights as they laboriously dragged coal from mines to iron works,
glassworks and potteries and manufactured goods to harbours and ports, along very
inadequate ways.

Confronted by the above pressures and the terrible state of the roads, parliament passed in
1706, the first of many statutes that eventually created over 1,100 Turnpike Trusts. These
trusts which administered some 36,800km of road were each empowered to construct and
maintain a specified road length and levy tolls upon certain types of traffic.

The development of the toll road system, especially in the century following 1750, was
important for many reasons, not least of which were:

a) It promoted the development of road making techniques in Britain and allowed the
emergence of skilled road makers e.g. Thomas Telford, John Loudon Mc Adam and
Pierre Tresaguet.
b) It established that road users should pay some road costs.
c) It determined the framework of the 20th century pre-motorway trunk road network

The steam-powered railway service in 1825 marked the beginning of the end for the
Turnpike Trusts as the transfer of long distance passengers from road to rail was almost
instantaneous and towns were accessed by railway.

Pierre Tresaguet, the inspector general of roads in France was the first to recognize the
importance of drainage of roads and its methodical maintenance. He appreciated the role of
moisture in soils and pavements and how moisture affects the performance of road beds.
Camber began to be introduced in roads during his time. Thus, he can be rightly called the
father of modern highway engineering.

The name of John Metcalf is associated in Britain with the art of building good and stable
roads in the latter part of the 18th century. He used boulders to achieve strong foundations
for roads and spread gravel as a surface layer. He pioneered the construction of good roads
on soft ground, using a sub base of bundles of heather (Low spreading bush with small pink-
purple flowers).

Thomas Telford (1757-1834) is yet another illustrious name in highway engineering,

immortalized by naming the hand-packed boulder foundation of roads as Telford base. The
construction technique held the sway for nearly 150years since Telford introduced it in the
early part of the 19th century.

A run of names of eminent highway engineers is incomplete without John McAdams (1756-
1836). He was a Scottish road builder who has influenced road construction so profoundly
that the term Macadam is frequently used in pavement specifications even to this day. His
two important principles of good road construction were;

a) It is the native soil that supports the traffic load ultimately and when the soil is
maintained in a dry state, it can carry heavy loads without settlement.
b) Stones which are broken to small angular pieces and compacted can interlock each
other and form a hard surface.
3
Thus Mc Adams specifications were at variance with Telfords in that smaller pieces of
stones with angular faces were favoured than larger hand packed boulders. He is reported to
have given a practical hint to engineers in selecting the size of stones; the size is good if the

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 19th Century Roads 4

stone can be put into the mouth. How valid his advice is even to this day! Other than the
innovative specifications he introduced, Mc Adam is also remembered for his foresight in
urging the creation of a central highway authority to advise and monitor all matters relating
to roads in Britain. His recommendation is valid even now in Uganda [Kadiyali, 2006].

1.4 19th Century Roads

A significant development which revolutionized road construction during the 19th century
was the steam road roller introduced by Eveling and Barford. The development of Portland
cement in the first decades of the 19th century by Aspin and Johnson facilitated modern
bridge construction and use of concrete as a pavement material. Tars and asphalts began to
be used in road construction in the 1830s, though it was the pneumatic tyre vehicle which
gave a real push to extensive use of bituminous specifications.

The automobile had its slow development in the 19th century, but the First World War,
1914-18, gave momentum to its growth. Thus the road was given a new lease of life
[OFlaherty, 2002].

1.5 Roads in the World Today

Roads are the principal arteries of traffic in the present-day world. The right indicator of a
countrys prosperity is its road length and vehicle ownership. Table 1.1 gives an
international comparison of road length in some selected countries. The following inferences
can be drawn:
a) America has the largest network of roads (6.3million km)
b) India, with its 3.3million km of network comes second.
c) The density of roads (km/sq-km) is very high in countries like Germany and Japan
which are small in area.
d) In countries which are large in area, the density is low. India has a density of 1km/sq km,
USA 0.67km/sq km and China 0.12km/sq km.
e) The percentage of roads paved is very high in countries like UK (100 per cent),
Germany (99 per cent) and USA (91 per cent). Nearly the entire length is paved.
f) In India, the percentage of paved roads is 50. In USA, the percentage is 91.

Table 1.1: International Comparison of Road Statistics

s/n Counrty Roadlength (km) Roaddensity (km/sq-km) Per cent paved
1 USA 6,300,000 0.67 91
2 INDIA 2,009,600 0.63 50
3 BRAZIL 1,939,000 0.23 9
4 CHINA 1,157,000 0.12 90
5 JAPAN 1,136,347 3.77 73
6 GERMANY 650,700 5.97 99
7 INDONESIA 372,414 0.19 47
8 U.K. 366,999 1.5 100
9 MALAYSIA 93,975 0.29 75
10 THAILAND 62,000 0.12 97
11 NIGERIA 32,810 0.04 83
Source: Kadiyali, 2006

NB: 4
All values are for 1998
Indias road length now is 3.3million km and the road is 1km/sq km.

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 Roads in the World Today 5

In modern times, Europe saw the beginnings of the Expressway system of World War II.
Italy, under Mussolini, started the Autostrade. The famous German Autobahns were
planned in the late 1920s and Hitler accelerated their completion. The Autobahns became a
key part of the war-time infrastructure for the movement of tanks and other military vehicles

UK started its Motorway construction rather late, in the 1950s. These form the arterial road
grid of the country linking London to major cities like Manchester, Liverpool, Hull, Bristol,
Edinburgh and Newcastle.

Perhaps the largest arterial system, the US interstate, was started after World War II as a
national defence system. The construction of the 41, 000 miles system was approved in
1956. It was funded by the Federal Government to an extent of 90 per cent, the balance
being states matching share. It linked all the major cities of the nation. It is toll-free.

USA also pioneered the modern super highway - a limited access, high-speed facility. The
Bronx River Parkway constructed in 1925 was the forerunner to many such to come later.

The inter-state system of USA

The worlds best road system is perhaps in the USA. The interstate system was taken up
after the Second World War as a defence system. It is now fully functional. The USA now
has a length of 88,400km of express ways, of which 5,000km (6 per cent) was tolled. The
remaining length is toll-free.

Autobahns of Germany
Germany began constructing its express ways, which were known as Autobahns in the late
1920s. Before the start of the Second World War, Germany had about 4,000 km of express
ways. The country has now 11,238km of express ways most of which are non-toll.

Express ways in France.

France started the construction of its express ways in the 1950s. The work was carried out
through semi-government public companies. Private companies were involved in the work
in the 1970s. The network was developed as a toll system. By 1996, the country had a
network of 8,768km of express ways, 72 per cent of which are tolled.

Vehicle Ownership
Since road transport gives mobility to persons, the vehicle ownership rate has been
increasing at a fast rate round the world. Table 1.2 gives a comparison of the car-ownership
rate (cars per 1000 persons) in some selected countries. The rate is very high in USA. (One
car per two persons), and is currently low in India (one car per 250 persons). This rapid
growth calls for modernization of the road system.

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 References 6

Table 1.2: Car Ownership Rates (Cars per 1000 persons)

China 3
India 4
Pakistan 6
Indonesia 10
Egypt 19
Thailand 22
Brazil 76
Malaysia 113
South Korea 114
Japan 342
U.K. 248
Australia 459
Germany 459
USA 504
Source: Kadiyali, 2006

1.5.1 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and
Maintenance of Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.

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 Planning and Layout of Roads 7

2.0 Planning and Layout of Roads

2.1 Introduction
Transport is an important infrastructure for development. It occupies a pivotal position in the
growth of developing countries. Planning for economic development is now an accepted
tool widely followed in most of the countries. So far there is very little evidence of a
scientific approach in planning at the national level in the transport sector. However, the
outlays and targets are normally adopted after a careful study of the existing facilities, their
deficiencies and immediate needs. Very often it has been experienced that investment
decisions are taken after a bottleneck situation develops. The transport plan should be
integrated in the countries overall economic plan since transport in its own sake has no
meaning. It assumes importance only in as far as its serves the ultimate goal of development
i.e. transport plans must translate overall development objectives and potentials into
transport requirements [Kadiyali, 2006].

2.2 Goals and Objectives

The goals and objectives of the transport plan should be clearly identified and expressed.
This alone will facilitate the formulation of a realistic plan. The following points give
general guidance in this regard:
a) The transport plan should not conflict with the broad goals and objectives of the
national plan for development. It should help in translating the goals and objectives
of the national development plan.
b) The transport plan should aim at coordinated development of all modes of transport
without prompting unhealthy competition.
c) The transport plan should aim at conserving scarce resources such as oil fuels, coal
and electricity.
d) The transport plan should generate employment potential and should favour labour-
intensive technologies to the extent feasible and desirable.
e) The transport plan should aim at a balanced development of the country, keeping in
view the special needs of inaccessible areas and backward classes of society.
f) The transport plan should aim at a balanced development of rural and urban
settlements. While urbanisation is an inevitable result of and a pre-requisite for
economic development, growth of cities beyond manageable limits leads to
undesirable effects. Transport should be used as a tool for dispersal of activities to
result in overall health of the economy.
g) Transport plans should recognise the need to exploit the natural resources of the
country and provide for quick exports to earn valuable foreign exchange to
developing countries
h) Transport plans should facilitate the growth of new industries, agricultural
production and processing of raw materials. Functional linkages between industry
and hinterland should be established.
i) Environmental impact of transport plans should be established. 7

7
 The Project Cycle 8

2.3 The Project Cycle

2.3.1 Components of the Project Cycle

Projects are planned and carried out following a sequence of activities, often known as the
project cycle. There are many ways of defining the steps in this sequence but the following
terminology will be used here:
1) Problem identification
2) Pre-feasibility
3) Feasibility
4) Design
5) Procurement and negotiation
6) Implementation
7) Operation
8) Monitoring and evaluation.

The first three steps (1-3) make up the planning phases of the project cycle, though
evaluation (step 8) may also be considered integral to the planning process by providing
feedback on the wisdom and processes of past decisions. Figure 2.1 provides an outline of
the stages of the project cycle. The planning phases of the cycle involve a gradual process of
screening and refining alternative options (for resolving an earlier identified problem). In
this process there are clear decision points (at the end of each stage) when potential projects
are either rejected or taken forward for further and more detailed analysis. Dubious projects
should be rejected at an early planning stage (and before feasibility) as they gain a
momentum of their own, and hence become increasingly difficult to stop at the later stages
in the cycle when minor changes of detail are often all that are possible. Within each of the
planning phases (project identification, pre-feasibility and feasibility), the same basic
process of analysis is adopted. Differences occur largely in the level of detail applied.
Sometimes phases are merged, with pre-feasibility becoming an extension of the project
identification, or a first step in the feasibility stage [TRL, 2005].

2.3.2 Problem Identification

The first stage of the cycle is to find potential projects. General planning identifies key
transport constraints and sketches solutions at a global or macro level, and should prioritize
these as to the need and urgency for resolution. The planning process takes into account
government policies and programmes (in all relevant sectors) which impact on transport
development. The need for general road development is therefore examined in a very wide
socio-economic and policy-orientated context. The framework for general planning could be
cross-sectoral in nature or it could also be focused specifically on transport issues. In all
cases, however, the scope is macro in nature, taking in a complete region or city. Examples
of such spatial (or structure) plans and transportation studies include:
a) A national or regional development study (e.g. regional spatial plans)
b) An urban development study (or master plan)
c) A national or regional transport study (sometimes known as a multi-modal or inter-
modal transport study)
d) An urban land-use/transportation study
e) An integrated rural accessibility plan
f) A road safety strategic plan 8

8
 Pre-feasibility 9

2.3.3 Pre-feasibility
At the start of the pre-feasibility stage there is a clearly defined transport problem (identified
in general planning), but no strong evidence that this problem could be solved by road
improvement, or any other transport solution (e.g. improvements to transport services) in an
environmentally or economically acceptable manner. By the end of the pre-feasibility stage,
there will be clear evidence whether or not a road improvement project is worthwhile. If it
is, the pre-feasibility will normally identify what type of project would be suitable, checks
that the project is not premature and provides the information needed to commission a
feasibility study. Typically, this phase might identify corridors that require a new road.

An affirmative pre-feasibility study will also trigger the inclusion of a line-item in the
long-term road preparation budget (of the ministry or its highway agency). It gives advance
warning that monies will need to be budgeted for the future implementation of this particular
project. The pre-feasibility study may indicate that the proposed road improvement project
would not be effective in solving the problem, or should be reconsidered later, perhaps when
there is more traffic). In that case the process should be terminated or shelved without
incurring the high cost of a feasibility study.

2.3.4 Feasibility
The feasibility study finds the most suitable road improvement project for solving or helping
to solve an identified transport problem. At the start of the study there is a clearly defined
problem with an expectation that the problem can be solved by some form of road
improvement, in a manner that is environmentally, socially and economically acceptable.
This expectation is backed up by the evidence needed to justify the considerable cost of
carrying out a feasibility study (identified in a pre-feasibility study). The level of detail of
this study will depend on the complexity of the project and how much is already known
about the proposal.

By the end of the study there should be a clear recommendation for a specific road
improvement project. The study will provide evidence that this particular project should be
carried out and that this project provides the most suitable solution to the problem, taking
into account its operational benefits and its environmental and economic implications. It will
also provide a detailed description and a preliminary engineering design (PED) and
associated drawings of the proposed project to enable costs to be determined at a level of
detail to enable funding decisions to be made. The feasibility study will also provide an
input to the road preparation budget process, giving greater detail (than earlier phases) of
costs that will be incurred and project timings.

2.3.5 Design
The final engineering design (FED) is often very costly (up to 15 per cent of project costs)
and usually follows provisional commitment to the project. Numerous decisions which will
affect economic performance are taken throughout design; and economic appraisal often
results in redesign. In this stage, working drawings and bills of quantities are normally
prepared.

9
2.3.6 Negotiation and Commitment
Commitment of funds often takes place in a series of stages. This is followed by invitations
to tender and negotiations with contractors, potential financiers and suppliers. At this stage,
there are still considerable uncertainties.
9
 Implementation 10

2.3.7 Implementation
Several aspects of the earlier stages in the project cycle will affect the success of the
implementation. The better and more realistic the plan, the more likely it is that the plan can
actually be carried out and the full benefits be realised. A flexible implementation plan
should also be sought. It is almost inevitable that some circumstances will change during the
implementation. Technical changes may be required as more detailed soils information
becomes available or as the relative prices of construction materials change. Project
managers may need to change and re-plan parts of the project to take account of such
variations. The more innovative and original the project is the greater is the likelihood that
changes will have to be made during implementation.

2.3.8 Operation
This refers to the actual use of the road by traffic; it is during this phase that benefits are
realised and maintenance is undertaken.

2.3.9 Monitoring and Evaluation

The final phase of the project cycle is evaluation. This consists of looking back
systematically at the successful and unsuccessful elements of the project experience to learn
how planning can be improved in the future. For evaluation to be successful, it is important
that data about the project is collected and recorded in a systematic way throughout all
stages of the project cycle. Without this, it is usually impossible to determine details of
events and information that were available during periods leading up to the taking of
important decisions. Evaluation may be carried out by many different people. The
sponsoring organisation or external agency may undertake evaluation. In large and
innovative projects, a separate unit may be needed to monitor each stage of the project by
collecting data for identifying problems that need to be brought to the attention of the
project's management. In some cases, outside staff will be used to provide an independent
audit and specialist university staff may well be suited to undertake such a task. The
evaluation should result in specific recommendations about improving aspects of the project
design which can be used to improve ongoing and future planning.

2.4 Overview of Road Appraisal in Developing Countries

Feasibility studies of road schemes in developing countries are undertaken along the
following steps:
1) Define objectives
2) Determine alternative ways of meeting objectives
3) Make preliminary considerations
4) Asses traffic demand
5) Design and cost different options
6) Determine benefits of each alternative
7) Economic analysis and comparison of alternatives
8) Recommendations

The steps are not necessarily sequential and involve iteration. The above steps will now be
discussed: 10

10
 Define Objectives 11

2.4.1 Define Objectives

A road project is wherever possible set against the background of a national or regional
transport plan or at least a road plan. Definition of project objectives provides the basic
framework for carrying out feasibility studies. The objective of providing a new road could
be any of the following:

a) To support some other developmental activity;

b) To provide fundamental links in the national or a district road network;
c) To meet a strategic need;
d) To increase the structural capacity or trafficability of an existing road to cope with
higher traffic flows;
e) To provide an alternative to an existing transport link or service;
f) To address a major safety hazard, environmental or social problem;
g) To rectify damage or failure that has caused sudden deterioration of the existing
road.

Depending on the objectives of the investment, the project is appraised against different sets
of criteria. Development Banks like World Bank and the Asian Development Bank are
increasingly getting involved in strategic planning of road networks in developing countries.
This calls for alignment of a countrys Transport Plan with a Development Banks country
strategy.

2.4.2 Determining alternative ways of meeting Objectives

This may involve making a modal choice say between rail, road, air and water transport to
solve a transport problem or deciding between different technical solutions to highway
problems. These technical solutions include:
a) Upgrading and new construction Upgrading projects aim at providing addition
capacity for a road towards the end of its design life or because of a change in route
function. Examples are paving of gravel roads and providing overlays on paved
roads;

b) Reconstruction and rehabilitation - Major repair on an existing road;

c) Stage construction Planned improvements are made to the pavement standards of

a road at fixed stages through the project life. Although stage construction may be
appropriate in achieving an optimal economic balance, practice has shown that
budgetary constraints have often prevented later upgrading phases of stage
construction projects leading to lower rates of return.

d) Maintenance projects These consist of either building up the institutional

capability of the maintenance organisation to improve its efficiency or overcoming a
short term problem through project specific interventions like surface dressing,
supply of maintenance equipment and technical assistance. The later type of project
could be a component of the former.

Community involvement in the early stages of development of projects in developing

countries is now recognised as fundamental for project success because of the local wealth
of knowledge possessed by the community concerning the solution to a problem in the 11
context of an areas physical and socio economic constraints.

11
 Preliminary considerations 12

2.4.3 Preliminary considerations

The underlying issues are taken into account during the feasibility study:

a) Analysis period and design life Most road projects are analysed on a 15 year time
horizon. The analysis period may be partly dictated by the nature of the
investigation. For example, long periods are useful when comparing mutually
exclusive projects, whereas short periods may be appropriate for small projects (such
as regravelling of rural access roads), where the life of the investment is expected to
be limited to a few years.

b) Uncertainty and risk Projects in developing countries are always set against a
background of economic, social and political uncertainty to some degree. The steps
taken to reduce uncertainty include risk analysis using probabilistic techniques for
well defined projects and scenario analysis in explanatory projects.

c) Choice of technology According to the Transport and Road Research Laboratory

(TRRL, 1998), engineers have to decide between mechanised and labour based
techniques in preparing designs and specifications of works.

d) Institutional issues The major institutional issues to be considered include:

The institutional framework in which the roads are set including the aspects of
organising, staffing, training, procedures, planning, maintenance, funding and
controls.
Strengthening the institutions responsible for implementing the project; and
The funding and maintenance capability of road maintenance organisations.
Legislative requirements of the study (if applicable)

e) Socio-economic considerations The major issues that are assessed in terms of the
impact of the project on the target community are social changes, construction
consequences, road accidents, severance, minorities like gender issues and
availability of local expertise and resources.

f) Environmental Conditions The impact of the road project on the surrounding

environment is taken into consideration. The impact is more significant for new
projects penetrating an undisturbed country tan for upgrading projects because the
latter usually follow an existing alignment.

2.4.4 Assess Traffic Demand

For the purpose of geometric design and evaluation of economic benefits, the volume and
composition of current and future traffic needs to be known. For structural design purposes
of paved roads, the axle loading of only heavy goods vehicles is relevant thus for this
purpose traffic appraisal considers volumes of Heavy Goods Vehicles (HGVs). The Road
Maintenance Initiative (RMI) (World Bank, 1998) observes that far too few countries in
Africa have permanent road data banks, locally managed and regularly updated, based on
objective technical data.

12
2.4.5 Design and Cost different Options
Cost estimates should encompass analytical techniques and rigorous procedures of risk
management to produce realistic estimates. The major activities undertaken in this step
include: Route location, pavement design, geometric design and design of drainage
12
 Determine Benefits of each Alternative 13

structures. In this stage an optimal balance between cost of provision and user cost is
important.

2.4.6 Determine Benefits of each Alternative

Estimates are made of both the costs associated with the project and the benefits expected to
occur. The benefits normally considered are:

a) Direct savings in the cost of operating vehicles

b) Economies in road maintenance
c) Time savings by travellers and freight
d) Reduction in road accidents
e) Wider effects on the economic development of the region

2.4.7 Economic Analysis and comparison of alternatives

The best option representing the option with the minimum level of maintenance is carefully
chosen and used as a basis against which other options are compared. A cost benefit analysis
procedure is then used to assess the net contribution the road investment makes to the
country as a whole. The cost benefit analysis uses either Net Present Value (NPV) or
Internal Rate of Return (IRR) rules. A positive NPV means a project is justified at the given
discount rate. Results of financial, social and environmental appraisals are also considered in
deciding the best project. The IRR acts as a guide to the profitability of the investment but
gives no indication of the costs or benefits of the project. A difficult approach is normally
required for rural access projects so that the cost of the appraisal is justified in terms of
project costs. All investment decisions have political, social and environmental
consequences besides economic effects. According to TRRL (1998), in planning main road
investment, economic/engineering implications are usually paramount in the decisions to
upgrade existing road surfaces. Foster (2000) observes that the financial aspects of the
project appraisal receive more systematic treatment than non-financial aspects.

2.4.8 Recommendations
The feasibility study report marks the end of the appraisal process and recommends whether
the project should go ahead and the standards to which it should be built. The depth and
detail to which the report covers certain aspects depends on who the report is being made
for. An analysis carried out for a development bank covers financial aspects very
thoroughly. Projects prepared for aid agencies normally dwell heavily on the socio-
economic factors.

2.5 A Typical Road Project Appraisal Process in Uganda

This section will be based upon the process that was followed for the feasibility study of the
Kampala-Fort Portal Road.

13

13
 A Typical Road Project Appraisal Process in Uganda 14

1. Objective 2. Problem Identification

3. Determine Alternatives

4. Project Strategy

5. Engineering, Economic and

Environmental analyses

6. Draft Recommendation for

preferred solution

7. Review by Ministry of Works,

Housing and Communications

8. Finalisation of Recommendation

9. Submission for Funding

10. Detailed Design, Tender and

Construction

11. Post Implementation Review

Figure 2.1: Typical Road Project Appraisal in Uganda

Source: MoWH&C, 1998

The process shown in the figure above will now be described:

Step 1: Objectives
The study objectives were derived from two major sources namely: 14
a) The 10 year road sector development programme (RSDP);
b) The strategy related to the Trans-African Highway.

14
 A Typical Road Project Appraisal Process in Uganda 15

Step 2: Problem identification

Past feasibility studies from 1972 to 1995 were used as a basis for establishing the existing
problems on the Kampala to Fortportal road.

Step 3: Determine alternatives

The pre-appraisal study by GIBB consultants on behalf of Danida brought together
information from steps 1 and 2 above and challenged the assumptions made in previous
studies. Arising out of this study were five options for further evaluation.

Step 4: Project strategy

Arising out of the results the pre-appraisal study in step 3 above, a draft project strategy was
prepared consisting of a two stage construction strategy.

Step 5: Engineering, Economic and Environmental analysis

Danida as the financier commissioned COWI-DRD to carry out further engineering,
economic and environmental analysis on the project strategy and compare different
upgrading options under the strategy with the existing route under optimal and prevailing
maintenance respectively over 16 study sections. Traffic studies were part of the economic
evaluation.

Step 6: Draft recommendations on preferred solution

Resulting from the analyses in step 5, recommendations were made on the feasibility of
options along an environmentally preferred route alignment in terms of Economic Internal
Rate of Return (EIRR).

