sri82017 Sui oyrasty - Wikipata
Sui dynasty
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
The Sui Dynasty (Chinese: $48; pinyin: Suf chdo) was a short-
lived imperial dynasty of China of pivotal significance. The Sui
unified the Northern and Southern dynasties and reinstalled the rule
of ethnic Han Chinese in the entirety of China proper, along with
sinicization of former nomadic ethnic minorities (the Five
Barbarians) within its territory. It was succeeded by the Tang
dynasty, which largely inherited its foundation.
Founded by Emperor Wen of Sui, the Sui dynasty capital was
Chang'an (which was renamed Daxing, 581605) and later
Luoyang (605-618). Emperors Wen and Yang undertook various
centralized reforms, most notably the equal-field system, intended
to reduce economic inequality and improve agricultural
productivity; the institution of the Three Departments and Six
Ministries system; and the standardization and re-unification of the
coinage. They also spread and encouraged Buddhism throughout
the empire. By the middle of the dynasty, the newly unified empire
entered a golden age of prosperity with vast agricultural surplus
that supported rapid population growth.
A lasting legacy of the Sui dynasty was the Grand Canal." With
the eastern capital Luoyang at the center of the network, it linked
the west-lying capital Chang'an to the economic and agricultural
centers of the east towards Hangzhou, and to the northem border
near modern Beijing. While the pressing initial motives were for
shipment of grains to the capital, and for transporting troops and
military logistics, the reliable inland shipment links would facilitate
domestic trades, flow of people and cultural exchange for centuries,
Along with the extension of the Great Wall, and the construction of
the eastern capital city of Luoyang, these mega projects, led by an
efficient centralized bureaucracy, would amass millions of
conscripted workers from the large population base, at heavy cost
of human lives.
After a series of costly and disastrous military campaigns against
Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea,I516l ended in
defeat by 614, the dynasty disintegrated under a series of popular
revolts culminating in the assassination of Emperor Yang by his
ministers in 618. The dynasty, which lasted only thirty-seven years,
‘was undermined by ambitious wars and construction projects,
which overstretched its resources. Particularly, under Emperor
Yang, heavy taxation and compulsory labor duties would
eventually induce widespread revolts and brief civil war following
the fall of the dynasty.
hips wikipecs.orgwiki'Sui_dynasty
Sui dynasty
Fsa8
581-618!)
Sui dynasty circa 609 AD
Capital
Languages
Religion
Government
Emperor
+ 581-604
+ 604-617
+ 617-618
History
+ Ascension of
‘Yang Jian
+ Abolished by Li
Yuan
Area
* 589 est.l?)
Population
+ 609 est
Currency
Daxing (581-605),
Luoyang (605-618)
Middle Chinese
Buddhism, Taoism,
Confucianism, Chinese
folk religion,
Zoroastrianism
Monarchy
Emperor Wen
Emperor Yang
Emperor Gong
4 March 581
23 May 618l!)
3,000,000 km?
(0,158,306 sq mi)
est, 46,019,9564"
Chinese coin, Chinese
1ssvac017 Su rest - Wikpada
The dynasty is often compared to the earlier Qin dynasty for cash
unifying China after prolonged division, Wide-ranging reforms and
construction projects were undertaken to consolidate the newly Preceded by Succeeded by
unified state, with long-lasting influences beyond their short Northern Zhou Tang
dynastic reigns dynasty dynasty
Chen dynasty
‘Today part of Hl China
Contents El Hong Kong
FE Macau
= 1 History Ei Viena
= Li Emperor Wen and the founding of Sui
= 1.2 Emperor Yang and the reconquest of Vietnam
= 1.3 Goguryeo-Sui wars Sui dynasty
= 14 Fall of the Sui Dynasty
= 2 Culture
= 2.1 Buddhism
= 2.2 Poetry
Pa HA
= 3 Rulers of the Sui dynasty "Sui dynasty” in Chinese characters
= 4 Family tree of the Sui emperors ”
= 5 See also Chinese He
= 6 References Transcriptions
= 7 Further reading .
= & External links Standard Mandarin
Hanyu Pinyin Sui chio
Gwoyeu Romatzyh Swei cheur
History Wade-Giles Sui? chao?