Step 7: Review by Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications

In Uganda, step 1 to 6 usually lead to the production of a draft detailed engineering report
three (3) months from the start of the study. The report is reviewed by the Ministry of
Works, Housing and Communications on behalf of Government as the client leading to
comments that are taken into account in preparing the final detailed engineering report
(Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, Gauff Ingenieure, 1993).

Step 8: Finalising recommendations

Adjustments are made to the draft report in accordance with the recommendations of the
client. The consultant then concludes the final report 30days from the receipt of information
from the (MoWH&C and Gauff Ingenieure, 1993).

Step 9: Submission for funding

On conclusion of recommendations, the Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications
would submit the feasibility study report to the financier as was the case in the 1993 study
by Scott Wilson Kirkpatrick. The consultants would then submit the reports to the financier
as their employer.

15
Step 10: Detailed design, Tender and Construction
If the financier approved the study, funds would be released for detailed design, tender and
construction of the road.

15
 Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects 16

Step 11: Post implementation review

External financiers like the World Bank usually evaluate a project when it is handed over to
the client to assess success and compliance with objectives. Such reviews provide valuable
lessons as inputs into subsequent projects to improve on project success.

Interestingly, the study period for the Kampala-Fort portal road took 26years (1972-1998).
Yet the process would ordinarily take three years.

2.6 Economic Evaluation of Highway Projects

2.6.1 Role of Economic Evaluation

A developing country like Uganda has serious shortages of resources needed for economic
development. The outlay for various sectors of economic activity is decided by planning at
the national level, keeping in view the national goals and policies. Within the allocation
earmarked for the highway sector, a number of schemes can be taken up, each enjoying its
own urgency and attractiveness. It thus becomes necessary to screen and evaluate the
various alternatives so that a wise decision can be reached on the most appropriate choice.
This is achieved by modern techniques of economic evaluation of projects [Kadiyali, 2006].

Economic evaluation is a rational approach at quantifying the future benefits and costs of
proposed highway improvements with a view to determine the extent to which the projects
will contribute to the goal of raising the living standard of the people and their general
welfare. It provides for a systematic and unbiased procedure for selection of schemes for
implementation under the Ten Year Road Sector Development Plans. It ensures that the
most worthwhile projects are given the highest priority.

Economic evaluation of highway projects can also be carried out to weigh other alternative
transport projects, such as railway projects, pipe-lines or inland water transport projects, in
order to select the most beneficial scheme.

The following are some of the specific objectives in carrying out an economic evaluation:
1. To decide whether the scheme under consideration is worth investment at all;
2. To rank schemes competing for scarce resources in order of priority;
3. To compare various alternative schemes and select the one most economical;
4. To assist in phasing the programme (stage construction) depending upon the
availability of resources.

2.6.2 Some Basic Principles

Economic evaluation involves a number of basic principles discussed below:

a) Economic evaluation makes it possible to choose the best of the various alternatives.
The question before the analyst is to suggest the most attractive of them. Often the
choice is between do-nothing, and other improvement schemes.
b) In economic evaluation, all past actions are irrelevant. What is of prime importance
is the future flow of costs and benefits.
c) In highway projects, the appraisal is carried out from the view-point of the nation as 16
a whole, and is not restricted to any sub-set like the highway agency, truckers,
private motorists and bus operators.
d) Economic analysis should not be misunderstood with financial analysis.

16
 Time Value for Money 17

e) Economic evaluation should take place within a set of established criteria such as
minimum attractive rate of return, interest rate etc.
f) Opportunity cost of capital and resources should be considered wherever they are
important.
g) The period of analysis need not be too long in view of the uncertainties associated
with the future traffic and benefits. In any case, the discounted cash flows of a
distant future period are insignificant. For highway projects, it is enough if the
analysis covers a period 15-25 years after opening to traffic.

2.6.3 Time Value for Money

The fundamental premise on which all methods of economic evaluation rests is that money
earns income over a period of time. For example, US$ 100 today will be worth US$ 672.75
at the end of 20 years if invested at 10 per cent compound rate of interest. So also, a sum of
US$ 672.75 which might become due to an individual after 20years from today is worth
only US$ 100 at the present, assuming the same rate of interest. These facts point to the
need for devaluing the future benefits and costs to the present time to determine their present
worth. The process of calculating the present worth of a future payment is known as
discounting and the interest rate used is called the discount rate.
The following formulae are very useful in dealing with the problems in economic
evaluation:

a) The amount A to which US$ 1 will increase in n years with a compound interest rate
of r will be given by;
1 . 2.1

b) The present value P of US$ 1, n years therefore when discounted at a rate r will be
given by;
1
1 . 2.2
1

2.6.4 Costs and Benefits

In economic evaluation, the main objective is to compare the costs and benefits of various
alternative schemes and select the one, most advantageous. The first step is, therefore to
determine the costs and benefits. There is a great deal of confusion in the designation of
what constitutes costs and what constitutes benefits. The simplest description is that the
negative effects of a scheme constitute the costs. They indicate the cash out-flows. On the
other hand, the positive effects are called benefits and they represent cash in-flows. As long
as sufficient care is taken to see that the signs are assigned properly, it is immaterial whether
the economic consequence is labelled as costs or benefits.

Costs and benefits can be traced to the provider of the facility (highway department), the
highway users and non-users. In economic analysis, since all consequences are to be
considered, the costs and benefits to all parties are to be reckoned.

Some consequences can be quantified into monetary terms whereas some cannot. The aim of
the analyst should be to quantify as many elements as can be monetarily quantified. Those 17
which cannot be ultimately quantified into monetary terms are kept separately apart and a
judgement value can be accorded to them before a final decision is taken.

17
 Costs and Benefits 18

The economic evaluation of highway projects is generally done by computing the total
transport cost which consists of the following components:
a) Cost of construction of the facility
b) Cost of maintenance of the facility
c) Road user cost
d) Cost to the society

The Government, which is often the agency providing the facility, incurs expenditure on
constructing a road. This includes land acquisition, earthwork, road pavement and
structures. The government also invests money on maintenance and up keep annually. The
road user cost, which is borne by the actual user of the highway facility (passenger, crew of
vehicles, operator, consignor of goods, pedestrian, cyclist etc.) is composed of:

a) Vehicle operating costs

i) Fuel;
ii) Lubricants;
iii) Tyre;
iv) Spare parts;
v) Maintenance labour;
vi) Depreciation;
vii) Crew costs; and
viii) Fixed costs such as:
Interest on capital
Insurance
Taxes
Registration fee
Grading charges
Fines, tolls, etc
Permit charges
Loading and unloading charges
Commission on booking
Overhead charges such as rent, salary, electricity, postal, telephone,
stationery

b) Travel Time Cost

i) Time value of vehicle occupants
ii) Time value of goods in transit
iii) Time value of vehicles in transit

c) Accident Costs
i) Cost of fatality
ii) Cost of injuries
iii) Cost of damages to property

d) Cost to Society
i) Impact on the environment (noise pollution, air pollution, vibration).
ii) Loss of aesthetics
iii) Changes in land values 18
iv) Land severance
v) Discomfort and inconvenience.

18
 Costs and Benefits 19

Benefits from highway projects in effect represent the difference in costs with the new
facility and the old facility. Benefits can be grouped under the following:
a) Benefits to the existing traffic, by way of reduced road user costs.
b) Benefits to the generated traffic
c) Benefits to traffic diverted from other routes and modes
d) Benefits to traffic operating on other routes and modes where reduction in traffic has
been caused by the opening of the facility.

Vehicle operating costs are affected by a number of factors such as:

a) Vehicle Factors
i) Age
ii) Make
iii) Horse-power, engine capacity
iv) Load carried
v) Condition of Vehicle
vi) Level of maintenance input
vii) Type of fuel used
viii) Type of tyres (rayon, nylon, radial ply, cross ply etc.)

b) Roadway Factors
i) Roughness of the surface
ii) Type of the surface
iii) Horizontal curvature
iv) Vertical profile
v) Pavement width
vi) Type and condition of shoulder
vii) Urban and rural location
viii) Number of junctions per km

c) Traffic Factors
i) Speed of travel
ii) Traffic volume and composition.

d) Environmental Factors
i) Altitude
ii) Rainfall
iii) Temperature

Research has shown that the vehicle operating cost components are closely governed by (i)
roadway factors such as roughness, pavement width, rise and fall and horizontal curvature,
(ii) vehicle factors such as age and load carried and (iii) traffic factors such as speed and
volume of traffic. It follows therefore, that good roads result in lower vehicle operating
costs.

Highway improvements result in speedier travel. Savings in travel time are enjoyed by
occupants of vehicles, goods in transit and the vehicles in transit
19
Road accident rates are governed to a certain extent by the condition of the road. Highway
improvements can thus bring about a reduction in road accidents. The cost of road accidents,
which have been eliminated by highway improvements, represents a benefit.

19
 Evaluation Techniques 20

When carrying out economic analysis, costs and benefits are considered exclusive of taxes.
Taxes do not represent an economic cost and represent only a transfer within the
community. Insurance premiums are also excluded from economic analysis since the
savings in accidents already account for this element.

In a developing country, there are certain resources which are scarcer than the others. The
prevailing market prices, therefore, do not reflect the true economic value of the resources.
In order to correct such distortions and imperfections, shadow pricing is done. A case in
example is the cost of imported fuel in Uganda. Since foreign exchange reserves are very
precious, such imported items are shadow priced at a higher value than the market price
when carrying out the economic evaluation. Similarly, unskilled labour is surplus in Uganda
and the prevailing wage rate (which is statutorily fixed) may not truly reflect this situation.
A shadow-pricing of such labour at a slightly lower level would be appropriate.

Inflation is disregarded in economic analysis, as it is generally assumed that all prices

increase in the same proportion, but relative prices remain constant. But if differential
inflation is expected to occur among commodities, necessary adjustments need to be made.

2.6.5 Evaluation Techniques

The methods commonly adopted for economic evaluation are:
a) Net present value (NPV);
b) Benefit/cost Ratio (B/C Ratio);
c) Internal Rate of Return (IRR);
d) First Year Rate of Return (FYRR).

a) Net present value (NPV) Method

The NPV method is based on the discounted cash flow (DCF) technique. In this method, the
stream of costs and benefits associated with the project over its time horizon is calculated
and is discounted at a selected discount rate to give the present value. Benefits are treated as
positive and costs are treated as negative. Any project with a positive NPV is treated as
acceptable. In comparing more than one project, a project with the highest NPV is selected.

The NPV is algebraically expressed as:

. 2.3
1

Where;
NPV0 = Net Present Value in the year 0;
Bi = Value of benefits which occur in the year i;
Ci = Value of costs which occur in the year i;
r = Discount rate per annum;
n = Number of years considered for analysis.

b) Benefit-cost (B/C) Ratio Method

There are a number of variations of this method, but a simple procedure is to discount all
costs and benefits to their present worth and calculate the ratio of the benefits to costs. 20
Negative flows are considered costs, and positive flows as benefits. Thus the savings in the
transport costs are considered as benefits. If the B/C ratio is more than one, the project is
worth undertaking.

20
 Evaluation Techniques 21

1
. 2.4
1

Where C is the total cost of the project

In the AASHTO practice of road user analysis the B/C ratio expresses the ratio of the net
annual benefits to the net annual costs. The benefits are determined for a simple reference
year, which for convenience can be the first year of operation after construction or the
median year of the analysis period [Kadiyali, 2006].

c) Internal Rate of Return (IRR) Method

The internal rate of return is the discount rate which makes the discounted future benefits
equal to the initial outlay. In other words, it is the discount rate at which the present values
of costs and benefits are equal i.e. NPV = 0. Calculation of the IRR is not as straight forward
as for NPV and is found by solving the following equation for r;

0 . 2.5
1

Solutions are normally found graphically or by iteration. However, with a computer

program, the work is rendered simple. The IRR gives no indication of the sizes of the costs
or the benefits of a project, but acts as a guide to the profitably of the investment [Thagesen,
1996].

If the internal rate of return calculated from the above formula is greater than the rate of
interest obtained by investing the capital in the open market, the scheme is considered
acceptable.

d) First Year Rate of Return (FYRR) Method

The FYRR is simply the present value of the total costs expressed as a percentage of the
sum of benefits in the first year of trafficking after project completion. Thus FYRR is given
by;

1 100
,% . 2.5

Bj
FYRR = 100 j 1
.... (2.6)
C (1 + r )
j =0
i
j 1

Where j is the first year of benefits, with j = 0 in the base year, and other notation is as
before.

If the FYRR is greater than the planning discount rate, then the project is timely and should
go ahead. If it is less than the discount rate, but the NPV is positive, the start of the project 21
should be deferred and further rates of return should be calculated to define the optimum
starting date.

21
 Comparison of the Various Methods of Economic Evaluation 22

It is should be noted that the results of the cost-benefit analysis are no better than the
assumptions and input data on which it is based. The data and parameters used in the
analysis of a road project can be prone to substantial errors and it is important to recognise
that these exist and to take steps to minimise them [Thagesen, 1996].

2.6.6 Comparison of the Various Methods of Economic Evaluation

The three methods of economic evaluation described above have their own advantages and
short comings.
The B/C ratio method is very widely used by the highway engineers. It, however, suffers
from the following drawbacks:

a) It requires an assumption of a discount rate, which should bear relation to the

opportunity cost of capital. It is however, rather difficult to know the opportunity
cost of capital accurately.
b) The significance of the B/C ratio is ambiguous, and its relative value is difficult to
understand and interpret. For instance, if there are two proposals, one with a B/C
ratio of 1.05 and the other with a ratio of 1.10, the difference is very difficult to
appreciate.
c) It is somewhat confusing and difficult to decide which items should be termed as
costs and placed in the denominator and which as benefits and placed in the
numerator.

The IRR method is popular with international lending agencies like the World Bank. It lends
itself admiringly well for use in a computer-aided design model. It avoids the need for
selecting a discount rate initially. The rate derived from computations can be easily
compared with the market rate of interest, with which economists, financial experts and
bankers are familiar. Its disadvantage is that the computations are tedious and a solution can
only be obtained only by trial and error.

The NPV method suffers from the same disadvantage as in case of B/C ratio method in that
a rate of discount has to be assumed.

2.6.7 Selection of the Discount Rate

As seen from the discussions above, the selection of an appropriate discount rate (or interest
rate) is crucial in the B/C ratio and NPV methods. The choice of the discount rate is
governed by a number of complex factors, and is dependent on the future availability of
finance and the various opportunities for its use. The attitude of the society towards present
consumption as against savings for future is an important factor. Will the present generation
prefer to consume the resources now or conserve it for future use by the current or future
generation? The answer to this question will give the social time preference rate of
interest. Another approach is to find out the social yield that the resources employed by a
marginal public project would have otherwise generated. This determines the social
opportunity cost rate of interest. In a truly competitive economy, the two rates of interest
would be equal and investments and consumption would then be ideally allocated. But such
a situation is difficult to find, and more so in a developing country where capital is very
scarce. In such situations, some general guidelines can be given for selecting an appropriate 22
discount rate. Such a rate should not be less than the rate of borrowing or lending by the
government or the market rate of interest. A rate of 12 per cent is generally being adopted.

22
 Selection of the Discount Rate 23

Example
An existing single lane road, 30 km long, is to be widened to two lanes. The cost of
widening is US$ 10,000 per km. The vehicle operating costs, accident costs and
maintenance costs, with and without widening, for a 10 year period are tabulated in Table
2.1. The discount rate is 12 per cent. Is the project worthwhile? Compare the results of NPV,
B/C ratio and IRR methods.

Solution
Cost of project = US$ 10,000 x 30 = US$ 300,000

Table 2.1: Computation of NPV, B/C Ratio and IRR

Computation of NPV, B/C Ratio andIRR (All Values in Thousands of US$)
DiscountedRate for NPV & B/C Ratio, r: 12% (By Trial andError) approx, zero 0.0000087571284
Total Cost of the Project, Co (in US$1000) 300.000 DiscountedRate for IRR 17.843439000%

Year Road User Costs Accident Costs Maintenance Costs Benefits DiscountedBenefits DiscountedBenefits
With Impr. Without Impr. With Impr. Without Impr. With Impr. Without Impr. (NPV, B/C) (IRR)
1 101.5 160.7 2.5 3.6 10 7.5 57.8 51.607 49.048
2 105.6 168.2 2.6 3.7 10 7.5 61.2 48.788 44.070
3 110.2 176.3 2.7 3.8 10 7.5 64.7 46.052 39.536
4 116.2 185.2 2.8 3.9 10 7.5 67.6 42.961 35.053
5 122.3 190 2.9 4 10 7.5 66.3 37.620 29.173
6 128.4 199 2.9 4 10 7.5 69.2 35.059 25.839
7 135.6 210 3 4.1 10 7.5 73 33.021 23.130
8 143.2 219.5 3.1 4.2 10 7.5 74.9 30.251 20.139
9 149.1 228.2 3.2 4.3 10 7.5 77.7 28.019 17.729
10 154.6 240.1 3.2 4.3 10 7.5 84.1 27.078 16.283
Total 380.458 300.000
Project is Economically Justified NPVo 80.458
Project is Economically Justified B/C Ratio 1.268
Project is Economically Justified IRR 17.84%

Example
The Ministry of Works and Transport (MoW&T) has proposed an upgrade of the Kampala-Jinja
road to a dual carriageway and to improve some of its junctions. The time for construction of
the scheme has been set at two years, with the benefits of the scheme accruing to the road users
at the start of the third year. The three main benefits considered are time savings, accident cost
savings and vehicle operating cost reduction. Construction costs are incurred mainly during the
two years of construction, but ongoing annual maintenance costs must be allowed for
throughout the economic life of the project which is expected to be 10years after the road has
been commissioned. The following basic data has already been ascertained by experts in
highway economics for this analysis:

Accident Rates: 0.85 per million vehicle-kilometres (Existing road)

0.25 per million vehicle-kilometres (Upgraded road)

Average Accident Cost: US $10,000

Average vehicle time savings: US $2.00 per hour

Average Vehicle Speeds: 40km/hr (Existing Road)

85km/hr (Upgraded Road)
23
Average Vehicle Operating Cost: 0.01 2 0.00005 in US $ per km
V is the average vehicle speed

23
 Selection of the Discount Rate 24

Discount rate: 6%

Predicted Flow in Year 3, F: 250 mil.veh-km/yr

The traffic flows and the construction/maintenance costs for the highway proposal are shown in
the table below

Traffic flows and costs throughout the economic life of the highway proposal
Year Predicted Flow Construction Costs Operating Cost
(106 veh-km/yr) (in US $) (in US $)
1 - 150,000,000 -
2 - 10,000,000 -
3 250 - 500,000
4 260 - 500,000
5 270 - 500,000
6 280 - 500,000
7 290 - 500,000
8 300 - 500,000
9 310 - 500,000
10 320 - 500,000
11 330 - 500,000
12 340 - 500,000

As a consultant engineer to the Ministry of Works & Transport (MoW&T), you have been assigned
the task of ascertaining whether the project is economically justified, or not, using both the NPV
and B/C ratio techniques of economic evaluation. Briefly comment on your results.

Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Accident rates: Re = 0.85/mil.veh-km (Existing road)
Ru = 0.25/mil.veh-km (Upgraded road)
b) Average accident cost: Ca = US$10,000
c) Average vehicle savings: St = US$2.00/hr
d) Average vehicle speeds: Ve = 40km/hr (Existing road)
Vu = 85km/hr (Upgraded road)
e) Average vehicle operating cost: Co = 0.01[2+35/V+0.00005V2]
f) Discount rate, r = 6%

2.0 Re quired Computations

Total Benefit, B = Ba + Bt + Bo
Where the above terms are defined as below for the 3rd year, F being the predicted flow;

Accident Savings;
. . 0.85 0.25 10000 250 $1,500,000/
Operating Cost Savings;
1 1
0.01 35 0.00005 .
24
1 1
0.01 35 0.00005 40 85 250 10 $454,963/
40 85

Time Savings;
24
 Selection of Routes 25

1 1 1 1
. . 2.00 250 10 $6,617,647/
40 85

Therefore the total benefit is given by;

1500000 454963 6617647 $8,572,610/

8572610
$7,197,729
1 1 0.06

3.0 Computation of discounted benefits and costs

BENEFITS COSTS
Year Flow Accident Cost Operating Cost Travel Time Total User Discounted Construction & Discounted
F Savings Savings Savings Benefits, B Benefits (PVB) Maintenace Costs Cost, (PVC)
mil.veh-km/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr US$/yr
1 15,000,000 14,150,943
2 10,000,000 8,899,964
3 250 1,500,000 454963 6,617,647 8,572,610 7,197,729 500,000 419,810
4 260 1,560,000 473162 6,882,353 8,915,515 7,061,923 500,000 396,047
5 270 1,620,000 491360 7,147,059 9,258,419 6,918,429 500,000 373,629
6 280 1,680,000 509559 7,411,765 9,601,324 6,768,555 500,000 352,480
7 290 1,740,000 527757 7,676,471 9,944,228 6,613,480 500,000 332,529
8 300 1,800,000 545956 7,941,176 10,287,132 6,454,274 500,000 313,706
9 310 1,860,000 564154 8,205,882 10,630,036 6,291,902 500,000 295,949
10 320 1,920,000 582353 8,470,588 10,972,941 6,127,233 500,000 279,197
11 330 1,980,000 600551 8,735,294 11,315,845 5,961,046 500,000 263,394
12 340 2,040,000 618750 9,000,000 11,658,750 5,794,042 500,000 248,485
PVB 65,188,613 PVB 26,326,133

4.0 Computation of NPV & B/C Ratio

65,188,613 26,326,133 $38,862,480

65,188,613
/ 2.476
26,326,133

5.0 Concluding Remarks

All the above indicators point to the economic strength of the project under examination. Its
NPV at just over US$ 38million is strongly positive, and its B/C ratio at just below 2.5 is well
in excess of unity. A further computation of the IRR reveals a value of over 28% which is over
four times the agreed discount rate of 6%. Together these indicators give strong justification for
the upgrading of Kampala-Jinja road to a dual carriageway and improvement of its junctions.

2.7 Selection of Routes

2.7.1 Introduction 25
The location of a new or major road requires consideration of many complex and
interrelated factors and brings together different professionals namely economists,
geologists, planners, surveyors and road engineers. The process of defining the physical
location of a new road must be preceded by the analysis of data on traffic volumes, planning
25
 Overview of the Location Process 26

intentions in the area to be traversed and preliminary estimates of the anticipated design of
the new road. Route location consists of selecting the best compromise between demand
factors and terrain factors. Demand factors determine the areas to be served by the new road
standard and terrain factors influence the engineering cost. Terrain factors include: Ground
conditions, materials for construction, earthworks, drainage both surface and subsurface and
the need for structures. The choice of route is normally associated with the problem
identification and feasibility stages of the project life cycle. Road locations are easier to
determine through low cost relatively undeveloped lands than through well developed rural
and urban areas.

2.7.2 Overview of the Location Process

Once the need for a new road has been justified by the transport planning process, the
approach to the selection of an appropriate route location becomes a structured decision
process.

The first step requires the fixing of end termini and then defining a region which will
determine all feasible routes between these two points. In a non-urban setting this region can
be one third as wide as it is long. The region is then searched using reconnaissance
techniques to obtain a limited number of broad bands within which further searches can be
concentrated. Such a band can be up to 16km wide for a rural motorway. Within these
bands, further reconnaissance searches result in the selection of say three narrower corridors
each 3-8km wide that can be labelled A, B and C. A comparison of these may then suggest
that C will provide the best route and then Route E is generated through it. In rural setting
route E may be 1-1.5km wide.

The next step is preliminary location where route E is searched and one or more feasible
alignments is located within it each perhaps 30m wide containing minor design differences.
These alignments are then compared during the final location phase of the analysis and the
most suitable one is selected for further development in terms of design and construction.
The above process is iterative in nature. Tangible considerations that might influence the
selection process include topographic, soil and geological survey data, land usage and
population distributions, travel demands and road user costs, construction and maintenance
costs and safety factors. Intangible considerations of a political, social and environmental
nature requiring extensive public consultation may need to be considered as well.