' . : , ; TPA [swei teu]
Emperor Wen and the founding of Sui
wu
Towards the late Romanization Zoe rau
Northern and Southern
dynasties, the Northern
Zhou conquered the
Northern Qi in $77 and
Yue: Cantonese
Yale Romanization Cheui* chiu*
Sui's China, and Sui divisions under
Yangai (western regions not
depicted).
reunified northern China, | PA ety ot
The century trend of Jyutping Coot ciut
gradual conquest of the . .
Southern Min
southern dynasties of the
Han Chinese from the
northern dynasties,
which were ruled of
ethnic minority Xianbei,
would become
Sui-tido
Middle Chinese
Middle Chinese wa djew
inevitable. By this time, the later founder of Sui dynasty, Yang Jian, of
ethnic Han Chinese, became the regent to the court of Northem Zhou, as his daughter was the Empress Dowager
following her stepson being installed the emperor as a child. After crushing an army in the eastern provinces, Yang
Jian usurped the throne to become Emperor Wen of Sui, While formerly the Duke of Sui_ (fi) when serving at
the Zhou court, where the character "Sui (#) "literally means "to follow" and implies loyalty, Emperor Wen
created the unique character "Sui (S#) ", morphed from the character of his former duke title, as the name of his
newly founded dynasty. In a bloody purge, he had fifty-nine princes of the Zhou royal family eliminated, yet
hips wikipecs.orgwiki'Sui_dynasty 20sri82017 Sui oyrasty - Wikipata
nevertheless became known as the "Cultured Emperor".(7I Emperor Wen abolished the anti-Han policies of Zhou
and reclaimed his Han surname of Yang. Having won the support of Confucian scholars who held power in
previous Han dynasties (abandoning the nepotism and corruption of the nine-rank system), Emperor Wen initiated
a series of reforms aimed at strengthening his empire for the wars that would reunify China,
In his campaign for southern conquest, Emperor Wen assembled thousands of boats to confront the naval forces of
the Chen dynasty on the Yangtze River. The largest of these ships were very tall, having five layered decks and the
capacity for 800 non-crew personnel. They were outfitted with six 50-foot-long booms that were used to swing and
damage enemy ships, or to pin them down so that Sui marine troops could use act-and-board techniques.7'*9
Besides employing Xianbei and other Chinese ethnic groups for the fight against Chen, Emperor Wen also
employed the service of people from southeastern Sichuan, which Sui had recently conquered.!71'*?
In 588, the Sui had amassed 518,000 troops along the northern bank of the Yangtze River, stretching from Sichuan,
to the East China Sea.'*! The Chen dynasty could not withstand such an assault, By 589, Sui troops entered
Jiankang (Nanjing) and the last emperor of Chen surrendered. The city was razed to the ground, while Sui troops
escorted Chen nobles back north, where the northern aristocrats became fascinated with everything the south had
to provide culturally and intellectually.
Although Emperor Wen was famous for bankrupting the state treasury with warfare and construction projects, he
made many improvements to infrastructure during his early reign. He established granaries as sources of food and
as a means to regulate market prices from the taxation of crops, much like the earlier Han dynasty. The large
agricultural surplus supported rapid growth of population to historical peak, which was only surpassed at the zenith
of Tang Dynasty more than a century later.
The state capital of Chang'an (Daxing), while situated in a military-secured heartland of Guanzhong, was remote
from the economic centers to the east and south of the empire. Emperor Wen initiated the construction of the Grand
Canal, with completion of the first (and the shortest) route that directly linked Chang’an to the Yellow River
(Huang He). Later Emperor Yang would enormously enlarge the seale of the Grand Canal construction.
Externally, the emerging nomadic Turkic (Tujue) Khaganate in the north posed a major threat to the newly founded
dynasty. With Emperor Wen's diplomatic maneuver, the Khaganate split into Eastern and Western halves. Later the
Great Wall was consolidated to further secure the northern territory. At Emperor Wen's late years, the first war with
the Korean Kingdom, Goguryeo, ended with defeat, Nevertheless, the celebrated "Reign of Kaihuang (era name of
Emperor Wen)" was considered by historians as one of the apexes in the two millennium imperial period of
Chinese history.