2.7.3 Location Surveys in Non-Built-Up Areas

The approach relies on three types of survey namely: reconnaissance, preliminary location
and final location/design.

a) Reconnaissance Survey
The reconnaissance stage of the survey process takes place during the identification stage of
the project where alternative possible routes are determined in terms of the corridors in
which they lie. The first step in the reconnaissance survey is to carry out a major desk study
of the bands/corridors being evaluated within the region. The types of information typically
gathered for a desk study include:
26
a) General land survey locating the site on maps. Dated air photographs, site
boundaries, outlines of structures, meteorological information e.t.c.

26
 Location Surveys in Non-Built-Up Areas 27

b) Permitted use and restrictions Planning restrictions of an area according to

planning legislation, local authority regulations and byelaws, ancient monuments,
burial grounds, environmental restrictions.etc.
c) Approaches and access Checking road ownership, closed railway lines etc.
d) Ground conditions Geological maps, seismicity etc
e) Sources of material for construction
f) Drainage and sewerage Authorities in charge, location of sewer lines, location of
storm drains etc.
g) Water supply Authorities concerned location of existing lines etc.
h) Electricity supply Information on concerned authorities and existing lines
i) Telecommunications Information on concerned authorities and existing lines.

Next, armed with questions from the desk study, the reconnaissance engineer visits the field
to fill in omissions in information gathered from the desk study and further limit the corridor
under study into a more suitable terrain and provide further data useful for design. The
reconnaissance study should be low key so as not to attract attention of local residents who
may pre-empt the development of the project. On completion of the reconnaissance survey
the engineer should have sufficient information which when combined with economic,
environmental, planning, social and traffic inputs enable the selection of the feasible
corridor routes. The renaissance report describes the preferred corridor routes; a state of
criteria satisfied by the project, presents tentative project cost estimates, provides
provisional geotechnical maps and shows characteristics of important engineering features.
It also states special issues that may lead to design and construction problems.

b) Preliminary Location Survey

This is the feasibility stage of the project where corridors are appraised to select the best
route. It is a large scale study of one or more feasible routes within the corridor whose
purpose is to collect all the physical information that may affect the location of the proposed
road way. It results in a paper location that defines the line for the subsequent final location
survey. Site investigations are carried out of alternative routes guided by terrain evaluation.

In the course of carrying out the preliminary survey, a ground survey, which is one of the
approaches, the other being an aerial survey is taken by means of traversing and levelling to
produce a strip map of the proposed corridor for the route showing the physical features
along the route, locations of soft ground, locations of water bodies, power lines pipelines,
houses monuments etc. These are converted into a topographic map that shows both
horizontal and vertical data usually with the aid of contour lines that enable the road
alignment to be defined in both horizontal and vertical planes. The survey area should be
greater than the roadway width of the proposed route.

The next step is the determination of the centreline of the proposed road. It should fit the
topography while meeting the intended traffic service requirements. It is a trial and error
process were trial centrelines are drawn on the strip map and are adjusted according to the
skill and judgement of the engineer. Sketching can be by the method of arcs or the method
of tangents. The process of sketching on paper should go hand in hand with field
observations.
27
Many considerations influence the choice of centreline finally selected. These include;
a) Locating the road along property edges rather than through them in rural areas;
b) Avoiding alignments that cause the motorist to drive into the rising or setting sun for
long periods;

27
 Road Location in Built up Areas 28

c) locating the road such that the users are able to view a prominent scenic feature;
d) Minimising the destruction of manmade culture, cemeteries etc;
e) Avoiding highly developed expensive land areas and seeking alignments that cause
minimum environmental damage;
f) Avoiding the locating bridges on or near curves;
g) Minimising the use of alignments that require excavation of rock;
h) Balancing excavation quantities with embankment quantities.
i) If a vertical curve is superimposed on a horizontal curve, ensure the horizontal curve is
longer or make the tangent/straight points coincident to those of the longer curve ;
j) Avoiding the introduction of a sharp horizontal curve at the top of a pronounced crest
curve or the low point of a pronounced sag vertical curve. For safety reasons, make
horizontal and vertical curves as flat as possible at junctions with other roads;

Finally cost comparisons are made of alternative alignments to assist in recommendation of

the best route.

c) Final Location Survey

The final location survey involves fixing the final, permanent centreline of the road, while
gathering additional physical data needed to prepare construction plans. The centreline that
is pegged during the final location survey should closely follow the paper location of the
preliminary survey map. Levels should be taken at regular intervals along the centreline.
This should be extended say 175m beyond the start and end of the proposed scheme. Cross
section levels should be taken at right angles on both sides of the centreline ensuring the
width is greater than the proposed roadway width. The levelling data obtained in the final
location survey are fundamental to the vertical alignment, earthworks and drainage designs.
Main ground investigations for design are carried out during the final location survey. The
subsurface investigations should provide borrow pit information. Benchmarks are also
established during the final location survey.

2.7.4 Road Location in Built up Areas

It takes a longer time to establish a major road in a built up area than in an undeveloped
area. The search for the line of a new road involves a combination of a reconnaissance-
preliminary survey (dominated by transport planning activities) and a final location survey.

The reconnaissance-preliminary survey involves a transport planning investigation carried

out in conjunction with a desk based physical site survey. The steps can be summarized as:

i) Determine approximate traffic volume along a general corridor;

ii) Select road type, number of lanes to carry traffic load, level of service;
iii) Preliminary designs;
iv) Assign traffic to selected routes to determine design traffic volumes;
v) Compare alternative locations using feasibility study criteria.

The final location survey is similar to the one described above for rural areas except it is
more complex to carry out. Setting out may need more complicated offsetting and reference
methods.
28

28
2.7.5 Other Considerations in the route location processes

a) Relation of Project to Economics

Every route-surveying project involves economic problems both large and small. By far
the most important question is whether or not to construct the project. Essentially, this
decision is based on a comparison of the cost of the enterprise with the probable financial
returns or social advantages to be expected. In some cases the question can be answered
after a careful preliminary study without field work; in others, extensive surveys and cost
estimates must first be made.
However simple or complex the project may be, it is rarely possible for the engineer
alone to answer this basic economic question. To this studies must be added those of the
persons responsible for the financial and managerial policies of the organization. In the
case of a public project the broad social and political objectives also carry weight
b) Relation of project to design
Design problems in route location are closely related to route surveying. Some matters of
design must precede the field work, others are dependent on it. For example, in order that
the field work for a proposed new highway may be done efficiently, the designers must
have chosen -at least tentatively not only the termini and possible intermediate
connections but also such design details as:
1. the number of traffic lanes,
2. width of right of way,
3. maximum grade,
4. minium radius of curve,
5. and minimum sight distance.

On the other hand, considerable field work must be done before the designer can fix:
1. the exact alignment,
2. grade elevations,
3. shoulder width,
4. and culvert locations to fit selected standards safely and with the greatest overall
economy

c) Basic factors of Alignment and Grades

In route location it is usually found that the termini and possible intermediate controlling
points are at different elevations. Moreover, the topography and existing physical features
rarely permit a straight location location between points. These circumstances invariably
require the introduction of vertical and horizontal changes in direction, therefore, grades,
and vertical curves are important features of route surveying and design
29
Excessively or poorly designed curvature, however, may introduce serious operating
hazards, or may add greatly to the costs of constructing, maintaining, or operating over
the route. Steep grades are likely to have the safety and cost as excessive curvature. Thus,
on highway and railroad location it is often the practice to increase the distance between
two fixed points in order to reduce the grade. This process, known as development,
necessarily adds to the total curvature, it is not always a feasible solution, for the added
curvature may be more objectionable than the original steep grade.

d) Influence of type of project

The type of route to be built between given termini has a decided influence on its
location. As an example, the best location of a railroad would not necessarily be the most
suitable one for a power transmission line. A railroad requires a location having fairly flat
grades and curves. Moreover, there are usually intermediate controlling points such as
major stream and highway crossings, mountain passes, and revenue-producing markets

d) Influence of terrain

The character of terrain between termini or major controlling points is apt to impress a
characteristic pattern upon a route location, particularly in the case of a highway or a
railroad. Terrain may be generally classified as level, rolling or mountainous
1. Level regions, the line may be straight for long distance, minor deviations being
introduced merely skirt watercources, to avoid poor foundations, or possibly to
reduce land damages.
2. Rolling terrain, the location pattern depends on the orientation of the ridges and
valleys with respect to the general direction of the route. Parallel orientation may
result in a valley line having flat grades, much curvature, frequent culverts and
bridges, and fill in excess of cut or it may permit a ridge line (from which the
word highway originated) on which the alignment and drainage problems are
simpler to connect two such situations, and also in case the ridges are oblique
(slopping) to the general direction of the route, there may be a side-hill line. This
has a characteristics of uniformly rising grades, curvature fitted to the hill sides,
and relatively light, balanced grading
3. Mountainous terrain imposes the severest burden upon the ingenuity of the
locating engineer.

30
 References 31

2.7.5 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Danida, 1998. Kampala to Fort-Portal Road Upgrading
Project, Uganda: Design, Tendering and Supervision of Mityana-Mubende-Kyenjojo
Section. Interim Engineering Report, COWI in Joint Venture with Road Directorate,
Denmark Ministry of Transport.
3. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications and Gauff Ingenieur, 1993. Transport
Rehabilitation Project Upgrading, Regravelling and Rehabilitation of Roads. IDA
Credit No. P593 UG, Part 1, Volume I, Engineering Report, Detailed Engineering
Study.
4. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
5. OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and
Maintenance of Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
6. Thagesen, B., 1996. Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. 1st
Edition. E & FN Spon Publishers, London, Uk.
7. Transport and Road Research Laboratory, 2005. A Guide to Road Project Appraisal.
Overseas Road Note 5. Crowthorne, England.

29
 The Road User and the Vehicle 30

3.0 The Road User and the Vehicle

3.1 Introduction
A highway engineer is required to design road facilities which will be used by pedestrians,
cyclists animal-drawn vehicles and a variety of motor-powered vehicles. The great variation
in road user behaviour and vehicle characteristics necessitates an understanding of these
variations as a precondition to highway design.

Human factors that govern the behaviour of the driver, cyclist and the pedestrians have a
considerable effect on the design elements. Knowledge of how this behaviour is influenced
by various external conditions is useful in designing the road facility. The characteristics of
the different types of vehicles will influence the geometric design elements of the highway
and will determine the safety of traffic using the road [Kadiyali, 2006].

3.2 Human Factors Governing Road User Behaviour

3.2.1 Human Body as a complex System

The human body has a complex mechanism exhibiting varied reactions to external stimuli.
When dealing with highway engineering design, human behaviour can be studied under the
following groups:

a) Physiological
i) Vision;
ii) Hearing;

b) Psychological
i) Perception;
ii) Intellection;
iii) Emotion;
iv) Volition

3.2.2 Vision
Pedestrians, cyclists and drivers are able to use the road safely because of the help received
by the eyes in seeing the road and traffic thereon and in evaluating the size, shape, colour,
distance and speed of approach of various objects on the road. Safety of traffic depends
upon the ability of the road users to see traffic lights, traffic signs, vehicles on the road, safe
gap and safe crossing places. The drivers are able to cross, overtake, stop, accelerate and
decelerate their vehicles on seeing the road conditions, the traffic conditions and the
environmental conditions affecting safe traffic movement.

30
3.2.3 Hearing
For safe driving, cycling and walking, sound is an invaluable aid. Horns can alert the road
user. Similarly the sound of a nearing vehicle or that of skidding may alert the road user and

30
 Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition 31

avert an accident. Efforts are being made to take measures for the control of noise pollution
on roads.

3.2.4 Perception, Intellection, Emotion and Volition

The psychological traits of a road user are extremely important to highway engineers. The
characteristics which are important are perception, intellection, emotion and volition
abbreviated as PIEV. The time taken for these processes is known as PIEV time.
Perception is the process of using the senses (e.g. seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling and the
thinking) to acquire information about the surrounding environment or situation.

The next stage is intellection, which means the identification of the stimuli by the
development of new thoughts and ideas. When a person receives certain stimuli, new
thoughts and ideas may form leading to better understanding of the stimuli.

Emotion is a strong feeling about somebody or something. It is an individual trait of a

person governing his decision making process.

Volition is the ability to make conscious choices or decisions. It is a persons will to react to
any given situation.

In highway design practice, the time that elapses between the perception of danger by a road
user and the decision to take action (Perception and brake-reaction time) is an important
consideration especially in the design of sight distances. The perception time is that time
required for a driver to come to a realisation that brakes must be applied. The brake
reaction time is that time between the perception of danger and the effective application of
brakes. The AASHO practice is to use a combined perception and brake-reaction time of 2.5
seconds.

3.3 Pedestrian Characteristics

3.3.1 Speed
Speed of walk of pedestrians is needed for design of traffic signals and other pedestrian
facilities. The average walking speeds range from 0.75m/s to 1.8m/s. The rate assumed in
the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices (MUTCD) for timing pedestrian signals is
1.2m/s.

The designers may keep in mind that many pedestrians consider themselves as not being
governed by any laws. In addition, any regulations pertaining to the movement of
pedestrians are not being enforced.

3.3.2 Space Occupied by Pedestrians

For design of a subway, foot bridges and other facilities, the space required by a pedestrian
is generally taken as an ellipse with a major axis of 0.6m and a minor axis of 0.45m Area
approx. (0.2121m2). The spacing between pedestrians while walking is generally taken as
2.5m which roughly corresponds to a time headway of 2 seconds (i.e. 2.5m/1.2m/s)
[Kadiyali, 2006]. 31
3.4 Vehicle Characteristics
The major vehicle characteristics considered in design include:

31
 References 32

a) Size;
b) Power performance of vehicles;
c) Rolling resistance;
d) Air resistance;
e) Grade resistance; and
f) Inertial forces during acceleration.

3.5 References
1. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
2. MoWH&C, 2005, Road Design Manual Vol.1 Geometric Design Manual, Kampala,
Uganda.

32

32
 Geometric Design of Highways 33

4.0 Geometric Design of Highways

4.1 Introduction
Geometric design is an aspect of the highway design dealing with the visible dimensions of
a roadway. It is dictated, within economic limitations, by the requirements of traffic and
includes the design elements of horizontal and vertical alignment, sight distance, cross-
section components, lateral and vertical clearances, intersection treatment, control of access
etc [Kadiyali, 2006].

The purpose of geometric design is to reduce the number and severity of road accidents
while ensuring high traffic flow with minimum delay to vehicles [Thagesen, 1996]. The
safe, efficient and economic operation of a highway is governed to a large extent by the care
with which the geometric design has been worked out. Safety or the lack of it is an
immediate corollary of the various design features of the highway. Efficient and comfortable
operation of traffic is possible only if the design elements have been meticulously
considered. A well designed highway has to be consistent with economy. Too liberal
standards may not fit in with the available resources, whereas if the standards are too low,
the cost of operation may mount up [Kadiyali, 2006].

The basic inputs are the Design speed and the Design hourly volume. The design speed
governs the design of vertical and horizontal curvatures while design hour volume governs
capacity required.

The design engineer has to consider the following points when selecting the design
standards for a highway.
a) Adequate geometric design in planning a highway facility ensures that the facility
will not become obsolete in the foreseeable future. Hence the volume and
composition of traffic in the design year should be the basis of design.
b) Faulty geometrics are costly, and in some cases impossible to rectify at a later date
and so, due to consideration should be given to geometric design at the initial stage
itself.
c) The design should be consistent with and the standards proposed for different
elements should be compatible with one another. Abrupt changes in design should be
avoided.
d) The design should embrace all aspects of geometrics of the road, including signs,
markings, proper lighting, intersections, etc.
e) The highway should be considered as an element of the total environment and its
location and design should enhance rather than degrade the environment. The
highway should be aesthetically satisfying. The design elements should strive to
control pollution.
f) The design should be so selected that not only the initial cost of construction of the
facility, but also the total transportation cost, including maintenance cost and road
user cost should be minimised. 33
g) Safety should be inbuilt into the design elements.
h) The design should enable all the road users (motor vehicles, cyclists, pedestrians and
animal drawn vehicles) to use the facility. The performance of the vehicles using the
facility should be given due consideration.
33
 Highway Design Standards in Uganda 34

4.2 Highway Design Standards in Uganda

Some geometric standards in Uganda have been formulated by the Ministry of Works,
Housing and Communications e.g. The Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1-Geometric
Design Manual 2005. The AASHTO Standards represent the American practice, whereas
the Department of Environment (UK) standards give the current British practice.

It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to
ensure that they come up with an economical solution for a geometric design. Sometimes,
more than one design standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design
with another so that the comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical
option.

4.3 Division of Roads into Functional Class

The rural roads in Uganda are divided into the following 5 classes according to their major
function in the road networks.

Class A: International Trunk Roads

Roads that link International Important Centres; Connection between the national road
system and those of neighbouring countries; Major function is to provide mobility;

Class B: National Trunk Roads

Roads that link provincial capitals, main centres of population and nationally important
centres. Major function is to provide mobility;

Class C: Primary Roads

Roads linking provincially important centres to each other or to a higher class roads
(urban/rural centres). Linkage between districts local centres of population and development
areas with higher class road. Major function is to provide both mobility and access;

Class D: Secondary Roads

Roads linking locally important centres to each other, to a more important centre, or to a
higher class road (rural/market centres) and linkage between locally important traffic
generators and their rural hinterland. Major function is to provide both mobility and access;

Class E: Minor Roads

Any road link to minor centre (market/local centre) and all other motorable roads; Major
function is to provide access to land adjacent to the secondary road system;

Roads of the highest classes, A and B, have as their major function to provide mobility and
have longer trip lengths. They are required to provide a high level of service with a high
design speed. The roads of Classes C and D serve a dual function in accommodating shorter
trips and feeding the higher classes or road. For these roads an intermediate design speed
and level of service is required. Road Class E has short trip length and their primary
function is to provide access. Design speeds and level of service for these roads may be low
[MoWH&C, 2005].

4.4 Design Controls and Criteria 34

4.4.1 General
There are certain basic design controls and criteria which govern the geometric features of a
highway. These are: topography, traffic (its volume, directional distribution, and
34
 Topography 35

composition, including the future estimates), speed, capacity design vehicle and control of
access.

4.4.2 Topography
Topography and physical features play an important role in the location and design of a
highway. The various design elements should be related to topographical features if an
economical and sound judgement is to emerge. The classification of terrain is normally done
by means of the cross (transverse) slope of the country, i.e. the slope approximately
perpendicular to the centre-line of the highway location.
Table 4.1: Terrain Classification
Type of terrain Description
Flat Level or gently rolling country which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road
having continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope
around 5%)
Rolling
Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately gently
and where occasional steep slopes may be encountered. It will offer some restrictions in
horizontal and vertical alignment. (20% transverse terrain slope > 5%)
Mountainous
Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class of terrain imposes
definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often involves long steep
grades and limited sight distances (70% transverse terrain slope > 20%)

Escarpment In addition to the terrain class given above, a fourth class is added to cater for those
situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain types cannot be
met. Escarpment situations are where it is required to switchback road alignments or side
hill traverse sections where earthwork quantities are huge (transverse terrain slope >70%)
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

4.4.3 Traffic
a) Importance of traffic data in Geometric Design
Of crucial importance in highway design is the traffic data both current and future
estimates. Traffic volume indicates the level of service for which the highway is being
planned and directly affects the geometric features such as width, alignment, grades etc.
Without traffic data, it is futile to design any highway.

b) Design Hour Volume (DHV)

The general unit for measuring traffic on a highway is the annual average daily traffic
volume, abbreviated as AADT. It is equal to the total annual volume of traffic divided
by the number of days in the year. Knowledge of traffic in terms of AADT is not of
much use in geometric design, since it does not represent the variations in traffic
during various months of the year, days of the week and hours of the day. A commonly
used unit for geometric design is the 30th highest hourly volume abbreviated as 30 HV.
It is defined as the 30th highest hourly volume during the year. Hence the design hourly
volume (DHV) should be the 30 HV of the design (future) year chosen for design.
Exceptions may be made on roads with high seasonal fluctuation, where a different volume
may need to be used [MoWH&C, 2005].
35
DHV is then expressed as DHV = AADT x K or ADT x K where K is estimated from the
ratio of the 30th HV to the AADT from a similar site. The 30th HV is the 30th highest
hourly volume during the year.

35
 Traffic 36

The 30th HV is expressed as a fraction of ADT can vary as indicated in the following table.

Traffic Conditions 30th HV as a fraction of ADT

Rural Arterial (Average Value) 0.15
Rural Arterial (Maximum Value) 0.25
Heavily Trafficked road under congested urban conditions 0.08 - 0.12
Normal Urban Conditions 0.10 - 0.15
Road Catering for recreational or other traffic of seasonal nature 0.20 - 0.30
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

c) Directional Distribution of Traffic

For 2-lane highways, the design hour volume is the total traffic in both directions of travel.
For highways with more than 2-lanes, it is desirable to know the directional distribution of
traffic. Though this distribution has to be found from traffic surveys, a rough approximation
can be to assume 67% of total traffic to travel in one direction under the design conditions.
The design has to take into account both the morning and evening situations [Kadiyali,
2006].

d) Traffic Composition
Traffic composition has a vital effect on capacity and other design considerations. In
Uganda, the traffic is heterogeneous in character, consisting of fast driven cars, trucks, and
buses. It is customary in this country to express the traffic volume in terms of passenger car
units (PCUs). The values in indicated in the table below.

Table 4.2: Conversion Factor of Vehicle into Passenger Car

Terrain
Vehicle Type Level Rolling Mountainous
PCU
Passenger cars 1.0 1.0 1.5
Light goods vehicle 1.0 1.5 3.0
Medium goods vehicle* 2.5 5.0 10.0
Heavy goods vehicle 3.5 8.0 20.0
Buses 2.0 4.0 6.0
Motor cycles, Scooters 1.0 1.0 1.5
Pedal cycles 0.5 0.5 NA
* Also representative for combined group of medium and heavy goods vehicles and buses.
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

The following definitions apply to the different vehicle types mentioned in the above table.

Passenger cars: Passenger vehicles with less than nine seats.

Medium goods vehicle:
Heavy goods vehicle:
Buses:
Light goods vehicle: Land rovers, minibuses and goods vehicles
of less than 1,500kg un-laden weight with payload capacities less
than 760 kg.
Maximum gross vehicle weight 8,500 kg.
Gross vehicle weight greater than 8,500 kg.
All passenger vehicles larger than minibus. 36

36
 Design Vehicle Dimensions 37

e) Future Traffic Estimates

The design of the geometric elements has to be prepared for the traffic likely to use the road
in the design year. The design period used for a flexible pavement generally varies from 15
to 25 years. A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis for design. The future traffic
estimates should be computed to include normal, diverted and generated traffic.

4.4.4 Design Vehicle Dimensions

a) Design Vehicles
A design vehicle is a selected motor vehicle, the weight, dimensions and operating
characteristics of which are used to establish highway design controls to accommodate
vehicles of a designated type. The dimensions and operating characteristics of a vehicle
profoundly influence geometric design aspects such as radii, width of pavements, parking
geometrics, etc. The weight of the axles and the weight of the vehicles affect the structural
design of the pavement and structures, as also the operating characteristics of vehicles on
grades. Because of its crucial importance the standardisation of the dimensions and the
weights of design vehicles is the first step in formulating geometric design standards. This
has been done in many countries. In Uganda, the Ministry of Works, Housing and
Communications Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1 - Geometric Design Manual 2005, is
being followed [MoWH&C, 2005].

b) Dimensions of Design Vehicles

The present vehicle fleet in Uganda includes a high number of four-wheel drive
passenger/utility vehicles, buses and overloaded trucks. Accordingly the five design
vehicles indicated in Table 5.1 will be used in the control of geometric design until a major
change in the vehicle fleet is observed and detailed information on the different vehicle
types using the roads in Uganda becomes available.