The Sui Emperors were from the northwest military aristocracy, and emphasized that their patrilineal ancestry was
ethnic Han, claiming descent from the Han official Yang Zhen.|°! and the New Book of Tang traced his patrilineal
ancestry to the Zhou dynasty kings via the Dukes of Jin,{®)
The Yang of Hongnong 45 Fel! IU2I1SIU4IU5) were asserted as ancestors by the Sui Emperors like the Longxi
Li's were asserted as ancestors of the Tang Emperors.!!®I The Li of Zhaojun and the Lu of Fanyang hailed from
Shandong and were related to the Liu clan which was also linked to the Yang of Hongnong and other clans of
Guanlong.!'7] The Dukes of Jin were claimed as the ancestors of the Hongnong Yang.|'8]
The Yang of Hongnong, Jia of Hedong, Xiang of Henei, and Wang of Taiyuan from the Tang dynasty were claimed
as ancestors by Song dynasty lineages.!"91
hips wikipecs.orgwiki'Sui_dynasty 3ssvac017 Su yresty - Wikpada
Information about these major political events in China were somehow filtered west and reached the Byzantine
Empire, the continuation of the Roman Empire in the east. From Turkic peoples of Central Asia the Eastern
Romans derived a new name for China after the older Sinae and Serica: Taugast (Old Turkic: Tabghach), during its
Northern Wei (386-535) period.!?] The 7th-century Byzantine historian Theophylact Simocatta wrote a generally
accurate depiction of the reunification of China by Emperor Wen of Sui Dynasty, with the conquest of the rival
Chen Dynasty in southern China. Simocatta correctly placed these events within the reign period of Byzantine
ruler Maurice.'' Simocatta also provided cursory information about the geography of China, its division by the
Yangzi River and its capital Khubdan (from Old Turkic Khumdan, i.e. Chang'an) along with its customs and
culture, deeming its people "idolatrous" but wise in governance 2! He noted that the ruler was named "Taisson",
which he claimed meant "Son of God", perhaps Chinese Tianzi (Son of Heaven) or even the name of the
contemporary ruler Emperor Taizong of Tang.22)
Emperor Yang and the reconquest of Vietnam
Emperor Yang of Sui (569-618) ascended the throne after his father’s
death, possibly by murder. He further extended the empire, but unlike his
father, did not seek to gain support from the nomads. Instead, he restored
Confucian education and the Confucian examination system for
bureaucrats. By supporting educational reforms, he lost the support of the
nomads. He also started many expensive construction projects such as the
Grand Canal of China, and became embroiled in several costly wars.
Between these policies, invasions into China from Turkic nomads, and his
growing life of decadent luxury at the expense of the peasantry, he lost
public support and was eventually assassinated by his own ministers.
Both Emperors Wen and Yang sent military expeditions into Vietnam as
Annam in northem Vietnam had been incorporated into the Chinese empire
over 600 years earlier during the Han dynasty (202 BC - 220 AD).
However the Kingdom of Champa in central Vietnam became a major
counterpart to Chinese invasions to its north, According to Ebrey, Walthall,
and Palais, these invasions became known as the Linyi-Champa Campaign
‘A Sui dynasty pilgrim flask made of
stoneware.
(602-605).(71
‘The Hanoi area formerly held by the Han and Jin dynasties was easily recovered from the local ruler in 602. A few
years later the Sui army pushed farther south and was attacked by troops on war elephants from Champa in
southern Vietnam, The Sui army feigned retreat and dug pits to trap the elephants, lured the Champan troops to
attack then used crossbows against the elephants causing them to turn around and trample their own soldiers.
Although Sui troops were victorious many succumbed to disease as northern soldiers did not have immunity to
tropical diseases such as malaria,|7}9°
Goguryeo-Sui wars
‘The Sui dynasty led a series of massive expeditions to invade Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Emperor Yang conscripted many soldiers for the campaign. This army was so enormous it recorded in historical
texts that it took 30 days for all the armies to exit their last rallying point near Shanhaiguan before invading
Goguryeo. In one instance the soldiers—both conscripted and paid—listed over 3000 warships, up to 1.15 million
infantry, 50,000 cavalry, 5000 artillery, and more. The army stretched to 1000 fi or about 410 km (250 mi) across
rivers and valleys, over mountains and hills. In all four main campaigns, the military conquest ended in failure.