Table 4.3: Dimensions of Design Vehicles

(Extracted from AASHTO Geometric Design Manual of Highway and Streets)
Overhang
Overall (m)
Wheel base (m)

(m) Minimum Minimum

Design design inside
Symbol
Vehicle type turning radius
Length
Height

radius (m) (m)

Front
width

Rear

4x4
DV-1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3 4.2
passenger car
Single unit
DV-2 4.1 2.6 9.1 1.2 1.8 6.1 12.8 8.5
truck
Single unit
DV-3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8 7.4
bus
Semitrailer
6.1 &
combination DV-4 4.1 2.6 16.7 0.9 0.6 13.7 5.8
9.1
large
Interstate 6.1 &
DV-5 4.1 2.6 21.0 1.2 0.9 13.7 2.9 37
Semitrailer 12.8
Sou rc e: Ug and a Road Design manu al Vol .1 , 2005

37
 Selection of the Design Vehicle 38

c) Selection of the Design Vehicle

The selection of the design vehicle for the design of a highway is governed by the type and
volume of traffic that is expected to use the highway. For instance the design of a superior
facility such as a motorway or an expressway should be based on the largest design vehicle.
The design of streets and junctions primarily in residential areas can be done by using the
passenger car design vehicle.

4.4.5 Design Speed

a) Speed as a Design Factor
The value of a highway is largely indicated by the speed, safety and convenience afforded
by the facility for travel. Speed is important for economic operation and has a great bearing
on safety of the highway. It plays a vital role in determining the geometric design of any
given highway.

b) Design Speed
Design speed is the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of a
highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of a highway when conditions are so favourable that the
design features of the highway govern. The design speed obviously has to be correlated with
terrain conditions and the classification of the highway. There is considerable variation in
the speed adopted by different drivers and by different types of vehicles. This raises the
question of what value of speed should be adopted for design. The value selected should
accommodate nearly all demands with reasonable adequacy, yet the design should not fail
completely under severe or extreme load. The speed adopted should satisfy nearly all drivers
with exception of those few who drive at extremely high speed [Kadiyali, 2006].

The standard design speeds are 50km/h, 60km/h, 70km/h, 85km/h, 100km/h and 120km/h.
These speed bands are based on the premise that for a given highway, it is considered
acceptable if 85% of the drivers travel at or below the designated design speed, generally
inducing a situation where approximately 99% of the drivers travel at or below one design
speed category above the design speed. Thus if a chosen design speed is by definition the
85th percentile speed for the highway, then the next speed band up will constitute the 99th
percentile speed. Speed bands are related to each other as follows:

99 85
2 . 4.1
85 50

The 85th percentile speed is selected as the design speed on the basis that it constitutes the
most appropriate choice. Use of the 99th percentile speed would be safer but extremely
expensive while use of the 50th percentile speed would be unduly unsafe for faster travelling
vehicles [Rogers, 2003].

The curve depicting the cumulative distribution of speeds has a typical S shape. It is
important to note that designers use typical data previously obtained on similar roads.

38
4.4.6 Control of Access
Uncontrolled access to road side development along whose major function is to provide
mobility will result in an increased accident hazard, reduced capacity and early obsolescence
of the roads. In order to preserve major roads as high standard traffic facilities it is necessary
38
 Sight Distance 39

to exercise access control, whereby the right of owners or occupants of land to access is
controlled by the Road Authority.

Although control of access is one of the most important means for preserving the efficiency
and road safety of major roads, roads without access control are equally essential as land
service facilities. The following three levels of access control are applicable:

(1) Full access control: - means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic by providing access connections with selected public
roads only and by prohibiting direct access connections.

(2) Partial access control:- means that the authority to control access is exercised to give
preference to through traffic to a degree in that, in addition to access connections with
selected public roads, there may be (some) private access connections.

(3) Unrestricted access: - means that preference is given to local traffic, with the road
serving the adjoining areas through direct access connection. However, the detailed
location and layout of the accesses should be subject to approval by the Road
Authority in order to ensure adequate standards of visibility, surfacing, drainage, etc.

Road function determines the level of access control needed. Roads of higher classes have
their major function to provide mobility, while the function of lower classes is to provide
access. Motorways should always have full control of access. For all purpose roads the
following general guidelines are given for the level of access control in relation to the
functional road classification:

Table 4.4: Level of Access Control

Level of Access Control
Functional Class
Desirable Reduced
A Full Partial
B Full or Partial Partial
C Partial or Unrestricted Partial
D Partial Unrestricted
E Partial or Unrestricted Unrestricted
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

The reduced levels of access control may have to be applied for some road projects because of
practical and financial constraints.

Control of access is accomplished either by the careful location of accesses, by grouping

accesses to reduce the number of separate connections to the through traffic lanes or by
constructing service roads which intercept the individual accesses and join the through lanes at
a limited number of properly located and designed junctions. In every case the location and
layout of all accesses, service roads and junctions should be carefully considered at the design
stage and include in the final design for the project [MoWH&C, 2005].

4.5 Sight Distance

39
4.5.1 General
Sight distance is defined as the length of carriageway that a driver can see in both the
horizontal and vertical planes. There are two types of sight distance: stopping sight distance
and overtaking sight distance [Rogers, 2003].
39
 Stopping Sight distance, SSD 40

The design of a highway with adequate sight ahead of a travelling vehicle results in safe
operation. Knowledge of the sight distance requirements is needed in designing vertical
curves. It also governs the set-back of buildings, slopes, fence, and other obstructions
adjacent to a carriageway on a horizontal curve [Kadiyali, 2006].

4.5.2 Stopping Sight distance, SSD

This is defined as the minimum sight distance required by the driver in order to be able to
stop the car before it hits an object on the highway. It is primary importance to the safe
working of a highway. Because of its importance to safety, all highways must be designed
for the minimum stopping sight distance. It is made up of two components:

a) The distance travelled during perception and brake-reaction time; and

b) The distance travelled during the time the brakes are under application till the
vehicle comes to a stop.

When sensations received through the eyes, ears or body are strong enough to be recognised
and interpreted, they become perceptions. In the cases of a motorist, it is the time which
elapses between the instant the driver perceives the object on the carriageway and the instant
that he realises that braking is needed. The time lag or the brief interval between the
perception of danger and the effective application of the brakes is called the brake-reaction
time. The perception time and the brake reaction time depend upon a variety of factors, e.g.
age, sex, alertness and visual acuity of the driver, visibility, vehicle design, the size and type
of the object etc.

According to Ugandan practice, a perception reaction time of 2.5s, eye height of 1.07m
above the road surface and an object height of 0.15m are used in computing stopping sight
distance. The distance travelled during this interval, d1 is given by:

0.278 . 4.2
Where;
d1 = distance travelled in metres;
v = speed in m/s;
V = speed in km/h;
t = perception and brake reaction time in seconds (2.5 seconds)

The braking distance is the distance within which a moving vehicle comes to a stop after the
application of the brakes. On a level road, the distance is given by;

. 4.3
254
Where;
d2 = braking distance travelled in metres;
V = speed in km/h;
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction between the tyre and the pavement.

The coefficient of friction (for a wet pavement condition) is assumed to vary from 0.40 at 30 40
km/h to 0.28 at 120 km/h. The above considerations yield the values in Table 4.5 below as
recommended by MoWH&C.

40
 Stopping Sight distance, SSD 41

Table 4.5: Stopping Sight Distance on Level Ground for Wet Pavement Condition
Brake Reaction Coeffi-
Assumed cient of
Breaking Stopping
Design Speed for friction for
distance sight
Speed Conditio Time Distance wet
on level distance for
[km/hr] n [sec] [m] pavement
[m] design [m]
[km/hr] conditin
(f)
30 30-30 2.5 20.8-20.8 0.40 8.9-8.9 29.7-29.7
40 40-40 2.5 27.8-27.8 0.38 16.6-16.6 44.4-44.4
50 47-50 2.5 32.6-34.7 0.35 24.8-28.1 57.5-62.8
60 55-60 2.5 38.2-41.7 0.33 36.1-42.9 74.3-84.6
70 63-70 2.5 43.8-48.6 0.31 50.4-62.2 94.2-110.8
80 70-80 2.5 48.6-55.6 0.30 64.3-84.0 112.9-139.5
90 77-90 2.5 53.5-62.5 0.30 77.8-106.3 131.3-168.8
100 85-100 2.5 59.0-69.4 0.29 98.1-135.8 157.0-205.2
116.4-
110 91-110 2.5 63.2-76.4 0.28 179.6-246.5
170.1
135.0-
120 98-120 2.5 68.1-83.3 0.28 203.1-285.8
202.5
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual Vol.1, 2005

Some slight adjustments are needed in the values of the braking sight distance to take into
account the effect of grades. The following amended formula may be used to calculate d1.

. 4.4
254
Where;
G = Longitudinal grade in percent (%).

The positive sign is used when the gradient is upgrade and the negative sign may be used if
the gradient is downgrade. Correction for grade should not be applied on undivided roads
with two-way traffic but must invariably be considered for divided highways which have
independently designed profiles. The safe stopping sight distance, SSD is given by d1 + d2.

0.278 . 4.5
254

Example:
Calculate the safe stopping distance of a vehicle travelling at a speed of 80kph on an upward
gradient of 2%. Make suitable assumptions.

Solution

1.0 Data Summary 41

a) Vehicle running speed, V
b) Longitudinal gradient, G
c) Perception reaction time, t
d) Coefficient of friction, f
= 80kph
= 2% (upgrade = +0.02)
= 2.5s (Assumed)
= 0.3 (Assumed between 0.40 and 0.28)
41
 Full Overtaking Sight Distance, FOSD 42

2.0 Safe Stopping Sight Distance, SSD

From equation 4.5, SSD is given by
80
0.278 80 2.5 55.60 78.74 134.34
254 0.30 0.02

4.5.3 Full Overtaking Sight Distance, FOSD

Overtaking sight distance is that distance which should be available to enable the driver to
overtake another vehicle safely and comfortably without interfering with the speed of an
oncoming vehicle travelling at the design speed should it come into view after the
overtaking manoeuvre is started [Kadiyali, 2006].

Overtaking sight distance is of central importance to the efficient working of a given section
of highway. Overtaking sight distance only applies to single carriageways. There is no full
overtaking sight distance (FOSD) for a highway with a design speed of 120km/h since this
speed is not suitable for a single carriageway road. Full overtaking sight distances are much
larger in value than stopping sight distances. Therefore, economic realities dictate that they
can only be complied with in relatively flat terrain where alignments, both vertical and
horizontal, allow the design of a relatively straight and level highway [Rogers, 2003].

Full overtaking sight distance is measured from vehicle to vehicle (the hazard or object in
this case another car) between points 1.05m and 2.00m above the centre of the carriageway.
FOSD is made up of three components: d1, d2 and d3 as described below:

d1 = distance travelled by the vehicle in question while driver in the overtaking

vehicle completes the passing manoeuvre (Overtaking Time);

d2 = distance between the overtaking and opposing vehicles at the point in time at
which the overtaking vehicle returns to its designated lane (Safety Time);

d3 = distance travelled by the opposing vehicle within the above mentioned

Perception reaction and overtaking times (Closing Time).

In order to establish the values for full overtaking sight distance, it is assumed that the driver
making the overtaking manoeuvre commences it at two design speed steps below the
designated design speed of the section of highway in question. The overtaking vehicle then
accelerates to the designated design speed. During this time frame, the approaching vehicle
is assumed to travel towards the overtaking vehicle at the designated design speed. The
safety time, d2 is assumed to be 20% of d3. These assumptions yield the following equation:

. 4.6

0.2 2.05 0.57 . 4.7

2 2 2

Where; 42
v = speed in m/s;
V = speed in km/h;
t = time taken to complete the entire manoeuvre.

42
 Sight Distance for Multi-Lane Roads 43

The value of, t is generally taken as 10 seconds, as it has been established that it is less
than this figure in 85% of observed cases [Rogers, 2003].

2.0m 1.07m 0.15m

1.3m

Stopping Sight Distance

Extra
distance Passing Sight Distance
for large
vehicles

Figure 4.1: Stopping and Passing Sight Distances on a crest curve

Source: Uganda Road Design manual Vol.1, 2005

Note that in Uganda, the AASHTO standard and NOT the British Standard has been adopted
for computation of FOSD (See Uganda Road Design manual Vol.1, 2005).

4.5.4 Sight Distance for Multi-Lane Roads

Divided highways with 4 or more lanes need only be designed for safe stopping sight
distance. Undivided highways with 4 lanes have enough opportunities for overtaking within
one half of the carriageway. Such roads therefore need only be designed for safe stopping
sight distance.

4.5.5 Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves

On horizontal curves with obstructions on the inside, an important consideration is the
lateral clearance so as to obtain the sight distance. It should be noted that:
i) Sight distance is measured along the arc of the curve;
ii) If the pavement has two or more lanes, sight distance is measured along the arc at the
centre of the inner lane.

The presence of obstructions adjacent to the highway such as boundary walls,

buildings, slopes of cuttings may constrain the limiting radius of the horizontal
alignment. To provide the necessary horizontal sight distances, it may be necessary to
set back obstructions. In cases where the obstructions are immovable, it may be
necessary to redesign the road alignment in order to meet the safety requirements. It is
therefore necessary to estimate the offset clearance necessary to secure the required
horizontal distance by considering two cases as in the following sections.

43

43
 Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves 44

a) Required Sight distance, S lies wholly within the length of the curve, L (S L)

Figure 4.2: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S L

Source: Rogers, 2003

The offset M can be approximated by considering the vehicle truck to be along the
chords AC and CB.
When the radius of horizontal curvature is large, then it can be assumed that the required
sight distance, S, approximates to a straight line. When S lies within the curve length,
the minimum offset M from the centreline to the obstruction can be estimated by
considering the triangle OAM and ACD. Thus:
From triangle OAM,
R 2 = x 2 + (R M )
2
(i)
From triangle ACD,
2
S
= x +M
2 2
(ii)
2
Solving (i) and (ii),

. 4.8
8

b) Required Sight distance, S lies outside the length of the curve, L (S > L)
S is greater than the available length of the curve L and overlaps on the tangents for a
distance l on each side.
44

44
 Set-back Distance at Obstructions of Horizontal Curves 45

Figure 4.3: Sight Distance Requirements on a horizontal curve with S > L

Source: Rogers, 2003

Assuming a large horizontal radius of curvature and considering triangles ACP and OAP,
2
S
= x +M
2 2
(i)
2
d 2 = x 2 + (R M ) .
2
(ii)
Also,
d 2 = l 2 + R2 (iii)

S L
But = + l so that (iii) becomes
2 2
2
S L
d2 = + R2 (iv)
2
Solving (i), (iii) and (iv),

2
. 4.9
8

Example
A 2-lane 7.3 m single carriageway road has a horizontal curve of radius of 600 m. If the
minimum sight stopping distance required is 160 m, calculate in metres the required
distance to be kept clear of obstructions if the length of the curve is:
(a) 200 m; 45
(b) 100 m.

45
 Horizontal Alignment 46

Solution
From the question, S = 160 m, R = 600 m.
(a) The length of the curve 200 m > 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies
wholly within the length of the curve. Applying equation (4.8), the required offset

M=
(160)2 = 5.33 m
8(600)
(b) The length of the curve 100 m < 160 m. So the required sight distance S lies
outside the length of the curve. Applying equation (4.9), the required offset
100 [2 (160 ) 100 ]
M = = 4 .58 m
8(600 )

4.6 Horizontal Alignment

Horizontal alignment deals with the design of the directional transition of the highway in a
horizontal plane. A horizontal alignment consists, in its most basic form, of a horizontal arc
and two transition curves forming a curve which joins two straights. In some cases the
transition curve may have zero length. The design procedure itself must commence with
fixing the position of the two straight lines which the curve will join together. The basic
parameter relating these two straight lines is the intersecting angles.

Minimum permitted horizontal radii depend on the design speed and the super-elevation of
the carriageway, which has a maximum allowable value of 7% in the UK, with designs in
most cases using a value of 5%. The relationship between super-elevation, design speed and
horizontal curvature is detailed in the following sub section.

4.6.1 Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles on Curves

When a vehicle is moving on a curved path, it is subjected to an outward force, commonly
known as the centrifugal force. In order to resist this force, it is the usual practice to
superior-elevate the roadway cross-section. Figure 4.4 shows the forces acting on the vehicle
at a super-elevated section.

46
Figure 4.4: Forces acting on a vehicle on a horizontal curve
Source: Kadiyali, 2006

46
 Basic Formula for Movement of Vehicles on Curves 47

Let; M = mass of the vehicle;

v = speed of the vehicle in m/s;
V = speed in km/h;
R = radius of the curve in metres;
g = acceleration due to gravity (=9.81m/s2);
N = normal force;
= coefficient of lateral friction;
= angle of super-elevation;
e = rate of super-elevation, normally given as a percentage (= tan)
C = centrifugal force.

The centrifugal force acting on the vehicle,

Mv 2
C = (i)
R
For equillibrium, resolving forces parrallel to the incline plane
Mv 2
Mg sin + P = cos . (ii)
R
Resolving forces perpendicular to the incline plane
P = (W cos + C sin )
Mv 2
= ( Mg cos + sin ) . (iii)
R
Substituting equation (iii) into equation (ii) gives,
Mv 2 Mv 2
Mg sin + ( Mg cos + sin ) = cos .
R R
Dividing through the above equation by Mg cos we obtain:
v 2 v2
tan + + tan = . (iv)
gR gR
v 2
The term tan is very small and can be ignored leading to the expression:
gR
v2 v2
tan + = Or =e+. (iiv)
gR gR
Expressing speed as V in km/hr

. 4.10
127

Equation 4.10 above is the basic equation relating the speed of vehicles, the radius of
the curve, the super-elevation and coefficient of friction. This equation forms the basis
of design of horizontal curves,

Equation 4.10 can be rewritten as shown below and is known as the minimum radius 47
equation:

. 4.11
127
47
 Value of the Coefficient of Lateral Friction, 48

v2 v2
The terms and are known as the centrifugal ratio and centrifugal acceleration
gR R
respectively.

If the entire centrifugal force is counteracted by super-elevation, then frictional force will
not come into play. In this case, = 0 in equation 4.10. The super-elevation then provided is
said to be equilibrium super-elevation. In such a case, the pressures on the inner and outer
wheels would be equal.

Design practice is based on the assumption that at absolute minimum radius the 99 th
percentile speed vehicle should not experience more than the maximum level of
v2
centrifugal acceleration acceptable for comfort. Its value is 0.22g. Thus if = 0.22 g ,
R
then the total centrifugal acceleration at the design speed (85th percentile speed) should
not exceed:

0.22
0.156 . 4.12
2

4.6.2 Value of the Coefficient of Lateral Friction,

The value of the coefficient of lateral friction depends upon a number of factors, chief
among them being the vehicle speed, type and condition of roadway surface, and type of and
condition of the tyres. AASHTO recommends the values given in Table

Table 4.6: Coefficient of Lateral Friction as Recommended by AASHTO

Design Speed (kph) 50 65 80 100 120 130
Maximum Lateral Friction 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.13 0.12 0.11
Source: Kadiyali, 2006

A constant value of 0.15 is generally recommended.

4.6.3 Maximum super-elevation Value, emax

If equation 4.10 is to be used for design, it is desirable to know the maximum super-
elevation that can be permitted. Practice in this regard varies from country to country. The
AASHTO practice limits it to 0.12 (12%), whereas the UK practice limits it to 0.07 (7%). In
Uganda the value is limited to 0.08 (8%) [MoWH&C, 2005].

4.6.4 Super-elevation Rates

Super-elevation on curves is intended to counteract a part of the centrifugal force, the
remaining part being resisted by the lateral friction. Also, super-elevation results in
economies in maintenance. This is because skidding and unequal pressures on the wheels of 48
vehicles, which result from high value of sideway force between the tyres and the roadway
surface, necessitate frequent attention to the surface.

48
 Radii of curves for which no super-elevation is required 49

Super-elevation can be provided either to fully counteract the centrifugal force or to

counteract a fixed proportion of the centrifugal force. In the former case, the super-elevation
needed would be more than 1 in 15 (6.67%) on sharp curves causing inconvenience to slow
moving vehicles. Since super-elevation has to be limited to 7% or 8% as per Ugandan
practice, maximum friction would have to be relied upon when the sharpest possible curve is
traversed. When a vehicle negotiates a flat curve, friction would not be developed to the
maximum and this would not be a balanced design. It is desirable that the super-elevation
should be such that a moderate amount of friction is developed while negotiating flat curves
and friction not exceeding the maximum allowable value should be developed at sharp
curves. Therefore designing the super-elevations to fully counteract the centrifugal force
developed at a fraction of the design speed will provide the necessary balance.

The above is achieved as per UK practice by providing full super-elevation for a speed of
67.082% of the design speed such that 45% of the centrifugal force is balanced by super-
elevation while 55% of the centrifugal force is balanced by friction. Therefore equation 4.10
becomes:

0.67082 0.45
. 4.13
127 127 282

The super-elevation computed from equation 4.13 is restricted to a value of 7% (0.07) or 8%

(0.08) as per Ugandan practice.

4.6.5 Radii of curves for which no super-elevation is required

The normal cambered section of a highway can itself be continued on a curve where the
super-elevation calculated is less than the camber. From equation 4.13

. 4.14
282

Substituting the values of camber for e in equation 4.14 above, the minimum radius beyond
which no super-elevation is required is obtained. In such cases where the radius is greater
than those given by the above formula it is desirable to remove the adverse crown in the
outer half of the carriageway and super-elevate at the normal crown slope.

4.6.6 Method of Attainment of Super-elevation

The normal cambered surface on a straight reach of road is changed into a super-elevation
surface in two stages. In the first stage, the outer half of the camber is gradually raised until
it is level as shown below:

49

49
 Method of Attainment of Super-elevation 50

Figure 4.5: Stages involved in attainment of super-elevation

It is desirable to accomplish the raising of the outer-half till it is level before the starting
point of the transition curve. The raising of the outer edge should be done in a slope not
exceeding 1 in 150 for plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for hilly terrain.

In the second stage, any of the three methods given below may be adopted to attain the full
super-elevation:

a) The surface of the road is rotated about the centre-line of the carriageway, gradually
lowering the inner edge and raising the outer edge while keeping the level of the
centre-line constant (Figure 4.5 d);
b) The surface of the road is rotated about the inner edge, raising the centre and the
outer edge (Figure 4.5 e);
c) The surface of the road is rotated about the outer edge depressing the centre and the
inner edge (Figure 4.5 f);

In most circumstances method (a) is generally used a it results in the least distortion of the
pavement. Figure 4.6 below shows the method of attaining super-elevation using method
(a).

50

50
 Method of Attainment of Super-elevation 51

Figure 4.6: Attaining Super-elevation by revolving about the centre line

Example
Calculate the super-elevation to be provided for a horizontal curve with a radius of 400m for
a design speed of 100kph in plain terrain. Comment on the results. What is the coefficient of
lateral friction mobilised if super-elevation is to be restricted to 7%.

Solution

1.0 Data Summary

a) Curve Radius, R = 400m
b) Design Speed, V = 100kph
c) Maximum super-elevation, e = 7%

2.0 Maximum Elevation, emax

According to the UK practice, the super-elevation is calculated on the assumption that
it should 45% of the centrifugal force developed at 67.082% of the design speed.

Therefore from equation 4.13

100
0.089 8.9%
282 282 400

3.0 Comment on the Result

Since, as per UK practice, the maximum super-elevation allowable is 7%, then the
computed super-elevation is too high and should be restricted to 7%. The balance of
the centrifugal force will be taken care of by the friction which is mobilised. If is the
coefficient of friction, then from equation 4.10:

127

100
0.07 0.127
127 127 400 51
This is less than the recommended value of 0.15

51
 Transition Curves 52

4.6.7 Transition Curves

A transition curve is a curve in which the radius changes continuously along its length and is
used for the purpose of connecting a straight with a circular curve, or two circular curves of
different radii.

a) Need for Transition

When a vehicle travelling on a straight course (i.e. R=) enters a curve of infinite radius, it
suddenly subjected to the centrifugal force which causes shock and sway. In order to avoid
this, it is customary to provide a transition curve at the beginning of the circular curve,
having a radius equal to infinity at the end of the straight and gradually reducing the radius
of the circular curve where the curve begins. Incidentally, the transition portion is also used
for gradual application of the super-elevation, curve widening and improvement of the
general appearance. The transition curve is also used to achieve the following:

i) They reduce the tendency of vehicular skidding;

ii) They minimise passenger discomfort;
iii) They provide convenient sections over which super-elevation or pavement widening
may be applied;
iv) They improve the appearance of the road by avoiding sharp discontinuities in
alignment at the end and beginning of circular curves.

b) The Spiral
Various forms of curves are suitable for highway transitions, but the most popular and
recommended for use in this country is the spiral. It is easy to set out in the field and the rate
of acceleration is uniform through the length of transition. Figure 4.7 below shows the main
elements of a circular curve provided with spirals for transition at its two ends.

52

Figure 4.7: Main Elements of a Circular Curve Provided with Transitions

52
 Transition Curves 53

The following nomenclature applies

max = Spiral angle
= Deflection angle
T = Tangent length
R = Radius of circular curve
S = Shift
L = Length of Spiral (or transition curve)
I = Point of intersection
T = Beginning of spiral
T1 = Beginning of circular curve
T2 = End of circular curve
U = End of spiral

Some of the important properties of a spiral are given below:

. 4.15
radians . 4.16
2
L
Shift, S inmetres . 4.17
24R
L
Tangentlength, T R s tan . 4.18
2 2

c) Length of Transition
The length of the transition should be determined from the following two considerations:

i) The rate of change of centrifugal acceleration adopted in the design should not cause
discomfort to the drivers. If C is the rate of change of acceleration then:

. 4.19

Where;
aT1 = radial acceleration at T1 (= v2/R)
aT = radial acceleration at T (= 0)
t = time taken (= L/v)

Substituting the above in equation 4.15 gives

0
. 4.20

From which the length of transition curve, L is given by

1 53
. . 4.21
3.6

53
 Curve Widening 54

Where v is speed in m/s and V is speed in Km/hr. The value of C is usually taken as
0.3m/s3.

ii) The rate of change of change of super-elevation should also be such as not to cause
higher gradients and unsightly appearances. This could be kept in 1 in 150 for roads
in plain and rolling terrain and 1 in 60 for roads in hilly terrain. Since the super-
elevation can be given by rotating about the centreline, inner or outer edge, the
length of the transition will be governed accordingly. In calculating the length of
transition, the pavement width should include any widening that may have been
provided at the curve.

The higher of the values given by the above two methods should be adopted.

4.6.8 Curve Widening

Widening of pavements is needed on curves for the following reasons:
a) On curves, the vehicles occupy a greater width because the rear wheels track inside the
front wheels (See Figure 4.8)

b) On curves, drivers have difficulty

in steering their vehicles to keep to centre line of
the lane.

c) Drivers have psychological

shyness to drive close to the edges of the
pavement on curves.

From Figure 4.8, considering the triangle OCB,

right angled at B,

Neglecting m2, since it is small gives;

. 4.22
2
Figure 4.8: Widening on Curves

Assuming a wheel base of 6m for a vehicle corresponding to AASHTO single unit,

widening in metres, m is given by:

18
. 4.23

54
Where; R = radius in metres

The widening due to psychological reasons is a function of speed and can be assumed to be
given by the empirical formula, Wp;

54
 Curve Widening 55

0.1 . 4.24

Where; V = speed in kph; R = radius in metres

The total widening for pavements, We is given by the following formula:

. 0.1 . 4.25
2

Where; n = number of lanes

Example
A two-lane (7.0m wide) pavement on a National highway in hilly terrain has a curve radius
of 250m. The design speed is 80kph, maximum super-elevation is 7%, camber is 2.5%, the
relative longitudinal gradient is 0.5% (1 in 200), the angle of deviation is 60o and the rate of
change of radial acceleration is 0.3m/s3. Determine the following assuming that; a) the curve
will need to be widened if the curve radius is less than 300m, b) the super-elevation is
obtained by rotation about the centre line, and c) the design vehicle is a DV-2 single unit
truck with a wheel base of 6.1m.
i) The length of transition curve;
ii) The tangent length
iii) The total length of the curve.

Solution

1.0 Data Summary

a) Pavement width, W = 7.0m
b) Curve Radius, R = 250m
c) Design Speed, V = 80kph
d) Maximum super-elevation, emax = 7%
e) Camber, eo = 2.5%
f) Relative longitudinal gradient, S = 0.5%
g) Angle of deviation, = 60o
h) Rate of change of radial accn., C = 0.3m/s3

2.0 Sketch drawing

Refer to Figure 4.6

3.0 Transition Length, L

3.1 Based on the rate of change of centrifugal acceleration, La
From equation 4.21, the transition length, L, required for safety and comfort is given
by;
1
.
3.6
80 1
.
3.6 0.3 250
55
146.319

3.2 Based on the rate of change of super-elevation, Ls

55
 Curve Widening 56

Since super-elevation is obtained by rotation about the centre line then the transition
length, L, will be given by;

.
2

Where; W=pavement width, e = super-elevation, S=longitudinal gradient, and eo

=camber

Since radius, R < 300m, extra widening, We, of the carriageway is required.

6.1 80
2. 0.1 0.655
2 250 250

Therefore the pavement width will be

W = 7.000 + 0.655 = 7.655m .... (ii)

Maximum super-elevation, e, is given by

80
9.08% .
2.82 250

This value is high and should be restricted to 7% (i.e., e =7%)

From which equation (i) becomes

7.655
2.5 7.0 72.723
2 0.5

Therefore;
Adopt L = 146.319m since La > Ls. (i.e. take the greater of the two values)

4.0 Tangent Length, T

The tangent length T is given by;

L
T R S tan
2 2

Where;
L 146.319
S 3.57m
24R 24 250

Therefore;
60 146.319
T 250 3.57 tan 219.558
2 2
220m

5.0 Total length of the horizontal Curve, LT 56

The total length LT is given by;

LT L 2L

56
 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment 57

Where; Lc is the length of circular curve, and L is the transition length;

L R 2 anglesareinradians
L 60 146.319
L R 2 R 2 115.500m
180 2R 180 2x250
From which;
LT 115.500 2 146.319
408.138m

4.6.9 General Controls for Horizontal Alignment

The following general controls for horizontal alignment should be kept in view in a sound
design practice:
a) The alignment should be as directional as possible;
b) The alignment should be consistent with topography and should generally conform
to the natural contours. A line cutting across the contours involves high fills and
deep cuts, mars the landscape and is difficult for maintenance;
c) The number of curves should, in general, be kept to a minimum;
d) The alignment should avoid abrupt turns. Winding alignment consisting of short
curves should be avoided, since it is the cause of erratic vehicle operation;
e) A sharp curve at the end of along tangent is extremely hazardous and should be
avoided. If sharp curvature is unavoidable over a portion of the route selected, it is
preferable that this portion of the road be preceded by successive sharper curves.
Proper signage, well in advance of a sharp horizontal curve is essential;
f) Short curves giving the appearance of kinks should be avoided, especially for small
deflection angles. The curves should be sufficiently long to provide a pleasing
appearance and smooth driving on important highways. They should be at least
150m long for a deflection angle of 5 degrees, and the minimum length should be
increased by 30m for each 1 degree decrease in the deflection angle;
g) For a particular design speed, as large a radius as possible should be adopted. The
minimum radii should be reserved only for the critical locations;
h) The use of sharp curves should be avoided on high fills. In the absence of cut slopes,
shrubs, trees, etc., above the roadway, the drivers may have difficulty in estimating
the extent of curvature and fail to adjust to the conditions;
i) While abrupt reversals in curvature are to be avoided, the use of reverse curves
becomes unavoidable in hilly terrain. When they are provided, adequately long
transitional curves should be inserted for super-elevation run-off;
j) Curves in the same direction separated by short tangents, say 300m -500m long, are
called broken-back curves. They should be avoided as they are not pleasing in
appearance and are hazardous;
k) Compound curves may be used in difficult topography in preference to a broken-
back arrangement, but they should be used only if it is impossible to fit in a single
circular curve. To ensure safe and smooth transition from curve to curve, the radius
of the flatter curve should not be disproportional to the radius of the sharper curve. A
ration of 2:1 or preferably 1.5:1 should be adopted;
l) The horizontal alignment should blend with the vertical harmoniously. General 57
controls for the combination of horizontal and vertical alignments should be
followed [Kadiyali, 2006].

57
 Vertical Alignment 58

4.7 Vertical Alignment

Vertical alignment design refers to the arrangement of tangents and curves which compose
the profile of the road. It is composed of a series of straight-line gradients connected by
curves, normally parabolic in form. The main aim of vertical alignment is to ensure that a
continuously unfolding stretch of the road is presented to motorists so that their anticipation
of directional change and future action is instantaneous and correct [Rogers, 2003;
OFlaherty, 2002].

4.7.1 Major Requirements of Vertical Curves

The two main requirements in the design and construction of vertical curves are the
provision of:

Adequate visibility, and

Passenger comfort and safety.

In order to provide adequate visibility, oncoming vehicles or any obstructions in the road
must be seen clearly and in good time to ensure that vehicles travelling at the design speed
can stop or overtake safely. This requirement is achieved by use of sight distances and K-
Values to be discussed shortly in this chapter.

In order to provide passenger comfort, the effect of the radial force on the vehicle traversing
a vertical curve must be minimised. In crest curve design this effect could cause the vehicle
to leave the road surface (e.g. in hump-back bridges) while in the sag curve the underside of
the vehicle would come into contact with the surface, particularly where the gradients are
steep and opposed. The result is discomfort and danger to passengers travelling. This can be
minimised by:

Restricting the gradients; which has the effect of reducing the radial force;
Choosing a suitable type and length of curve such that this reduced force is
introduced gradually and uniformly as possible [Uren et al, 1989].

4.7.2 Gradients
The rate of rise or fall of road surface along its length with respect to horizontal distance is
termed as gradient [MoWH&C, 2004]. The use of steep gradients in hilly terrain generally
results in lower road construction and environmental costs. However, it also adds to road
user costs through delays, extra fuel costs and accidents. Gradients of up to about 7% have
little effect on the speeds of passenger cars. Nevertheless, the speeds of commercial vehicles
are considerably reduced on long hills with gradients in excess of 2%. For short distances,
gradients of 5% or 6% may have little detrimental effect on commercial vehicle speeds
[OFlaherty, 2002]. Long, steep, downhill grades are very dangerous and need careful
design, preferably with escape roads (side roads that are designed to bring out-of-control
vehicles to a safe stop) [MoWH&C, 2004]. The Uganda Road Design manual (2004),
suggests maximum gradients as presented in Table 2.16 below:

Table 4.7: Maximum Grades as recommended by MoWH&C

Speed Maximum Grade (%)
(km/h) Flat Rolling Mountainous 58
50 6-8 7-9 9-10
80 4-6 5-7 7-9
100 3-5 4-6 6-8
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual (2004)

58
 Climbing Lanes 59

According to British Standards of road design, a minimum longitudinal gradient of 0.5% is

needed to ensure effective drainage of carriageways with kerbs.

4.7.3 Climbing Lanes

The limitation of gradients to a maximum value is not in itself a complete design control,
and therefore an additional climbing lane is normally provided on long uphill climbs. The
provision of a climbing lane is normally considered when the combination of hill severity
and traffic volumes and composition is such that the operational benefits achieved are
greater than the additional costs of constructing an additional lane.

In Uganda, however, climbing lanes are recommended for use if the design truck speed
decreases more than 20 km/h under the truck speed limit, normally 80 km/h in rural
conditions. A climbing lane is inserted into the carriageway by means of entry and exit
tapers to the left of the continuous lane so that slow moving vehicles have to merge into the
faster traffic at the termination point as shown below.

Figure 4.9: Climbing Lane outside the ordinary lane

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual (2004)

4.7.4 Cross falls

A minimum cross fall of 2.5% is normally recommended in the form of either a straight
camber extending from one edge to the other or as one sloped from the centre of the
carriageway towards both edges. The primary aim of these cross falls is to adequately get rid
of surface runoff from the highway pavement.

Figure 4.10: Highway Cross falls 59

Source: Rogers, 2003

59
 Vertical Curves 60

4.7.5 Vertical Curves

A vertical curve provides a smooth transition between successive gradients in the road
profile. When the algebraic difference in gradients, A is positive the curve is called a crest or
summit curve whereas if it is negative the curve is called a sag or valley curve.

Figure 4.11: Typical Vertical Curves

Source: OFlaherty, 2002

a) Shape of the Curve

Where the ratio of length of curve to radius is less than 1-10, there is no practical difference
between the shapes of a circle, a parabola and an ellipse. Owing to the fact that this
condition can be shown to apply in most of the cases met in practice, a parabolic form of
vertical curve is therefore used to guide vertical curve design [Bannister et al, 1998].

Figure 4.12: A Simple Symmetrical Parabolic curve

Source: Rogers (2002)

60
b) Equation of a Vertical Curve
According to Thagesen (1996), a simple parabola is recommended when modelling vertical
curves. The parabola provides a constant rate of change of curvature, and hence visibility,
along its length. The vertical curve is of the form:
60
 Vertical Curves 61

Let;

Then;
.

Where; C1 is a constant. This implies that;

At x = 0
0 .
100 100

At x = L
.
100 100 100

Where; A is the algebraic difference in grade (m - n)

Substituting for k in equation (ii), we get

.
100 100

Integrating equation (v) gives;

.
200 100

From the above equation, it implies that If x = 0, the y = C2 = RLPC (i.e. reduced level at PC)
Therefore the general equation used determine the reduced level at any point on the vertical
curve, RLx is given by;
. 4.26
100 200

Reduced level of crest or sag curve

For maxima or minima,
0 .
100 100

Substituting the value of x above in equation (vi) gives;

/
100 200

From which;

/ . 4.27 61
200

61
 Vertical Curves 62

c) Sight Distances
The length of curve to be used in any given situation depends on the sight distance. It is the
distance of visibility from one side of the curve to the other [Uren et al, 1989].
There are two categories of sight distance namely:

Stopping sight distance (SSD); which is the theoretical forward sight distance
required by a driver in order to stop safely and comfortably when faced with an
unexpected hazard on the carriageway, and
Full overtaking sight distance (FOSD); which is the length of visibility required by
motorists to enable them to safely and comfortably overtake vehicles ahead of them.

When designing vertical curves, it is important to know whether safe overtaking is to be

included in the design. If it is to be included, then the FOSD must be incorporated in the
design and if it is not then SSD must be incorporated. On single carriageways, it is usually
necessary to consider whether to design for overtaking only at crest curves since overtaking
is not a problem on dual carriageways and visibility is usually more than adequate on single
carriageways [Uren et al, 1989].

Figure 4.13: Sight distance over crest curves when a) S L and b) when S > L
Source: OFlaherty (2002)

d) K-Values
In the past it was necessary to use the appropriate sight distance for the road type and design
speed in question to calculate the minimum length of the vertical curve required. Nowadays,
however, constants which greatly simplify calculations have been provided by the
MoWH&C [Uren et al, 1989]. The minimum length of vertical curve Lmin for any given road
is obtained from the formula.

. 4.28

Where;
K = constant obtained from MoWH&C standards (K = R/100)
R = radius of curvature of the curve (in meters)
A = algebraic difference in grade (%)

There are three categories of K-Values for crest curves (SSD and FOSD crest curve values
obtained from Table 2.17) and one category of K-Values for sags obtained from Table 2.18.
The K-Values obtained are derived from the sight distances as already discussed
[MoWH&C, 2004]. 62

62
 Vertical Crest Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements 63

Table 4.8: Minimum Radii for Crest Curves as Recommended by MoWH&C

Speed Radius (m) R (R= K * 100)

Stopping Overtaking
(km/h)
desirable minimum desirable no overtaking
centreline
markings
50 1100 600 11000 5500
80 4500 3000 32000 15000
100 10000 7000 65000 24000
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004

Table 4.9: Minimum Radii for Sag Curves as recommended by MoWH&C

Speed Radius (m) R
(km/h) Desirable Minimum
50 600 400
80 1300 1000
100 2000 1500
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004

4.7.6 Vertical Crest Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements

In calculating the minimum lengths of crest curves, two design conditions have to be
considered namely:
Where the sight distance is contained within the length of the vertical curve i.e. the
sight distance is less than the length of curve.
Where sight distance overlaps onto the tangent sections on either side of the vertical
curve. In this case the sight distance extends beyond the vertical curve [TRL, 1993].

Considering the properties of the parabola:

For S L;
. 4.29
200

For S > L;
200
2 . 4.30

Where;
Lmin = minimum length of vertical crest curve (m)
S = required sight distance (m)
A = Algebraic difference in gradients
h1 = Driver eye height (m); taken as 1.05m
h2 = Object height (m); taken as 0.26m

For full overtaking sight distance, FOSD, h1 = h2 = 1.05m. The decision to which equation 63
should be used at a given site can be made by solving either of the equations below;

. 4.31
8 8
63
 Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements 64

If e > h1 then equation (4.29) is used and when e < h1, equation (4.30) is used [OFlaherty,
2002].

4.7.7 Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements

a) Based on clearance from structures during day time
In certain situations when a road passes beneath structure such as an over pass or bridge on
sag curves, the primary design criterion for designing the sag curve may be the provision of
necessary clearance in order to maintain the drivers line of sight [Rogers, 2003]. The
minimum length of sag curve which meets minimum stopping sight distance requirements is
given by;

When SSD L
AS 2
Lmin =
h1 + h2
8 D 8 2
....(4.33)
When SSD > L
h + h2
2S 8 1
= 2
Lmin ....(4.34)
A
Where;
h1 =`Drivers eye height (Usually 1.05m)
h2 = Object height (usually 0.26m)
L = minimum length of sag curve (m)
A = algebraic difference in grades expressed as a decimal.
D = vertical clearance (ideally taken as 5.7m) to the critical edge of the
bridge
The critical edge is assumed to be directly over the point of intersection of tangents. In
practice both equations can be considered valid provided that the critical edge is not more
than 60m from the point of intersection [OFlaherty, 2002].

b) Based on night time Conditions

During night time conditions, a critical concern in design of sag curves can be the headlight
sight distance, where the length of the highway illuminated by the cars headlight is the
governing parameter [Rogers, 2003]. The minimum length of sag curve is thus given by:

For SSD L
AS 2
Lnight = ....(4.35)
200(h3 + S tan )
For SSD > L
200 ( h3 + S tan )
L night = 2 S ....(4.36)
A
Where h3 = headlight height (usually 0.6m above the carriageway), = angle of upward
divergence of light beam (usually 1.0o), and L, A, and S are as defined previously.
64
It should however be noted that the above equations (based on night time conditions) are;

64
 Vertical Sag Curve Design and Sight Distance Requirements 65

Very sensitive to the assumption of a 1degree upward divergence of the light

beam;
They erroneously assume that headlights can illuminate an object on the
carriageway at long distances and they ignore the fact that many vehicles are
driven on dipped lights; and
The effect of headlamps is reduced on horizontal curves [OFlaherty, 2002].

c) Based on Motorist Comfort

The minimum length of vertical sag curve is given by:
AV 2 AV 2
Lmin = =
13 a 390
....(4.37)
Where; V = design speed (km/hr), A is the algebraic difference in grade (%), and a =
vertical radial acceleration (m/s2) usually taken as 0.3 m/s2 for comfortable design
[OFlaherty, 2002].

d) Design Speed and Speed Limit

Design speed is a measure of road quality. It may be defined as the maximum safe speed
that can be maintained at a given section of the road where conditions are so favourable that
the design features of the road govern vehicular movements [MoWH&C, 2004]. The
selection of design speeds for road sections of a particular classification is primarily
influenced by;
Nature of terrain:- whether level, rolling or mountainous; and
Motorist expectations: - in relation to free speed at which it is safe to drive (in rural
areas) or legal to drive (in urban areas) [OFlaherty, 2002].

Speed limit on the other hand is the maximum allowable speed on a road. The normal speed
limit on rural roads in Uganda is 80km/hr and that in trading centres, towns and cities is
50km/hr. Speed limits may be reduce but not increased by local speed limits shown on
regulatory traffic signs [MoWH&C, 2004].

In a nutshell, the design speed should not be lower than the speed limit and should be
preferably 10km/hr higher than the speed limit. Short rural sections with design speeds
lower than the speed limit should be treated with warning signs and no overtaking markings
[MoWH&C, 2004].

e) Length of Vertical Curve to be used

Normally the value for minimum length of curve obtained from the K-Value is not used. A
greater value is instead chosen. This may be due to the necessity to fit the curve into
particular site conditions and the necessity to fit the vertical alignment of the road to the
horizontal alignment (a process known as phasing of vertical and horizontal alignment)
[Uren et al, 1989].

f) Phasing of the Vertical and Horizontal Alignment

Phasing is usually done when designing new roads or improving existing alignments and
follows the procedure below;
Designing or redesigning the horizontal alignment;
Taking reduced levels at regular intervals along the proposed centreline and plotting 65
a longitudinal profile;
Superimposing chosen gradients on the longitudinal section, altering their
percentage as necessary to try to balance out any cut and fill in addition to trying to
get the vertical tangent points to coincide with those of the horizontal curve.
65
 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment 66

It is this last point that often gives the length of vertical curve in order to avoid the creation
of optical illusions in the vertical plane [Uren et al, 1989].

g) Setting-Out Data
In setting out a vertical curve on ground, the objective is to place large pegs at the required
intervals along the line of the proposed roadway and to nail a cross-piece to each peg at a
certain height (usually 1.0m), above the proposed road level. These pegs are called profiles
and the erection of these profiles is the standard method of setting out proposed levels on
any construction site. The following information is required for any setting out calculations;
the length of the curve (which is dependent on the gradient of the straights and site distance)
and the gradients of slopes together with one change point preferably a point of vertical
intersection [Irvine, 1998].

4.7.8 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment

The following general controls for vertical alignment should be kept in view while designing
the vertical profile of a highway:

a) The grade line selected should be smooth with gradual changes, consistent with the
class of highway and terrain. Numerous breaks and short lengths of grades should be
avoided;
b) The roller-coaster or hidden type of profile should be avoided as it is hazardous
and aesthetically unpleasant;
c) Undulating grade line, involving substantial lengths of momentum grades, should be
appraised for their effect upon traffic operation. Such profiles permit heavy trucks to
operate at higher overall speeds than when an upgrade is not preceded by a down
grade, but may encourage excessive speeds of trucks with consequent hazard to
traffic;
d) A broken-back grade line (two vertical curves in the same direction separated by
short section of tangent grade) should generally be avoided;
e) On long continuous grades, it may be preferable to place the steepest grades at the
bottom and flatten the grades near the top. Alternatively, long grades may be broken
by short intervals of flatter grades;
f) Intersections on grades should be avoided as far as possible. Where unavoidable, the
approach gradients and the gradient through the intersections should be flattened to
the maximum possible extent.

Vertical Curve Examples

Question one
The elevation of an intersection of rising gradient of 1.5% and a falling gradient of 1.0% on
a proposed road is 93.600m AOD. Given that the K-Value for this particular road is 55, the
through stationing of the intersection point is 0 + 671.340 and the vertical curve is to have
equal tangent length. Calculate:
a) The through stationing of the tangent points of the vertical curve if the minimum
required length is to be used.
b) The elevations of the tangent points and the elevations at exact 20m multiples of
through stationing along the curve.
66
c) The position and level of the highest point on the curve.