Fall of the Sui Dynasty
Iepesonkpedacro wii ayasy «sezor7 Su yresty - Wikpada
‘One of the major work projects
undertaken by the Sui was
construction activities along the
Great Wall of China; but this, along
with other large projects, strained
the economy and angered the
Chinese swords of the Sui dynasty, resentful workforce employed.
about 600, found near Luoyang, The During the last few years of the Sui
P-shaped furniture of the bottom dynasty, the rebellion that rose
‘sword's scabbard is similar to and against it took many of China's
‘may have been derived from sword able-bodied men from rural farms
scabbards of the Sarmatians and and other occupations, which in
Sassanians [251 turn damaged the agricultural base
and the economy further.!4] Men
would deliberately break their limbs
in order to avoid military
conscription, calling the practice
"propitious paws" and "fortunate
feet."("4] Later, after the fall of Sui,
in the year 642, Emperor Taizong of
Tang made an effort to eradicate
this practice by issuing a decree of a
stiffer punishment for those who
were found to deliberately injure
Strolling About in Spring, by Zhan
Ziqian, Sui era artis.
and heal themselves.!241
Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short (581-618), much was
accomplished during its tenure. The Grand Canal was one of the main
accomplishments. It was extended north from the Hangzhou region across
the Yangzi to Yangzhou and then northwest to the region of Luoyang
‘Again, like the Great Wall works, the massive conscription of labor and
allocation of resources for the Grand Canal project resulted in challenges
for Sui dynastic continuity. The eventual fall of the Sui dynasty was also
due to the many losses caused by the failed military campaigns against
Goguryeo. It was after these defeats and losses that the country was left ing sui dynasty stone statue of the
ruins and rebels soon took control of the government. Emperor Yang was ‘Avalokitesvara Boddhisattva
assassinated in 618, He had gone South after the capital being threatened (Guanyin)
by various rebel groups and was killed by his advisors (Yuwen Clan).
‘Meanwhile, in the North, the aristocrat Li Yuan (4%) held an uprising
after which he ended up ascending the throne to become Emperor Gaozu of Tang. This was the start of the Tang
dynasty, one of the most-noted dynasties in Chinese history.
There were Dukedoms for the offspring of the royal families of the Zhou dynasty, Sui dynasty, and Tang dynasty in
the Later Jin (Five Dynasties).!5) This practice was referred to as =f,
Culture
Although the Sui dynasty was relatively short-lived, in terms of culture, it represents a transition from the
preceding ages, and many cultural developments which can be seen to be incipient during the Sui dynasty later
were expanded and consolidated during the ensuing Tang dynasty, and later ages. This includes not only the major
hips wikipecs.orgwiki'Sui_dynasty 59sezor7 Su oyrasty - Wikipedia
public works initiated, such as the Great Wall and the Great Canal, but also
the political system developed by Sui, which was adopted by Tang with
little initial change other than at the top of the political hierarchy. Other
cultural developments of the Sui dynasty included religion and literature,
particular examples being Buddhism and poetry.
Rituals and sacrifices were conducted by the Sui.26)
Buddhism
Buddhism was popular during the Sixteen Kingdoms and Northern and
Southern dynasties period that preceded the Sui dynasty, spreading from
India through Kushan Afghanistan into China during the Late Han period.
Buddhism gained prominence during the period when central political
control was limited. Buddhism created a unifying cultural force that
uplifted the people out of war and into the Sui dynasty. In many ways,
Buddhism was responsible for the rebirth of culture in China under the Sui
dynasty.
While early Buddhist teachings were acquired from Sanskrit sutras from
India, it was during the late Six dynasties and Sui dynasty that local
Chinese schools of Buddhist thoughts started to flourish. Most notably,
Zhiyi founded the Tiantai school and completed the Great treatise on
Concentration and Insight, within which he taught the principle of "Three
Thousand Realms in a Single moment of Life" as the essence of Buddhist teaching outlined in the Lotus Sutra.