66
 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment 67

Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Grades; Initial, m = 1.5%
Final, n = -1.0%
b) Point of Intersection
Stationing of PVI = 0 + 671.340
Elevation of PVI = 93.600m AOD
c) K-value = 55

2.0 Sketch Drawing

3.0 Length of Vertical Curve, L

L = KA
Where;
A = mn = (+1.5%) (-1.0%) = 2.5%
Therefore;
L = 55(2.5)
= 137.500m

4.0 Stationing and Elevation of PVC and PVT

Stationing of PVC = Stationing of PVI 0.5L
= (0+671.340) 0.5(137.500)
= 0+602.590

Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI m.L/200

= 93.600 1.5(137.500)/200
= 92.570m AOD

Stationing of PVI = Stationing of PVI + 0.5L

= (0+671.340) + 0.5(137.500)
= 0+740.090

Elevation of PVI = Elevation of PVI n.L/200

= 93.600 1.0(137.500)/200
= 92.910m AOD

5.0 Table of Results

67
100 200
92.570 0.015x 0.000091

From which the table below is derived

67
 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment 68

Stationing Chord Length Curve Length Elevation

Sta. x (m) Elev.
0+602.590 (PVC) 0.000 0.000 92.570
0+620.000 17.410 17.410 92.804
0+640.000 20.000 37.410 93.004
0+660.000 20.000 57.410 93.131
0+680.000 20.000 77.410 93.186
0+700.000 20.000 97.410 93.168
0+720.000 20.000 117.410 93.077
0+740.000 20.000 137.410 92.913
0+740.090 (PVI) 0.090 137.500 92.912
Checks:
Xmax = L = 137.500m its OK
RLLast = RLPVT = 921,912m AOD its OK
6.0 Position and Level of the Highest Point on the Curve
Since;

100 200
Therefore;
x 0; x 82.5m
100 100
This means that the highest point is located 82.5m from PVC i.e. at station (0+602.590)
+ 82.5 = 0+685.090

The elevation of the highest point is located at x = 82.5m, therefore from the above
equation
1.5 82.5 2.5
. 92.570 82.5 93.189mAOD
100 200

Question Two
An equal tangent vertical curve is to be constructed between grades of -2.0% (initial) and
+1.0% (final). The PVI (Point of vertical intersection) is at station 11 + 000.000 and
elevation 420.000m AOD. Due to a street crossing, the elevation of the roadway at station
11 + 071.000 must be at elevation 421.500m. Design the curve assuming it has a shape of
the form; y = ax 2 + bx + c .

Solution
1.0 Data Summary
a) Type of vertical curve : Equal tangent
b) Grades; Initial, m = -2.0%
Final, n = +1.0%
c) Point of Intersection, PVI
Stationing = 11+000.000
Elevation = 420.000m AOD
d) Point of Interest
Stationing = 11+710.000
Elevation = 421.500m AOD

68

68
 General Controls for Vertical Curve Alignment 69

2.0 Sketch Drawing

Note: There is need to determine, L such that station 11+071.000 is at elevation 421.500m
AOD

3.0 Solving the Parabolic Equation for constants a, b and c

The parabolic equation is of the form;
bx c . i
2 b . ii
At PVC; x = 0
m
2 0 b b 0.02 . iii
100
At PVT; x = L
n n m 1.0 2.0 0.015
2 b a . iv
100 200L 200L L

The elevation at PVC; c = elevation at PVI + 0.5mL

420 0.5 0.02 . v

Equations (iii), (iv) and (v) in equation (i) gives;

0.015
0.02x 420 0.01L . vi
L

4.0 Determination of the Length of Vertical Curve, L based on the Point of interest
The point of interest (Sta. 11+071.000) is 71m from PVI (Sta.11+000.000). Hence, from
PVC, this point is located at:
0.5 71 . vii
Equation (vii) in (vi) for L gives;
0.015
0.5 71 0.02 0.5 71 420 0.01L 421.500
L
Multiply through by L and simplify to obtain
0.00375 1.855L 75.615 0

Solving for L gives;

1.855 1.855 4 0.00375 75.615

2 0.00375
44.825, 449.842
44.825m is not feasible since the point of interest is 71m beyond PVI, therefore L = 69
449.842. This means that the point of interest is located x = 0.5(449.842) +71 = 295.921m
from PVC.

69
 Cross-Sectional Elements 70

5.0 Stationing and Elevation of PVC and PVT

Stationing of PVC = Stationing of PVI 0.5L
= (11+000.000) 0.5(449.842)
= 10+775.079

Elevation of PVC = Elevation of PVI + m.L/200

= 420 + 2.0(449.842)/200
= 424.498m AOD

Stationing of PVT = Stationing of PVI + 0.5L

= (11+000.000) + 0.5(449.842)
= 11+224.921

Elevation of PVT = Elevation of PVI + n.L/200

= 420 + 1.0(449.842)/200
= 422.249m AOD

Exercise
A 150m long equal tangent vertical curve connecting grades of +1.2% (initial) and -1.08%
(final) crosses a one-meter diameter pipe at right angles. The pipe is located at station 11 +
025.000 and its centerline is at elevation 1091.6m. The PVI of the vertical curve is at station
11 + 000.000 and elevation 1095.2m. Using offsets determine the depth, below the surface
of the curve, to the top of the pipe and determine the station of the highest point on the
curve.

4.8 Cross-Sectional Elements

4.8.1 General
The cross-sectional elements of a highway design pertain to those features which deal with
its width. They embrace aspects such as road reserve width, carriageway width, central
reservation (median), shoulders, camber, side slopes, horizontal and vertical clearances etc.
carriageway right-of-way
boundary
support support
strip shoulder traffic lane traffic lane shoulder strip cut
catch drain
lateral
lateral clearance
camber % camber % back or outer
clearance
slope
fill or
embankment edge strip for road markings
fore or inner table drain
slope
natural terrain verge
roadside area
road prism safety zone
verge
road reserve

Figure 4.14: Single Carriageway Cross-section Elements

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004

70

70
 Road Reserve 71

divider
kerbed edge separate
footway edge edge edge footway/
strip strip strip
traffic lanes strip median traffic lanes cycleway
outer inner
camber % camber %

inner hard outer hard

outer hard shoulder
shoulder shoulder

Figure 4.15: Dual Carriageway Cross-section Elements

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2004

4.8.2 Road Reserve

The road reserve or right-of-way width is the width of land secured and preserved in public
interest for road development purposes. The road reserve should be adequate to
accommodate all the elements that make up the cross-section of the highway and may
reasonably provide for future development.

In order to prevent ribbon development along highways, it is sometimes necessary to

establish control lines and building lines. A control line is a line which represents the
nearest limits of future uncontrolled activity in relation to a road. This signifies that though
building activity is not totally banned between the building line and the control line, the
nature of buildings permitted here is controlled. A building line on the other hand is a line
on either side of the road between which no building activity is permitted at all.

4.8.3 Carriageway Width

The term carriageway is used here to cover the traffic lanes, any auxiliary lanes, and the
shoulders [MoWH&C, 2004]. The width of traffic lanes governs the safety and convenience
of traffic and has a profound influence on the capacity of a road. The factors that influence
capacity of a carriageway are:

a) The design volume, i.e. the greater the traffic volume the wider the carriageway and,
normally, the greater the number of lanes;
b) Vehicle dimensions, i.e. heavy commercial vehicles require wider carriageways to
ensure adequate clearances when passing each other;
c) The design speeds, i.e. vehicles travelling at high speed, especially commercial
vehicles, require wider carriageways to ensure safe clearances between passing
vehicles;
d) The road classification, i.e. the higher the road classification the greater the level of
service (and width of carriageway) expected.

Internationally, it is generally accepted that lane widths should normally be at least

3.5m, although narrower lanes are often used for economic or environmental reasons on
both rural and urban roads. However, increasing the lane width up to 3.65m on two lane
two way rural roads decreases accident rates [OFlaherty, 2002].
71

4.8.4 Central Reservation (Median) Strip

A central reservation strip is the longitudinal space separating dual carriageways. The
functions of the median strip are:
71
 Shoulders 72

a) To separate the opposing streams of traffic;

b) To minimise head-light glare;
c) To include space for safe operation of crossing and turning vehicles at intersections
at grade;
d) To provide a stopping area in case of emergencies.

The central reservations on high-speed heavily trafficked rural roads in the United States are
typically 15m to 30m. In Europe they tend to be much narrower (say 4 10m) and to be
used with safety barriers. Those in Britain are normally 4.5m wide, and include a crash
barrier. In urban areas they can be as narrow as 1m, but 3m is preferred so that a crossing
pedestrian pushing a pram or wheelchair has space to wait in safety [OFlaherty, 2002]. On
severely restricted arterial streets, where a narrow separator of 0.6 1.2m is feasible, it may
be desirable to have few, if any, openings in median except at intersections.

4.8.5 Shoulders
A shoulder is a portion of the roadway adjacent to the carriageway and is intended for
accommodation of stopped vehicles, emergency use and lateral support of base and surface
courses. The width of the shoulder should be adequate for giving working space around a
stopped vehicle. American practice recommends a 3m width for high type facility and a
width of 1.2m -2.4m for low type facilities. UK practice for rural roads recommends widths
ranging from 1.2m to 3.65m depending upon the road type and nature of kerb treatment.

4.8.6 Laybys and bus bays

When economic considerations do not favour the construction of shoulders on rural roads,
laybys should be provided instead, at spacings that are appropriate to the traffic volume.
Thus, for well trafficked and lightly trafficked single carriageways, it is British practice to
provide 2.5m and 3m wide by 30m long laybys at 1.5km and 5.8km intervals, respectively,
on either side of the carriageway, while 3m wide by 100m long laybys are provided at
approximately 1km intervals on each side of dual carriageways. Laybys should be located at
sites with good visibility and provided with tapered hard-strips at either end to assist in the
safe deceleration and acceleration of vehicles using them.

Full bus bays (3.25m by at least 12m, plus 20m end tapers) may be provided at bus stops in
urban areas; however, the appropriateness of this provision is dependent on the traffic
volumes on the road in question.

4.8.7 Kerbs
A kerb (as termed as curb) is a vertical or sloping member along the edge of a pavement or
shoulder, forming part of gutter, strengthening or protecting the edge, and clearly defining
the edge to vehicle operators. Its functions are:

a) To facilitate and control drainage;

b) To strengthen and protect the pavement edge;
c) To delineate the pavement edge; 72
d) To present a more finished appearance;
e) To assist in the orderly development of the roadside.

72
 Camber 73

Kerbs are classified as barrier or mountable. Barrier kerbs are designed to discourage
vehicles from leaving the pavement. The face may be vertical or sloping and the height may
range from 15cm to 25cm. Mountable kerbs are those which can be easily crossed by
vehicles if required. They are used at medians and channelizing islands.

4.8.8 Camber
Camber, also known as cross fall, facilitates drainage of the pavement laterally. The
pavement can have a crown or a high point in the middle with slopes downwards towards
both edges. This is favoured on two-lane roads and wider undivided roads. On divided
roads, the individual carriageways may be centrally crowned separately or a unidirectional
slope may be provided across the entire carriageway width. The amount of camber to be
provided depends upon the smoothness of the surface and the intensity of rainfall. In the
UK, a value of 2.5% is generally adopted for design. A cross fall for the shoulders should be
generally steeper than for the pavement by about 0.3 0.5% to facilitate quick drainage. The
UK practice is to provide 5% slope on the shoulder [Kadiyali, 2006].

4.8.9 Side slope

According to OFlaherty (2002), soil mechanics analysis enables the accurate determination
of maximum slopes at which embankments or cuts can safely stand. However, these
maximum values are not always used, especially on low embankments not protected by
safety fences. The slopes of embankments and cut sections depend upon the type of soil and
the height of embankment or depth of cuttings. A flatter slope is conducive for erosion
control, but is costly. Flatter slopes of embankments promote safety of traffic. Ordinarily,
1.5:1 to 2:1 in mild slope conditions and 2:1 to 3:1 in overwhelming slope conditions will be
adequate.

4.9 Intersection Design and Capacity

4.9.1 General
An intersection is defined as the general area where two or more highways join or cross,
within which are included the roadway and roadside design features which facilitate orderly
traffic movements in that area. An intersection leg is that part of any one of the highways
radiating from an intersection which is outside of the area of the intersection.

The importance of intersection design stems from the fact that efficiency of operation,
safety, speed, cost of operation and capacity are directly governed by the design. Since an
intersection involves conflicts between traffic in different directions, its scientific design can
control accidents and delay and can lead to orderly movement of traffic. Intersections
represent potentially dangerous locations from the point of view of traffic safety. It is
believed that well over half the fatal and serious road accidents in built-up areas occur at
junctions [Kadiyali, 2006].

The following principles should be considered in a good design:

73
a) The number of intersections should be kept to a minimum. If necessary, some minor
roads may be connected with each other before joining a major road;

73
 At-grade and Grade Separated Junctions 74

b) The geometric layout should be so selected that hazardous movements by drivers are
eliminated. This can be achieved by various techniques such as channelizing and
staggering;
c) The design should permit the driver to discern quickly either from the layout or from
traffic signs about which path he/she should follow and the actions of merging and
diverging. This can be achieved by good layout, traffic islands, signs and
carriageway markings. Good visibility improves safety;
d) The layout should follow the natural vehicle paths. Smoothness, in contrast to abrupt
and sharp corners, should guide minor streams of traffic into stopping or slowing
down positions;
e) The number of conflict points should be minimised by separating some of the many
cutting, merging or diverging movements;
f) Vehicles that are forced to wait in order to cross a traffic stream should be provided
with adequate space at the junction.

4.9.2 At-grade and Grade Separated Junctions

An intersection where all roadways join or cross at the same level is known as an at-grade
intersection. An intersection layout which permits crossing manoeuvres at different levels is
known as a grade separated intersection.

The choice between an at-grade and grade separated intersection at a particular site depends
upon various factors such as traffic, economy, safety, aesthetics, delay etc. Grade-separated
junctions generally are more expensive initially, and are justified in certain situations. These
are:

a) On high type facilities such as expressways, freeways and motorways;

b) Certain at-grade intersections which have reached the maximum capacity and where
it is not possible to improve the capacity further by retaining the at-grade crossing;
c) At certain locations which have a proven record of bad accident history when
functioning as at grade junctions;
d) At junctions where the traffic volume is heavy and the delays and economic loss
caused justify the provision of grade-separation;
e) At certain specific topographical situations where it is logical to provide a grade-
separated structure rather than an at-grade intersection, which may involve
considerable earthwork or acquisition of land.

4.9.3 Basic Forms of At-grade Intersections

Intersections can be divided into the basic forms shown in Figure 4.16 below. From a design
aspect these intersections can also be divided according to whether they are controlled,
priority controlled (stop, Give Way), space-sharing (i.e. roundabouts), time sharing (i.e.
traffic-signal controlled), or grade-separated (including interchanges) [OFlaherty, 2002].

74

74
 Overview of the Design Process 75

Figure 4.16: Basic Intersection Forms

Source: OFlaherty, 2002

4.9.4 Overview of the Design Process

The at-grade intersection design process involves data collection of both traffic and site
conditions, the preparation of preliminary designs from which a layout is selected, and the
development of the final design using appropriate design standards.

Traffic data gathered for design purposes normally include peak period volumes, turning
movements and composition for the design year, vehicle operating speeds on the intersecting
roads (these are needed for sight-distance/ speed-change lane design) pedestrian and bicycle
movements (these affect the layout/traffic control design), public transport needs (e.g. bus
priority measures and bus stop locations affect the layout/traffic control design), special
needs of oversize vehicles (the selected design may have to cope with the occasional heavily
loaded commercial vehicle with a wide turning path), accident experience (if an existing
intersection is being upgraded), and parking practices (especially in built-up areas).

Site data collected typically include topography, land usage, and related physical features
(natural and manufactured), public and private utility services (above and below ground),
items of special interest (e.g. environmental, cultural and historical features), horizontal and
vertical alignments of intersecting roads (existing and future), sight distances (and physical
features which limit them), and adjacent (necessary) accesses.

The preliminary design phase is essentially an iterative one. It involves preparing a number
of possible intersection layouts and generally examining each in terms of its operating
characteristics (especially safety and capacity), ease of construction and likely capital cost,
and environmental and local impacts that might affect the design selection. The most
promising of the rough layouts are then selected for further development and analysis
(including road user and vehicle operating costs, if appropriate), refined and examined in
greater detail until that considered most suitable for the intersection is selected for detailed
design and preparation of final construction plans and specifications [OFlaherty, 2002].
75
4.9.5 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective)
Different at-grade junction (intersection) types will be appropriate under different
circumstances depending on traffic flows, speeds, and site limitations.

75
 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 76

a) An Access
According to MoWH&C (2005), an access is defined as the intersection of an unclassified
road with a classified road and shall generally be provided within the road reserve boundary
of the classified road. Access roads are used to connect properties etc. to the road network.
Accident risk increases with the frequency of access roads, so they should, as far as possible,
be discouraged on higher classes of roads. The lay out and location of the access must
satisfy the visibility requirement for "stop conditions given in Figure 4.17 below.

Figure 4.17: Typical Access Layout showing Visibility Requirements

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

b) A Junction or an Intersection
A junction is the intersection of two or more classified roads on the same surface / at grade.
At grade intersections can be classified in to two main intersection categories based on the
type of control used. For each category, there are a number of intersection types as shown
below.

Table 4.10: Types of At-grade Intersections as recommended by MoWH&C

Intersection Traffic control

Intersection types
category Major road Minor road
A Unchannelised T-intersection
Stop or give way
Priority intersection Priority B Partly Channelised T-intersection
sign
C Channelised T-intersection
D Roundabout
Control intersection Traffic signals or give way sign E Signalised intersection
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

i) Priority Intersections
Priority intersections will be adequate in most rural situations. Three types of T intersections
are given below:
76
Unchannelised T-Intersection (A)
The unchannelised design is suitable for intersections where there is a very small amount
of turning traffic. It is the simplest design and has no traffic islands (see Figure 4.18).

76
 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 77

Partly channelised T-Intersection (B)

The partly channelised design is for intersections with a moderate volume of turning
traffic. It has a traffic island in the minor road arm. In urban areas, the traffic island would
normally be kerbed in order to provide a refuge for pedestrians crossing the road.
Channelised T-Intersection (C)
The fully channelised design is for intersections with a high volume of turning traffic or
high speeds. It has traffic islands in both the minor road and the main road.

Unchannelised Partly channelised Channelised

Figure 4.18: Typical T-Intersections
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
The crossroads form of priority intersection must not be used. It has a very high
number of conflict points, and has a much higher accident risk than any other kind of
intersection. Existing crossroads should, where possible, be converted to a staggered
intersection, or roundabout, or be controlled by traffic signals [MoWH&C, 2005].

ii) Control Intersections

Control intersections are mostly used in towns and trading centres. However, roundabouts
can be used in rural areas in intersections between major roads or other intersections with
high traffic volumes. There are two types of control intersections:

Roundabout (D)
Roundabouts are controlled by the rule that all entry traffic must give way to circulating
traffic. The ratio of minor road incoming traffic to the total incoming traffic should
preferably be at least 10 to 15%. Roundabouts can be of normal size, i.e. with central island
radius 10 m or more, or small size, i.e. with central island radius less than 10 m (see Figure
4.18).

Signalised Intersection (E)

Signalised intersections have conflicts separated by traffic signals. No conflicts are allowed
between straight through traffic movements.
Typical design of control intersections is shown in Figure 8.3. 77

77
 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 78

Roundabout Signalised intersection

Figure 4.19: Typical Designs for Control Intersections

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

c) Design Requirements
The design of at-grade junctions must take account of the following basic
requirements:

safety
operational comfort
capacity
economy

i) Safety and Operational Comfort

A junction is considered safe when it is perceptible, comprehensible and
manoeuvrable. These three requirements can generally be met by complying with the
following guidelines.

Perception
The junction should be sited so that the major road approaches are readily visible;
Early widening of the junction approaches;
The use of traffic islands in the minor road to emphasize a yield or stop requirement.
The use of early and eye-catching traffic signs;
Optical guidance by landscaping and the use of road furniture, especially where a
junction must be located on a crest curve;
The provision of visibility splays which ensure unobstructed sight lines to the left and
right along the major road;
The angle of intersection of the major and minor roads should be between 70 and 110
degrees;
The use of single lane approaches is preferred on the minor road in order to avoid mutual
sight obstruction from two vehicles waiting next to each other to turn or cross the major
road.

Comprehension 78
The right of way should follow naturally and logically from the junction layout;
The types of junctions used throughout the whole road network should be as much as
possible similar;

78
 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 79

The provision of optical guidance by the use of clearly visible kerbs, traffic islands, road
markings, road signs and other road furniture.

Manoeuvrability
A1l traffic lanes should be of adequate width for the appropriate vehicle turning
characteristics. To accommodate truck traffic, turning radii shall be 15 meters minimum;
The edges of traffic lanes should be clearly indicated by road markings;
Traffic islands and kerbs should not conflict with the natural vehicle paths.

ii) Capacity
The operation of uncontrolled junctions depends principally upon the frequency of gaps
which naturally occur between vehicles in the main road flow. These gaps should be of
sufficient duration to permit vehicles from the minor road to merge with, or cross, the major
road flow. In consequence junctions are limited in capacity, but this capacity may be
optimized by, for example, channelisation or the separation of manoeuvres.

iii) Economy
An economical junction design generally results from a minimization of the construction,
maintenance and operational costs.

Delay can be an important operational factor and the saving in time otherwise lost may
justify a more expensive, even grade separated, junction.
Loss of lives, personal injuries and damage to vehicles caused by junction-accidents are
considered as operational "costs" and should be taken into account.
The optimum economic return may often be obtained by a phased construction, for example
by constructing initially an at-grade junction which may later become grade separated
[MoWH&C, 2005].

d) Selection of Intersection Type

i) General
These selection guidelines provided by MoWH&C mainly deal with traffic safety. The
ministry recommends that other important impacts such as capacity/road user costs,
environmental issues, investment and maintenance costs should also be taken into
consideration.

The selection is divided into two steps; selection of intersection category (priority or control)
and selection of intersection type. It is based on the following assumptions:
Priority intersections can be safe and give sufficient capacity for certain traffic volumes
and speed limits;
If a priority intersection is not sufficient for safety and capacity, the major road traffic
must also be controlled.
Depending on location, traffic conditions and speed limits, different types of priority or
control intersection should be selected.

ii) Selection of Intersection Category

Based on Safety
The selection of intersection category should mainly be based on safety. The selection can 79
be made by using diagrams with the relationships between the safety levels and the average
annual daily approaching traffic volumes (AADT in veh/day) based on accident statistics.
The diagrams shown in Figure 4.20 are for T-intersections on 2-lane roads with 50, 80 and
100 km/h speed limit. The diagrams are, as already stated, based on general European
79
 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 80

experience on relationships between speed, safety and traffic flows. They are judged
reasonable to be used in Uganda until sufficient local research is available.
Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day

6000 Q3 50 km/h 3000 Select control 80 km/h

Select control intersection Q3
Q1 Q2 intersection
4000 Q1
2000 Q2

Consider control Consider control

intersection intersection
2000 1000
Select priority Select priority
intersection intersection

5000 10000 5000 10000

Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day

Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day

3000 100 km/h

Select control
intersection
2000 Q3
Consider
control Q1
intersection Q2

1000
Select priority
intersection

5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day

Figure 4.20: Selection of Intersection Category based on Safety

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005
Based on Capacity
The selection of intersection category based on safety should be checked for capacity. It can
be made by using diagrams with the relationships between the capacity and the approaching
traffic volumes during the design hour (DHV in pcu/design hour). The diagrams shown in
Figure 4.21 are for T-intersections on 2-lane roads with 50, 80 and 100 km/h speed limit.
The desired level refers to a degree of saturation (actual traffic flow/capacity) of 0.5. The
acceptable level refers to a degree of saturation of 0.7.

The diagrams are based on Swedish capacity studies with findings similar to other European
countries. It is judged reasonable to be used in Uganda until sufficient Ugandan research is
available.
Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour

50km/h 80km/h
400 Control or grade-separated
400 Control or grade-separated
Acceptable
intersection needed intersection needed
Acceptable

Desired
Desired
200 200
Q3

Q3
Q1 Q2
Q1
Q2

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 500 1000 1500
Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour

80

80
 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 81

Minor road approaching DHV, Q3 pcu/design hour

400
100km/h
Acceptable Control or grade-separated
intersection needed
200
Desired
Q3

Q1 Q2

0
0 500 1000 1500
Major road approaching DHV,Q1+Q2 pcu/design hour

Figure 4.21: Selection of Intersection Category based on Capacity

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

iii) Selection of Intersection Type

Priority intersections
The selection of priority intersection type should mainly be based on safety. The selection
can be made by using diagrams with the relationships between the safety levels and the
average annual daily approaching traffic volumes (AADT in veh/day) based on accident
statistics. The diagrams shown in Figure 4.22 are for T-intersections on 2-lane roads with
50, 80 and 100 km/h speed limit. Crossroads should be avoided. The number of right turners
should obviously also impact the decision. The diagrams are based on general European
findings on safety effects of right turn lanes. It is judged reasonable to be used in Uganda
until sufficient Ugandan statistics are available. Note however they are only a starting point
for determining the most appropriate form of intersection.

81

81
 At-grade Intersection Types (from a design perspective) 82

Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day

6000 Q3 50 km/h
Q1 Select channelised
Q2
T-intersection
4000

Select unchannelised
2000 or partly channelised
T-intersection

5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day

Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day

3000 Q3 80 km/h
Q1 Q2

2000
Select channelised
T-intersection
1000
Select unchannelised
or partly channelised
T-intersection

5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day

Minor road approaching AADT, Q3 veh/day

1500 100 km/h

Q3

1000 Q1
Q2
Select channelised
T-intersection
500

Select unchannelised
or partly channelised T-intersection

5000 10000
Major road approaching AADT, Q1+Q2 veh/day

Figure 4.22: Selection of Priority Intersection type based on Safety

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

Partly channelised T-intersections should normally be used if needed to facilitate pedestrian

crossings and also if the minor road island is needed to improve the visibility of the
intersection.

Control intersections
Roundabouts are suitable for almost all situations, provided there is enough space.
Roundabouts have been found to be safer than signalised intersections, and are suitable for
both low and medium traffic flows. At very high traffic volumes they tend to become
blocked due to drivers failing to obey the priority rules. Well-designed roundabouts slow
traffic down, which can be useful at the entry to a built-up area, or where there is a 82
significant change in road standard, such as the change from a dual carriageway to a single
carriageway.

82
 Capacity of a T-Junction 83

Traffic signals are the favoured option in the larger urban areas. Co-ordinated networks of
signals (Area Traffic Control) can bring major improvements in traffic flow and a
significant reduction in delays and stoppages. However, they must be demand-responsive, in
order to get the maximum capacity from each intersection. Observance of traffic signals by
Ugandan drivers is reasonably good, and could be improved through enforcement
campaigns.

For some traffic distributions, for example high traffic volumes on the major road, the total
delay can be shorter in a signalised intersection than in a roundabout. The diagram in Figure
8-8 shows the traffic conditions for which signalised intersections are most suited, based on
Kenyan and UK experience.

Minor road approaching AADT, veh/day

15 000

10 000
Interchange
needed

Roundabout

5 000
Consider
Signalised
Intersection

0
0 10 000 20 000 30 000
Major road approaching AADT, veh/day

Figure 4.23: Selection of Control Intersection Type

Source: Uganda Road Design Manual, 2005

If a signalised intersection is considered due to planning conditions or traffic volumes, a

capacity analysis and economic analysis should be made. This should include road
construction and maintenance costs, accident costs, travel time costs, vehicle operating costs
and environmental costs [MoWH&C, 2005].

4.9.6 Capacity of a T-Junction

The capacity of a T junction is primarily dependent upon the ratio of the flows on the major
and minor roads, the critical (minimum) gap in the main road traffic stream acceptable to
entering traffic and the maximum delay acceptable to minor road vehicles. As traffic builds
up on the main road, headways between vehicles decline, fewer acceptable gaps become
available, and delays to vehicles on the minor road increase accordingly, theoretically to
infinity.

Field measurements on single carriageway roads indicate that the critical time gaps accepted
by minor road vehicles at the head of a queue average about 3 seconds for left turn merging
with, and 4 to 5 seconds for right turn cutting off, the traffic stream in the nearside lane of
the main road. Empirical research has resulted in predictive capacity equations for T-
intersections, which were derived from traffic flow measurements and from certain broad
features of junction layout. 83

A T-intersection has six separate traffic streams (see Figure 4.24 below), of which the
through streams on the major road (C-A and A-C) and the left-turn stream off the major road
(A-B) are generally assumed to be priority streams and to suffer no delays from other traffic,
83
 Capacity of a T-Junction 84

while the two minor road streams (B-A and B-C) and the major road right-turn stream (C-B)
incur delays due to their need to give way to higher priority streams. Predictive capacity
equations for the three non-priority streams are as follows:

627 14 0.364 0.114 0.229 0.520 . 4.38

745 0.364 0.144 . 4.39

745 0.364 . 4.40

Where;
1 0.0345 . 4.41

1 0.094 3.65 1 0.0009 120 1 0.006 1 0.006 150 4.42

1 0.094 3.65 1 0.0009 120 . 4.43

1 0.094 3.65 1 0.0009 120 . 4.44

Figure 4.24: Selection of Control Intersection Type

Source: OFlaherty, 2002

The superscript s (e.g. qsB-A) denotes the flow from the saturated stream i.e. one in which
there is stable queuing.
The geometric parameters wB-A and wB-C denote the average widths of each of the minor
road approach lanes for waiting vehicles in streams B-A and B-C respectively, measured
over a distance 20m upstream from the Give Way line;
wC-B denotes the average width of the right-turn (central) lane on the major road, or 2.1m
if there is no explicit provision for right turners in stream C-B.
The parameters VrB-A and VlB-C denote right and left visibility distances, respectively,
available from the road;
VrC-B is the visibility available to right-turning vehicles waiting to turn right from the
major road; 84
W is the average major road carriageway width at the intersection; in the case of ghost or
raised islands, W excludes the width of the central (turning) lane;

84
 Design Reference Flow (DRF) 85

WCR is the average width of the central reserve lane at the intersection on a dual
carriageway road.

All capacities and flows are in passenger car units per hour (pcu/hr) and distances are in
meters. One heavy vehicle is considered equivalent to two (2) pcu for calculation purposes.
Capacities are always positive or zero; if the right-hand side of any equation is negative, the
capacity is taken as zero. The ranges within which the geometric data are considered valid
are as follows: w = 2.05-4.70m, Vr = 17 250m, Vl = 22 250m, WCR = 1.2 - 9m (dual
carriageway sites only), W = 6.4 - 20m.

4.9.7 Design Reference Flow (DRF)

One of the methodologies used to assess the adequacy of the capacity available to a non
priority traffic stream is the ratio of the design reference flow (DRF) to the capacity called
the reference flow to capacity (RFC) ratio. For the satisfactory operation of any given
approach lane it is generally considered that reference flow to capacity ratio should not
exceed 0.85. DRF value considers the function of the road. The 200th highest hourly flow in
the design year is used on recreational roads, the 50th highest hourly flow on interurban
roads and the 30th highest hourly flow in the design year on urban roads. It would be
economically and/or environmentally undesirable to design for the highest hours in the
design year. For an existing intersection the DRF values are often determined from manual
counts (including classifications and turning movements) of the existing flows which are
grossed up to the design year using appropriate factors.

4.9.8 Delay
An estimate of the total 24 hour delay due to congestion, D24x, at an existing T-intersection
can be estimated from the empirically derived equation

. 4.45
8

Where; D3 = Total intersection delay (h) during the peak three hours, and P3 = Ratio of flow
in the peak three hours to the 24-hour flow. The above formula assumes that delays are
inflicted only on minor road vehicles, which have to yield priority to the major road streams.

T-Junction Example
A new industrial complex is planned to be sited adjacent to an existing priority intersection.
The width of the main carriageway is 8m. The width of the carriageway for traffic
movements B-A, B-C and C-B are 3, 3 and 2m respectively. The visibility distances at the
drivers eye height for the junction are: VrB-A = 60m, VlB-A = 75m, VrB-C = 60m, VrC-B =
60m. The width of the central reservation is 2m wide. The design flows (in pcu/hr) are
represented in the figure below.

85

85
 Delay 86

You are required to determine the following:

i) Calculate the capacities of the turning movements; qsB-A, qsB-C, qsC-B, for the priority
intersection shown in the figure above.
ii) Asses the arms of the junctions and advise on which arms have sufficient capacity
and which ones do not.

Solution
1.0 Summary of Design Data
W = 8m VrB-A = 60m qA-C = 800pcu/hr qB-A = 100pcu/hr
WB-A = 3m VlB-A = 75m qA-B = 500pcu/hr qB-C = 400pcu/hr
WB-C = 3m VrB-C = 60m qC-A = 800pcu/hr qC-B = 400pcu/hr
WC-B = 2m VrC-B = 60m qC-B = 400pcu/hr WCR = 2m

2.0 Capacities of Turning Movements

627 14 0.364 0.114 0.229 0.520 . .

745 0.364 0.144 . .

745 0.364 . .

Where;
1 0.0345 . .
1 0.0345 8 0.7240

1 0.094 3.65 1 0.0009 120 1 0.006 1 0.006 150 . .

1 0.094 3 3.65 1 0.0009 60 120 1 0.006 1 0.006 75 150 0.0965

1 0.094 3.65 1 0.0009 120 . .

1 0.094 3 3.65 1 0.0009 60 120 0.8882

1 0.094 3.65 1 0.0009 120 . .

1 0.094 2 3.65 1 0.0009 60 120 0.7993

Substituting the above values in equation (i), (ii) and (iii), the required turning movement
capacities can then be obtained as shown below; 86
0.0965 627 14 2 0.7240 0.364 800 0.114 500 0.229 800 0.520 400
59
11.5485796

86
 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 87

0.8882 745 0.7240 0.364 800 0.144 500 428 /

07993 745 0.364 0.7240 800 500 322 /

3.0 Assessment of Junctions Arms

The method used to assess the adequacy of the capacity available to a non priority
stream is the design reference flow (DRF) to capacity ratio called RFC (i.e. Reference
Flow to Capacity ratio). For satisfactory operation of any given approach lane, it is
generally considered that RFC should not exceed 0.85. The critically affected arms are:

Arm B-A
1.69 0.85

Arm B-C
0.93 0.85

Arm C-B
1.24 0.85

Based on the reference flow capacity ratios obtained, it is apparent that all the arms have
exceeded their capacities and therefore need to be redesigned.

4.9.9 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts)

A roundabout is a form of channelization intersection in which vehicles are guided onto a
one-way circulatory road about a central island. Entry to the intersection is controlled by
Give Way markings and priority is now given to vehicles circulating (clockwise in Uganda)
in the round about.

The main objective of roundabout design is to secure the safe interchange of traffic between
crossing traffic streams with the minimum delay. The operating efficiency of a roundabout
depends upon entering drivers accepting headway gaps in the circulating traffic stream.
Traffic streams merge and diverge at small angles and low relative speeds. For this reason,
accidents between vehicles in roundabouts rarely have fatal consequences [OFlaherty,
2002].

a) General Usage of Roundabouts

Roundabouts are most effective as at grade intersections in urban or rural areas that have all
or a number of the following characteristics:

High proportions and/or volumes of right turning traffic;

Priority is not given to traffic from any particular road;
Presence of accidents involving crossing or turning movements;
Traffic on the minor roads is delayed by the use of Stop or Give Way signs;
Where they cause less overall delay to vehicles than traffic signals; 87
Where there is a marked change in road standard e.g. from a dual to a single
carriageway road.

Roundabout intersections are not appropriate at the following sites:

87
 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 88

Where there is inadequate space or unfavourable topography that limits a good

geometric design;
Where traffic flows are unbalanced, e.g. at major/ minor T-Intersections;
Where they follow a downhill approach, the approach should be at least a 2% grade
and should be flattened at least 30m to the intersection.
Where there are heavy volumes of vehicular traffic and where there is heavy cyclist
and pedestrian traffic.
Between traffic controlled signal intersections which could cause queing back into
the roundabout exits.

b) Types of Roundabouts
In Uganda there are two types of roundabouts namely:

i) Normal roundabouts with a centre island radius greater than or equal to 10m. The
central island radius should normally be between 10m and 25m otherwise it becomes
difficult to control speeds for a radius bigger than the above range and puts
pedestrians and cyclists at risk. The width of the circulating carriageway depends on
whether it is one or two lane.
ii) Small roundabouts with a central island less than 10m. The inner central island
radius should be at least 2m.

c) Design Features of Roundabouts

For small roundabouts, the central island should be approximately 1/3 of the inscribed
circle diameter (1/3D);
At larger sites the proportion should be >1/3 to limit the circulatory width to a maximum
of 15m;
The circulatory width around the roundabout should be constant at about 1.0 to1.2 times
the highest entry width subject to the above maximum of 15m;
Steep downhill gradients should be avoided at roundabout approaches;
The frequent occurrence of roundabouts on high speed rural roads should be avoided;
Mini roundabouts must only be used at existing junctions where there are space
limitations and where the 85 percentile approach speed on all approaches is less than
50km/hr;
Entries should be flares. Single and two lane approaches should become 3 and 4 lanes
respectively at the give way line;
The entry flare taper should be approximately 1 in 3. Each lane should be 2.5m to 3.5m
wide at the give way line dependent on site conditions. The taper width at the Give Way
line should never be less than 3m. The best entry angle is approximately 30 degrees.
Lanes may be tapered to 2m width (minimum) on the roundabout approaches;
The entry width of an approach arm at a roundabout is one of the major factors apart
from approach carriageway half width that affects capacity. Flares on the approaches to
roundabouts should be designed in such a way that maximum entry widths are not
greater than 10.5m on single carriageway roads and 15m on dual carriageway approach
roads. A typical flare length on a rural road is 25m. The length can be as low as 5m on
urban roads;
Pedestrian crossing places (including zebras) should normally be within the flared 88
approach but as far from the Give Way line as pedestrian convenience will allow. This
reduces the road width to be crossed by pedestrians. A central refuge should always be

88
 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 89

provided wherever possible. A deflection island may fulfil this function but should be at
least 1.2m wide;
Pedestrian guard rail should be used, where necessary to control haphazard pedestrian
crossing of the traffic streams. It also improves safety.

d) Capacity of Roundabouts
The capacity of a roundabout as a whole is a function of the capacities of the individual
entry arms. The capacity of each arm is defined as the maximum inflow when the traffic
flow at the entry is sufficient to cause continuous queuing in its approach road.

The main factors influencing entry capacity are the approach half width, and the width and
flare of the entry, while the entry angle and radius also have small but significant effects.
The predictive equation used with all types of single at-grade roundabouts is

. 4.46
0 . 4.47
Where;
Qe = saturation or capacity entry flow (pcu/h);
Qc = circulating flow across the entry (pcu/h);
k = 1 - 0.00347(-30) 0.978[(1/r)-0.05];
F = 303x2; where; x2 = v + (e v)/(1+2S) and S = 1.6(e v)/l;
fc = 0.210tD(1 + 0.2x2) where tD = 1 + 0.5/(1 +M) and M = exp[(D-
60)/10].

The symbols e, v, l, S, D, and r are described in Table 4.11. Qe and Qc are in pcu/h, and
one heavy goods vehicle is assumed equivalent to 2 pcu for computation purposes.

Table 4.11: The Limits of the Parameters used in Roundabout Capacity Equation
Geometric Parameter Symbol Unit Practical Limits
Entry width e m 4 - 15
Approach half-Width v m 2 -7 .3
Average effective flare length l' m 1 - 100
Sharpness of flare S - 0 - 2.9
Inscribed circle diameter D m 15 - 100
Entry angle deg 10 - 60
Entry radius r m 6 - 100
Source: OFlaherty, 2002

From the roundabout equation above, entry capacity decreases as circulation flow increases.
The sharpness of flare, S is a measure of the rate at which extra width is developed in the
entry flare. Small S values correspond to long gradual flares and big ones to short severe
ones. The angle acts as an alternative for the conflict angle between the entering and
circulating traffic streams. The entry radius, r is measured as the minimum radius of
curvature of the nearest kerbline at entry.

e) Design Reference Flow (DRF)

When designing a roundabout intersection, the entry angle for each arm of a trial layout is 89
compared with the hourly flow for the design (DRF). The reference flow to capacity ratio
(RFC) is an indicator of the likely performance of an intersection under the future year
traffic loading. If an RFC ratio of 0.85 occurs, it can be expected that queuing will
automatically be avoided in the design year peak hour in five out of six cases.

89
 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 90

Roundabout Example
The table below shows measured turning
movements in the AM peak period as recorded
in a traffic survey at a four arm roundabout.
The survey was carried out in 2005. The
expected rate of traffic growth is 2%. It is
assumed that funding will be readily available
and that if any redesign and reconstruction is
needed, the roundabout will be reopened to
traffic in the same year the survey was carried
out. The roundabout is being assessed for
capacity to carry peak flows in 2019. The
geometric parameters for arms A and B are as
shown below:

Geometric Parameter Symbol Unit Arm A Arm B

Entry width e m 14.0 9.0
Approach half-Width v m 8.0 4.5
Average effective flare length l' m 40.0 40.0
Sharpness of flare S - - -
Inscribed circle diameter D m 30.0 30.0
Entry angle deg 30.0 40.0
Entry radius r m 40.0 30.0

The base year traffic survey carried out in 2005 revealed the following traffic flows in
pcu/hr.

To (Destination)
A B C D
From A - 220 450 210
(Origin) B 200 - 320 450
C 550 250 - 320
D 100 420 220 50

The general layout of the roundabout is shown below

Determine the following;

The design flows for the year 2019
The approach capacity of arms A and B of the roundabout.
Establish which of the two arms still has capacity and which one does not.

Solution 90
1.0 Summary of Design Data
a) Traffic growth rate, r = 2%
b) Design life, Y [= (2019-2005)+1] = 15yrs
c) Geometric parameters of Arm A and B as shown in the table
90
 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 91

2.0 Sketch Drawing

As shown in the diagram above

3.0 Traffic Assessment

3.1 Design Flow, DF

1.125 1.125 1

Where;
P = present flows (in pcu/hr);
r = traffic growth rate (in %);
Y = design life (in years);
DF = Design Flow (a modification of the future traffic flow);
DRF = Design Reference Flow.

The design flows, DF in 2019 are presented in the table below using the above
formulae

To (Destination)
A B C D
From A 0 333 681 318
(Origin) B 303 0 485 681
C 833 379 0 485
D 151 636 333 76

3.2 Entry Capacity, Qe

0

The parameters k, F, fc, and Qc are determined as follows

a) Values of k
1
k 1 0.00347 30 0.978 0.05
r
1
: 1 0.00347 30 30 0.978 0.05 1.0245
40
1
: 1 0.00347 40 30 0.978 0.05 0.9816
30

b) Values of F
F 303
Where;
1.6 e v 1.6 14 8 1.6 9 4.5
S SA A 0.240,SA B 0.180
l 40 40

e v 14 8 91
x v x A A 8 12.054
1 2S 1 2 0.24

91
 Rotary Intersections (Roundabouts) 92

9 4.5
x A B 4.5 7.809
1 2 0.180

: 303 12.054 3652.362

: 303 7.809 2366.127

c) Values of fc
f 0.210 1 0.2x

Where;
60
M exp MA A e 0.0498,MA B e 0.0498
10

And;
0.5 0.5
tD 1 t DA A 1 1.476,t DA B 1.476
1 1 0.0498
Therefore;
: 0.210 1.476 1 0.2 12.054 1.057
: 0.210 1.476 1 0.2 7.809 0.794

d) Circulating Capacity Qc
Arm A: Qc = QBB + QCC + QDD + QCB + QDB + QDC
= 0 0 76 379 636 333
= 1424 /

Arm B: Qc = QAA + QCC + QDD + QDC + QAC + QAD

= 0 0 76 333 681 318
= 1408 /

Finally, the entry capacity, Qe for;

: 1.0245 3652.362 1.057 1424 2200pcu/hr

: 0.9816 2366.127 0.794 1408 1225pcu/hr

3.3 Approach Capacity, Q

Arm A: Q = QAA + QAB + QAC + QAD
= 0 333 681 318
= 1332 /h

Arm B: Q = QBA + QBB + QBC + QBD

= 303 0 485 681
= 1469 /h

92
3.4 Capacity Check, RFC
For sufficient capacity;

92
 References 93

Q
RFC 0.85
Q

Q 1332
ArmA:RFC 0.61 0.85
Q C
2200

Q 1469
ArmB:RFC 1.20 0.85
Q D
1225

4.0 Conclusion
Arm C has a RFC ratio of 61% which is less than 70%, implying that queuing on this
arm will be avoided for 39 out of 40 peak hours.
Arm D, on the other hand, has a RFC ratio of 120% which is far greater than 85%,
implying that queuing will occur on this arm of the roundabout in all the peak hours.

4.10 References
1. Banister, A. and Baker, R, 1998, Surveying, 7th Edition, Longman limited, Singapore.
2. Irvine W, H, 1998, Surveying for construction, 4th Edition, Patson press, Great Britain.
3. Kadiyali, L.R., 2006. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering (including
Expressways and Airport Engineering), 4th Edition. Khanna Publishers, New Delhi.
4. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
5. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2005. Road Design Manual
Vol.1,Geometric Design Manual, Republic of Uganda, Kampala.
6. OFlaherty C.A., 2002. Highways: The Location, Design, Construction and Maintenance of
Pavements. 4th Edition, Oxford, Butterworth Heinemann.
7. Rogers, Martin 2003, Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
8. Thagesen, B., 1996. Highway and Traffic Engineering in Developing Countries. 1st Edition.
E & FN Spon Publishers, London, Uk.
9. Transport Research Laboratory, 1988, A Guide to Geometric Design, Overseas Road Note 6,
Crowthorne, England.
10. Uren, J, and Price, W.F, 1989, Surveying for Engineers, 2nd Edition, Macmillan Publishers,
Hong Kong.

93

93
 94

5.0 Design of Flexible Pavements

5.1 Introduction
The highway pavement is a structure consisting of superimposed layers of selected and
processed material whose function is to distribute the applied wheel loads to the subgrade.
This is to ensure that the stresses transmitted to the subgrade do not exceed its support
capacity. Road traffic is carried by the pavement, which in engineering terms is a horizontal
structure supported by in situ natural material. In order to support this structure, existing
records must be examined and sub surface explorations conducted. The engineering
properties of the local rock and soil are established, particularly with respect to strength,
stiffness, durability, susceptibility to moisture, and propensity to shrink and swell over time.
The relevant properties are determined by either field tests, by empirical estimates based on
soil type, or by laboratory measurements. The material is tested in its weakest expected
condition, usually at its highest moisture content. Probable performance under traffic is then
determined. Soils unsuitable for the final pavement are identified for removal, suitable
replacement materials are earmarked, the maximum slopes for embankments and cuttings
are established, the degree of compaction to be achieved during construction is determined,
and drainage needs are specified. If the road is in cut, the subgrade will consist of the in situ
soil. If it is constructed on fill, the top layers of the embankment structure are collectively
termed the subgrade [TRL, 1993].

The pavement designer must develop the most economical combination of layers that will
guarantee adequate dispersion of the incident wheel stresses so that each layer in the
pavement does not become overstressed during the design life of the highway. The major
variables in design of a highway pavement are:
The thickness of each layer in the pavement;
The material contained within each layer of the pavement;
The type of vehicles in the traffic stream;
The volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life;
The strength of the underlying subgrade [Rogers, 2003].

Pavements are called either flexible or rigid depending on their relative flexural stiffness.

5.2 Types of Pavements

5.2.1 Flexible Pavements

These pavements are rather flexible in their structural action under loading. They are
surfaced with bituminous or asphalt materials. Flexible pavements consist of several layers
of materials and rely on the combination of layers to transmit load to the subgrade. As a
result of this action, flexible pavements distribute load over a small area of subgrade.
94

94
 Rigid Pavements 95

5.2.2 Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements are made of Portland Cement Concrete (PCC). The concrete slab ranges in
thickness from 6 to 14 inches. These types of pavements are called rigid because they are
substantially stiffer than flexible pavements due to PCCs high stiffness. As a result of this
stiffness, rigid pavements tend to distribute load over a relatively wide area of subgrade. The
concrete slab that comprises a rigid pavement supplies most of its structural capacity.
In deciding whether to use flexible or rigid pavements, Engineers take into account lifetime
costs, riding characteristics, traffic disruptions due to maintenance, ease and cost of repair,
and the effect of climatic conditions. Often there is little to choose between rigid and
flexible pavements.