Model of a Pipa Player, Sui Dynasty
Emperor Wen and his empress had converted to Buddhism to legitimize imperial authority over China and the
conquest of Chen. The emperor presented himself as a Cakravartin king, a Buddhist monarch who would use
military force to defend the Buddhist faith, In the year 601 AD, Emperor Wen had relies of the Buddha distributed
to temples throughout China, with edicts that expressed his goals, "all the people within the Four Seas may,
without exception, develop enlightenment and together cultivate fortunate karma, bringing it to pass that present
existences will lead to happy future lives, that the sustained creation of good causation will carry us one and all up
to wondrous enlightenment” (7/8? Ultimately, this act was an imitation of the ancient Mauryan Emperor Ashoka of
India 7189
Poetry
Although poetry continued to be written, and certain poets rose in prominence while others disappeared from the
landscape, the brief Sui dynasty, in terms of the development of Chinese poetry, lacks distinction, though it,
nonetheless represents a continuity between the Six Dynasties and the poetry of Tang.!2”] Sui dynasty poets include
Yang Guang (580-618), who was the last Sui emperor (and a sort of poetry critic); and also, the Lady Hou, one of
his consorts
Rulers of the Sui dynasty
Posthumous Name (Shi
a Period of | Era Names (Nian Hao 4f:') and their according
Hao at) Birth Name ,
Convention: "Sui" + name Relgn range of years
Wendi (7%) Yang Jian (#5 581-604 Kaihuang (lJ) 581-600
pele wikpecs.orgwiki'Sui_dynasty 6sri82017 Sui oyrasty - Wikipata
) Rénshéu (2) 6014
Yangdi (57) or Yang Guing a lone
Mingdi (37%) BR) Go4-61all | Daye (3) 605+
Gongdi (47%) S You (HE | 17.618 vining (#38) 6171
Gongdi (487%) » Tong GB 61g 619ll] Husngeai (48) 6
Family tree of the Sui emperors
See also
Chinese sovereign
Extreme weather events of 535-536
Grand Canal of China
History of China
List of tributaries of Imperial China
List of ancient Chinese ‘Yang Guang depicted as Emperor of
Anji Bridge Sui
References
1. In 617, the rebel general Li Yuan (the later Emperor Gaozu of Tang) declared Emperor Yang's grandson Yang You
emperor (as Emperor Gong) and "honored" Emperor Yang as Taishang Huang (retired emperor) at the western capital
axing (Chang'an), but only the commanderies under Li's control recognized this change; for the other commanderies
under Sui control, Emperor Yang was still regarded as emperor, not as retired emperor. After news of Emperor Yang's
death in 618 reached Daxing and the eastern capital Luoyang, Li Yuan deposed Emperor Gong and took the throne
himself, establishing the Tang dynasty, but the Sui officials at Luoyang declared Emperor Gong's brother Yang Tong
(later also known as Emperor Gong during the brief reign of Wang Shichong over the region as the emperor of a brief
Zheng (5) state) emperor. Meanwhile, Yuwen Huaji, the general under whose leadership the plot to kill Emperor Yang
‘was carried out, declared Emperor Wen's grandson Yang Hao emperor but killed Yang Hao later in 618 and declared
himself emperor of a brief Xu (¥) state. As Yang Hao was completely under Yuwen's control and only "reigned" briefly,
he is not usually regarded as a legitimate emperor of Sui, while Yang Tong's legitimacy is more recognized by historians
but stll disputed.
2. Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D." (bttp://wwwjsto
org/stable/1170959), Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 129. doi:10.2307/1170959 (https://doi.org/10.2307%2F 1170959},
Retrieved 16 September 2016.
. CIHoCny, p.114 : « dug between 605 and 609 by means of enormous levies of conscripted labour ».
4. "Koguryo" (http:/www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/321038/Koguryo). Encyclopedia Britannica, Retrieved
October 15, 2013,
. Bycon, Tac-seop (1999) Pill 82588 (Outline of Korean history), 4th ed, Unknown Publisher, [SBN 89-445-9101-6,
"Complex of Koguryo Tombs" (http://whe,unesco.org/en/list/1091), UNESCO World Heritage Centre, Retrieved
2013-10-24,
7. Bbrey, Patricia; Walthall, Ann; Palais, James (2009). Bast Asia: A Cultural, Social, and Political History. Houghton
Mifflin Harcourt, ISBN 978-0-547-00534-8
8. Zizhi Tongiian, vol. 176.
9. Book of Sui, vol.
10. New Book of Tang, zhs- B84
11, Howard L. Goodman (2010). Xun Xu and the Polities of Precision in Third-Century Ad China (https:i"o00ks. google.com!
books ddl ud J6ffgWEC &pg-PAS &dq~hongnong~yang&th!=en&es=X&ved=OahUKEwiS90_Nj7HNAbWEPz4KHVad
A0gQ6AEII)ABitv-oncpagedeq=hongnong%20yang&ef=false). BRILL. pp. 81-. ISBN 90-04-18337-X.
hitps:lenwikipeds.ocgwikiSu_aynasty 78sri82017 Sui oyrasty - Wikipata
12, Bulletin (https://books. google. conv/books id=rA0iAQAAMAAJ &q-hung mung Fyang&dq-hung mung tyang&hlmen&sa-
X&ved=OahUKEwjSnaikjrHINAhWPQD4KHe_yBIEQ6AEIHDAA). The Museum, 1992. p. 154.