5.3 Elements of a Flexible Pavement and their significance

A flexible pavement is built up of layers namely; surfacing courses, roadbase, sub-base,
capping layer and subgrade [Kadiyali, 2000].

5.3.1 Surfacing
The surfacing forms the topmost layer of the pavement. It usually consists of a bituminous
surface dressing or a layer of premixed bituminous material. It is comparatively thin, but
resists abrasion and the impacts caused by wheel loads and the effects of weather condition
[Bindra, 1999]. The functions of this layer are; provision of a safe and comfortable riding
surface to traffic, taking up wear and tear stresses caused by traffic, provide a water tight
surface against infiltration of water, provide a hard surface which can withstand tyre
pressure. Where premixed materials are laid in two layers, these are known as the wearing
course and the base course (or binder course) as shown in Figure 5.1 [TRL, 1993].

Wearing Course
Base Course or Binder Course
Surfacing

Roadbase

Sub-base

Subgrade

Figure 5.1: Definition of Pavement layers

Source: TRL (1993)

5.3.2 Roadbase
The roadbase is the main load-spreading layer of the pavement. It is structurally the most
important layer of a flexible pavement. It distributes the applied wheel load to the subgrade
in such a way that the bearing capacity of the subgrade soil is not exceeded. This layer 95
requires higher quality material often obtained by stabilizing sub-base materials. It will
normally consist of crushed stone or gravel, or of gravely soils, decomposed rock, sands and
sand-clays stabilised with cement, lime or bitumen [TRL, 1993].

95
 Subbase 96

5.3.3 Subbase
This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the roadbase. It will normally consist
of a material of lower quality than that used in the roadbase such as unprocessed natural
gravel, gravel-sand, or gravel-sand-clay. It may or may not be present as a separate layer
since its presence is justified by the insufficiency of the subgrade or reliability [TRL, 1993].
Major uses include:
Distribution of stresses to the subgrade; as a result the sub base material must be
stronger than the subgrade material;
Acts as a drainage layer in case of poor subgrade. A good drainage layer should be
able to drain very fast if water is logged, but also must be able to retain some
moisture in times of extreme drought;
Serving as a separating layer preventing contamination of the roadbase by the
subgrade material;
Under wet conditions; it has an important role to play in protecting the subgrade
from damage by construction traffic;
Preventing capillary attraction effect.
The sub-base is omitted when the subgrade is a hard intact rock or if it is granular and has a
CBR greater than 30% and has no high water table [TRL, 1993].

5.3.4 Capping Layer (Selected or Improved Subgrade)

A capping layer may consist of better quality subgrade material brought in from somewhere
else or from existing subgrade material improved by mechanical or chemical stabilisation. It
is usually justified where weak soils are encountered [TRL, 1993].

5.3.5 Subgrade
This is the top surface of a road bed on which the pavement structure and shoulders
including kerbs are constructed. Generally the top soil portion up to 0.5m of the
embankment or cut-section is referred to as the subgrade [Bindra, 1999].

It may be undisturbed local material or may be soil excavated elsewhere and placed as fill.
The loads on the pavement are ultimately received by the subgrade layer; it is therefore,
essential that the layer should not be over-stressed. The top part of the layer requires
preparation to receive layers on top either by stabilizing it adequately and therefore reduce
required pavement thickness or designing and constructing a sufficiently thick pavement to
suit subgrade strength. The subgrade strength depends on the type of material, Moisture
content, dry density, internal structure of the soil particles, and type and mode of stress
applied [TRL, 1993]. The major factors that influence pavement thickness are; design wheel
load, strength of subgrade (and other pavement materials), climatic and environmental
factors [Singh, 2001].

5.4 The Pavement Design Process

The overall process of designing a road consists of the following steps:
Surveying possible routes which are part of the feasibility study process;
Assessing traffic; 96
Measuring subgrade strength;
Selecting pavement materials;
Selecting the type of pavement structure to use including drainage system.

96
 Traffic Assessment 97

The three main steps to be followed in designing a new road pavement are discussed below.

5.4.1 Traffic Assessment

The first step involves estimating the amount of traffic and the cumulative standard axles
that will use the road over its design life. In this step, other sub-activities include:
measurement of traffic volume by class; measurement of axle loads; choosing the design life
and Calculation of the total traffic. The thickness of the pavement greatly depends on the
design wheel load. In design of a pavement, knowledge of the maximum wheel load is more
important than gross weight of vehicles. Heavier loads require thicker pavements provided
other design factors remain constant [Gupta, 1999].
During structural design, emphasis is placed on commercial and heavy goods vehicles
whose axle weight is greater than 1,500 kg. It is these classes of vehicle that are most
damaging to the pavement. Their volume becomes critical in design [TRL, 1993].

5.4.2 Subgrade Assessment

The next step involves assessment of the strength of the subgrade soil. The sub-activities
involved in this step include: Assignment of climatic a regime, testing of soils, definition of
uniform sections, and designing of earth works. Properties of the subgrade soil are important
in designing the depth of the pavement. Weak subgrade material requires higher thickness to
protect it from traffic loads. Pavement deformation mainly depends on the subgrade
properties and drainage. During design and construction, proper drainage has to be
maintained in order to control pavement deformation. Climatic factors are important here
because rainfall affects the moisture of the subgrade and pavement layers. The daily and
seasonal variations of rainfall are important in the design and performance of the pavement.
Where the water table is close to the formation level of the roads, adjustments in the design
of the pavement layer thicknesses are necessary. According to Kadiyali (2000) and Arora
(2000), the heights of embankments and the depth of water table below the embankment
affect the performance of an embankment and must be examined. Some of the key tests in
the design of the subgrade include the Compaction test, the Dynamic Cone Penetrometer test
and the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test.

5.4.3 Material Selection

The last step in pavement design involves the selection of the most economical combination
of pavement materials and layer thickness that will provide satisfactory service over the
design life of the pavement. Materials together with their grading determine the stress
distribution characteristics. Their durability under adverse weather conditions should be
considered [TRL, 1993]. See Figure 5.2for a summary of the pavement design process.

5.5 Approaches to Design

Arora (2000) classifies the various approaches of pavement design into empirical and semi-
empirical methods. Empirical methods include; Group index method, CBR method (or
thickness design method) whereas semi - empirical methods include AASHTO method, Tri-
axial test, Nottingham method, California Resistance Value Test, McLeod method and
Banister method. In Uganda, the AASHTO and Thickness design methods are most 97
commonly applied. These methods will be looked at in more detail during the assessment of
subgrade strength. The Group index method is limited as it considers only the particle
distribution of the soil and its atterberg limits.

97
 Highway Design Standards 98

Figure 5.2: Summary of the Pavement Design Process

Source: TRL (1993)

5.6 Highway Design Standards

98
In Uganda, design of flexible pavements has been based on a number of design standards
that include the TRL, Overseas Road Note 31 (1993), Uganda Road Design Manual (1994)
which has been updated, the Kenya Road Design Manual and the American Association of
State Highways and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) interim guides for design of
98
 Uganda Road Design Manual 99

pavement structures 1972-1986. The latest version of the AASHTO design guide was
printed in 1993. The above design guides have been adapted to suit most materials and
climatic conditions found in developing countries. The AASHTO design equation in the
design guide 1972-1986 was also modified through research done by the World Bank to suit
conditions in developing countries.

It is important for engineers to exercise judgement in the use of a given design standard to
ensure that they come up with an economical solution for a pavement design. Use of local
materials has to always be taken into considerations. Sometimes, more than one design
standard is used for the purposes of comparing one pavement design with another so that the
comparison guides the engineer in selecting the most economical option.

5.6.1 Uganda Road Design Manual

The Uganda Road Design Manual November 1994 has incorporated the pavement design
guide prepared for SATCC countries. The SATCC design guide was developed for Southern
Africa Transport and Communication Commission for use in Angola, Zambia, Botswana,
Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Malawi, Swaziland, Lesotho, and Tanzania [Thagesen, 1996]. The
method follows the AASHTO design concept as set forth in AASHTO interim guides for
design of pavement structures 1972-1986 published by the American Association of State
Highways and Transport Officials. The pavement strength required for a given combination
of subgrade bearing capacity, traffic load, service level and climate is expressed by means of
the subgrade structural number. Layer coefficients, according to the position in the structure,
are given to determine the structural number of the pavement. For each type of pavement,
the thickness of the base and sub base layers are determined so that the required structural
number is satisfied [Uganda Road Design Manual, 1994].

5.6.2 Kenya Road Design Manual

The materials and pavement design in the Kenya Road Design Manual sets forth the
standards for structural design of new bitumen surfaced roads in Kenya. The Kenya Road
Design Manual includes design of gravel wearing course on unpaved roads.

5.6.3 TRL Road Note 31

The British Transportation and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) published the first
version of Road Note 31 in 1962 and subsequently revised it in 1976 and 1977. The Road
Note 31 has in 1993 undergone a comprehensive revision by the transport research
laboratory (TRL) and now includes the structural catalogue where a layer thickness can be
selected for a whole range of common pavement combinations. The guidelines are based on
an empirical method taking into account the organisations vast experience in understanding
the behaviour of road building materials and their interactions in composite pavements.

5.7 The AASHTO Approach to Pavement Design

5.7.1 The AASHTO Design Equation

99
The total required structural number (SN) for the entire pavement is as below:
1
LogDT 9.36Log SN 1 0.20 Log 0.372 S 3.0 . 5.1
R

99
 Regional Adjustment 100

Where;
DT = Design Traffic in 80kN e.s.a.;
SN = Total Required Structural Number;
R = Regional Factor;
S = Soil Support Value.
The above equation assumes a terminal serviceability index of 1.5. This equation represents
the relationship between the weighted structural number and the design traffic. The design
traffic has been grouped into classes as shown in Table 5.4. For low traffic volumes less
than 0.5 million equivalent standard axles, reference is made to TRL Overseas Road Note 31
for design thicknesses [Ruhweza, 2005].

5.7.2 Regional Adjustment

A regional factor of 1.0 was assumed for areas with rainfall most of the year creating a
permanently saturated condition (12 wet months) of the subgrade and unbound pavement
layers. The required structural number for this condition was entered into the charts as SNW.
A regional factor of 0.1 was assumed for very arid climates (0 wet months) where the
pavement structure and the subbase never reach a saturated condition. The required
structural number for this condition was entered into the design charts as SND.

Based on research carried out by the transportation department of the World Bank in
connection with the development of the HDM III model, a method for weighing SNW and
SND was developed to obtain the Design Structural Number DSN taking the actual wet and
dry periods into account. The modified formula for weighing of the structural number in
accordance with the applicable seasonal conditions (rainfall) assumes the form:

SND SNW
DSN . 5.2
n . nD . .
SND SNW
12 12

Where;
DSN = Design Structure Number;
SND, SNw = The structure number for dry and wet condition respectively;
nD, nw = Number of wet and dry months respectively during one year (nD+ nw
= 12);

Note: SND and SNw are indicated on the design charts

5.7.3 Design Tables

Table 5.1: Subgrade Classes
Class CBR Range ( % )
S0 2
S1 2-7
S2 8 - 14
S3 12 - 20
S4 18 - 30
100
S5 > 30
Source: AASHTO, 1993

100
 Design Tables 101

Table 5.2: Traffic Groups

Group Description
1 Private Cars and Small Pick-Ups
2 Light Goods Vehicles, e.g. Land Rovers, Minibuses
3 2-Axle and Tandem Axle Rigid Trucks
4 Rigid Trucks with Drawbar Trailers
5 Articulated Units with Semi-Trailers
6 Buses
Source: AASHTO, 1993

Table 5.3: Average Vehicle Equivalence Factors, Ci

Equivalence Factor
Group Description
for =4.0
3 2-Axle and Tandem Axle Rigid Trucks 2.0
4 Rigid Trucks with Drawbar Trailers 6.0
5 Articulated Units with Semi-Trailers 6.0
6 Buses 1.0
Source: AASHTO, 1993

Table 5.4: Traffic Classes

Traffic Class Cum.No. Of standard esa per day in Maximum ADT in year one
axles x 106 year one for Heavy vehicles x 102
5 10 15 20 25
T0 Very Heavy > 20 > 2500 - - - - -
T1 Heavy 8 - 20 1000 - 2500 250 125 83 63 50
T2 Medium 2.5 - 8 300 - 1000 100 50 33 25 20
T3 Light 0.5 - 2.5 60 - 300 30 15 10 7.5 6
T4 Very Light 0.15 - 0.5 20 - 60 6 3 2 1.5 1.2
Source: AASHTO, 1993

Table 5.5: Determination of DSN for different Subgrade and Traffic Classes
Nw 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
S2 T4 27.0 27.6 28.2 29.0 29.7 30.6 31.6 32.7 33.9 35.4 37.2 39.3 42.0
T3 59.0 60.1 61.3 62.5 63.9 65.4 67.1 68.9 70.9 73.1 75.7 78.6 82.0
T2 69.0 70.3 71.7 73.1 74.8 76.5 78.4 80.6 82.9 85.6 88.6 92.0 96.0
T1 80.0 81.4 83.0 84.6 86.4 88.3 90.4 92.7 95.2 98.1 101.2 104.9 109.0

S3 T4 24.0 24.5 25.0 25.5 26.1 26.7 27.4 28.2 29.1 30.1 31.2 32.5 34.0
T3 54.0 55.0 56.1 57.3 58.6 60.0 61.6 63.3 65.2 67.4 69.8 72.7 76.0
T2 64.0 65.2 66.5 67.8 69.3 71.0 72.7 74.7 76.9 79.3 82.1 85.3 89.0
T1 74.0 75.3 76.7 78.3 79.9 81.7 83.7 85.8 88.2 90.8 93.8 97.1 101.0

S4 T4 21.0 21.4 21.8 22.2 22.7 23.2 23.8 24.5 25.2 25.9 26.8 27.8 29.0
T3 49.0 50.0 51.0 52.1 53.3 54.6 56.1 57.7 59.6 61.6 64.0 66.7 70.0
T2 59.0 60.1 61.3 62.5 63.9 65.4 67.1 68.9 70.9 73.1 75.7 78.6 82.0
T1 68.0 69.2 70.6 72.0 73.6 75.3 77.2 79.2 81.5 84.0 86.9 90.2 94.0

S5 T4 12.0 12.3 12.6 13.0 13.4 13.8 14.4 15.0 15.7 16.5 17.6 19.0 21.0
T3 29.0 29.7 30.4 31.3 32.2 33.2 34.4 35.7 37.3 39.1 41.4 44.2 48.0
T2 37.0 37.8 38.8 39.8 40.9 42.1 43.5 45.1 46.9 49.1 51.7 54.9 59.0 101
T1 46.0 47.0 48.1 49.2 50.5 51.9 53.5 55.3 57.4 59.7 62.5 65.8 70.0
Source: AASHTO, 1993

101
 Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 102

Table 5.6: Layer Coefficients

Layer/Material Layer Coefficient
Surfacing
Surface dressing a1 = 0.20
Asphalt concrete a1 = 0.35

Base
Bitumen Macadam a2 = 0.20
Natural or Crushed Gravel a2 = 0.12
Crushed Stone on:
Natural Gravel Subbase a2 = 0.14
Stabilised Subbase a2 = 0.18
Cement Treated Gravel:
Type A, 3.5 UCS (MPa) 5.0 a2 = 0.18
Type B, 2.0 UCS (MPa) 3.5 a2 = 0.14

Subbase
Natural Gravel, CBR 30% a3 = 0.11
Cement Treated Material:
Type B, 2.0 UCS (MPa) 5.0 a3 = 0.16
Type C, 0.7 UCS (MPa) 2.0 a3 = 0.12
Source: AASHTO, 1993

Table 5.7: Compacted Thickness Ranges

Layer Material Type Min (mm) Max (mm)
Surfacing
Asphalt concrete 30 100
Surface dressing 10 30

Base
Natural and Crushed Gravel 125 200
Crushed Stone 125 200
Cement Treated Gravel:
Type B 125 175
Type A 125 175
Bituminous Dense Graded Macadam 70 150
Bituminous Semi-Dense Macadam 70 150

Subbase
Natural Gravel 100 250
Cement or Lime treated Material, Type C 100 200
Cement Treated Gravel, Type B 100 200
Source: AASHTO, 1993

5.7.4 Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design

The steps followed in designing following the AASHTO method are as follows:

a) Determination of the Subgrade strength Class 102

The study of the alignment soil enables homogeneous sections to be defined in terms of the
design CBR Value. This is the CBR value of the subgrade. For each homogeneous section,
the strength class of the subgrade is determined as indicated in Table 5.1.

102
 Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 103

b) Determination of the Traffic Class

The study of the initial traffic flows and axle load distribution, the choice of the design
period and the estimation of the traffic growth rate permits the calculation of the cumulative
number of standard axles to be carried by the road. This acts as the design criteria for
structural bearing capacity. The design equivalent number of standard axles is derived from
the chosen traffic expressed as the average annual daily traffic in vehicles per day, the traffic
growth rate, the vehicle fleet characteristics and the traffic composition. The contribution of
the axle load from private cars and light goods vehicles is ignored in the design of the
equivalent number of standard axles. The axle loading of a mixture of vehicle types is
converted to a number of equivalent standard axles using equivalence factors obtained using
the formula below:

P
C . 5.3
80
Where;
C = 80kN equivalence factor;
P = Load of a single axle (in kN);
= Influence coefficient (may be taken as 4.0 for most instances).

It is better to measure actual axle loads using a mobile weighbridge for medium to heavily
trafficked roads. For purposes of feasibility studies or where it may not be possible to obtain
actual axle loads especially in lightly trafficked roads, the equivalence factors in Table 5.3
may be applied.

The average daily traffic from equivalent standard axles is obtained using the formula
below:

T V C . 5.4

Where;
Vi = average daily number of each type of commercial vehicle;
Ci = appropriate equivalence factor.

For all commercial vehicles having the same growth rate, a cumulative number of standard
axles during the design period are calculated using the formula below:

1 r Y 1
DT 365T . 5.5
r

Where;
DT = Design traffic as cumulative number of 80kN esa;
Td = Average daily number of esa in the first year after opening;
r = average growth rate for the design period in percent per annum;
Y = Design period in years.

To obtain the traffic class, Table 5.4 is used. 103

Equation 5.5 can be rewritten as shown below:

DT 365T . G. Y 10 inmsa . 5.6

103
 Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 104

Where; G is referred to as the growth factor and is given by:

1 r Y 1
G . 5.7
Y. r

c) Selection of Possible Types of Pavements

Knowledge of the types and characteristics of the available pavement materials as well as of
the climates, allows selecting one type of pavement.

d) Calculation of the Required Structural Number

For the estimated number of wet and dry months (nW and nD) and the wet and dry structural
numbers (SNW and SND) taken from the appropriate design chart, the weighted structural
number is calculated using equation 5.2. SNW and SND are obtained from design charts 1 to
8.

e) Determining the Thickness of the Surfacing, Base and Subbase courses

The thickness of the surfacing, base and subbase layers are determined so that the following
equation is satisfied.

DSN a h a h a h . 5.8

Where;
DSN = Weighted structural number for the entire pavement;
a1,a2,a3 = layer coefficients representing the surfacing, base and subbase course
respectively.
h1,h2,h3= actual thicknesses in mm of surface, base and subbase courses respectively

Note: The layer coefficients assumed are in Table 5.6. For different types of materials
considered, guide values for the minimum and maximum practical thicknesses of a layer are
given in Table 5.7 for effective compaction [Ruhweza, 2005].

Pavement Design Example

The Kampala Gayaza road is in a state of failure and is due for reconstruction. The following
facts have already been gathered about the project road:
a) The road is located in a region that has a rainy season with a total span of 5 months;
b) The subgrade soil is a good quality gravel with a soaked CBR in the range of 20 30%;
c) The subbase material will be cement treated Type C;
d) The most economical material for the roadbase will be crushed stone
e) The most suitable surfacing material will be Asphalt Concrete (AC);
Traffic counts and axle load surveys have shown that the initial (unidirectional) daily number of
commercial vehicles will be as follows:
a) 2-Axle and Tandem trucks : 140 veh/day;
b) Trucks with drawbar trailer : 30 veh/day;
c) Articulated Units : 16 veh/day;
d) Buses : 40 veh/day. 104
The economic study has recommended a 15 year design life and forecasts a constant annual
traffic growth rate of 2.5%. Design the flexible pavement using the AASHTO approach.

104
 Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 105

Solution
1.0 Design Information
(a) Number of wet months in the region, nW = 5
(b) Subgrade CBR = 20 30%
(c) Traffic growth rate, r = 2.5%
(d) Design life, Y = 15yrs
(e) Construction Materials:
Surfacing Material Asphalt Concrete (AC)
Roadbase material Crushed stone on stabilised
subbase
Subbase material Cement treated Type C

2.0 Determination of subgrade strength, S

From Table 5.1, the given CBR range of (20 30%) falls in the range 18% < CBR <
30% implying that the subgrade strength class is S4.
3.0 Determination of cumulative design traffic, T

Where;
365. . . . 10

a) Unidirectional traffic Flow, V

The directional split is 100% (i.e. unidirectional)
F = 100% of the traffic volume for each vehicle class
e.g. for 2-Axle and Tandem Trucks;
F = 100% x 140 = 140 Veh/day

b) Wear factor, W
From equation 5.3
.
,

80

e.g. for 2-Axle and Tandem Trucks; C = 2.0 (from Table 5.3) since no axle loads
were provided.

c) Growth Factor, G
According to AASHTO growth factor equation;
1 r Y 1
G
Y. r
1 0.025 1
G 1.1955
15 0.025

105

105
 Steps involved in the AASHTO method of Design 106

d) Table of results

Vehicle Class V C G Y DT
(Veh/day) (esa) (years) (msa)
2-Axle and TandemTrucks 140 2 1.1955 15 1.833
Trucks with Drawbar Trailer 30 6 1.1955 15 1.178
Articulated Units 16 6 1.1955 15 0.628
Buses 40 1 1.1955 15 0.262
Cumulative Design Traffic, DT (in msa) 3.901

From Table 5.4 a cumulative design traffic of 3.901 msa corresponds to a traffic
class of T2 i.e. 2.5 < T (in msa) < 8.0.

4.0 Required Design Structural Number, DSN

The DSN is given by:

SND SNW
DSN
n . nD . .
SND SNW
12 12

59 82
65.4
5 . 7 .
.
59 82
12 12

5.0 Layer Thicknesses based on the Actual Design Structural Number, DSNa
The Actual Design Structural Number, DSNa is given by

DSN a h a h a h

From design chart no. 6, for a subgrade strength class S4 and Traffic Class of T2 (i.e.
S4 T2) corresponds to an asphalt surfacing thickness, h1 of 50mm. And from Table
5.6 a1 = 0.35, a2 = 0.18 and a3 = 0.12. Therefore;

DSN 0.35 50 0.18h 0.12h

By trial and error with guidance from Table 5.7, lets try h2 = 200mm and h3 =
200mm. From which;

DSN 0.35 50 0.18 200 0.12 200 77.5

Since DSNa (= 77.5) > DSN (= 65.4), it implies that the design thicknesses of the
layers are acceptable.

6.0 Conclusion
The pavement should therefore be composed of the following layer thicknesses
a) Surfacing material : 50mm
b) Roadbase : 200mm 106
c) Subbase : 200mm

106
 References 107

5.8 References
1. Arora, K. R, 2000, Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, 5th Edition.
2. Bindra, S.P, 1999, A Course in Highway Engineering, 4th Edition, Dhanpat Rai Publishers,
New Delhi.
3. Gupta, B.L, 1995, Roads, railways Bridges and Tunnels engineering, 4th edition, Standard
publishers Distributors, Nai sarak, Delhi.
4. Kadiyali, L.R., 2000. Principles and Practices of Highway Engineering, 4th Edition. Khanna
Publishers, New Delhi.
5. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2004. Draft Road Design Manual.
6. Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications, 2005. Road Design Manual Vol.1,
Geometric Design Manual, Republic of Uganda, Kampala.
7. Rogers, M., 2003, Highway Engineering, Oxford, Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
8. Ruhweza, D., 2005, Highway Engineering I. Course notes, Department of Civil
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