13, Jo-Shui Chen (2 November 2006). Liu Tsung-yiian and Intellectual Change in T'ang China, 773-819 (hitps://books. goog]
«e.com/books ?id=jnK dhb6Ct0oC&pg=PA 195 &dq~hung tnung' yangé&chl=en&esa-X&ved~VahUKEw{SnaikjrHNAhWPQD4
KIHe_yBIEQ6AEMDAB#v-onepageSq-hung%20nung%20yang&f-false). Cambridge University Press. pp. 195-.
ISBN 978-0-521-03010-6.
14, Peter Bol (1 August 1994). "This Culture of Ours”: Intellectual Transitions in T?ang and Sung China (https:ifb00ks.g00
gle.com/books?id=Vs9MBxcHUSQC&pg-PASOS &dq~hung-+nungyangéchl=en8esa-X &eved-DahUKE w)Snaikjr HNABW
PQDAKHe_yBIEQ6AELJjACH#v-onepageS&q~hung%20nung®%20yang&cf-false). Stanford University Press. pp. 50S-.
ISBN 978-0-8047-6575-6.
15. Asia Major (https://books. google.com/books?id—vbKSAAAAIAAJ &q-hung+nung#yang&dq~hung+mung-yangS&hi=end&e
sa-Xéved-ahUKEwjSnaikirHINAhWPQD4KHe_yBIEQ6AEINjAF). Institute of History and Philology of the Academia
Sinica, 1995. p. 57.
16. R. W. L. Guisso (December 1978). Wu Tse-T'len and the politics of legitimation in T'ang China (https:!/books.google.co
m/books?id-KgxyAAAAMAAJ &q=lung-hsi chao+chum+t%27ang&dq-lung-hsi+chaotchun-+1%2Tang&hl=en&esa=X&y
ed-0ahUKEwjZ-LjX-rDNAWKPD4KHdnaC WeQ6AEIQDAG). Western Washington. p. 242. ISBN 978-0-914584-90-
2
17. Jo-Shui Chen (2 November 2006), Liu Tsung-ytian and Intellectual Change in T'ang China, 773-819 (hitps:books.googl
«€.com/booksid=jnkdhb6C10oC&pg-PA43&dq-lung thsi *chao-chun #t%27ang&hl~endesa~-K&ved-OahUKEWjZ-LiXt
DNAhWKPD4KHdnaC W eQ6AEIL}AD#v=onepagesq=lung%20hsi%20cha0%20chun’%201%2 7ang&ef-false).
Cambridge University Press. pp. 43-. ISBN 978-0-521-03010-6,
18, (ECHR)
19, Peter Bol (1 August 1994). "This Culture of Ours”: Intellectual Transitions in Tang and Sung China (https://bo0ks.200
le.com/books?id-Vs9MBxcHUSQC&pg-PA66#v-onepage&q&F-false). Stanford University Press. pp. 66-. ISBN 978-
0-8047-6575-6.
20, Luttwak, Edward N, (2009). The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire. Cambridge and London: The Belknap Press of
Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-03519-5, p. 168.
21. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China,
Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the
Cape Route (hitps:!/archive.org/stream/cathaywaythither0 lyule#page/n3/mode!2up). London: Hakluyt Society. Accessed
21 September 2016, pp 29-31
22. Yule, Henry (1915). Henri Cordier (ed.), Cathay and the Way Thither: Being a Collection of Medieval Notices of China,
Vol I: Preliminary Essay on the Intercourse Between China and the Western Nations Previous to the Discovery of the
Cape Route (hitps://archive.org/stream/cathaywaythither0 Lyulettpage/n3/mode/2up). London: Hakluyt Society. Accessed
21 September 2016, p. 29; also footnote #4 on p. 29.
23. Metropolitan Museum of Art permanent exhibit notice.
24, Benn, 2.
25, Ouyang, Xiu (5 April 2004). Historical Records of the Five Dynasties (https:ifbooks. google.com/books?id-ROQps|ZUiS0
C&pg=PAT6#V-onepagedgéeffalse). Richard L. Davis, translator. Columbia University Press. pp. 76-. ISBN 978-0-
231-50228-3.
26. John Lagerwey; Pengzhi Lil (30 October 2009). Early Chinese Religion: The Period of Division (220-589 Ad) (hitps:ifbo
‘oks. google. com/booksid=q2nW dWbN3MQC&pa-PAR4#v-onepagesq&t-false). BRILL. pp. 84-. ISBN 90-04-17585-
1.
27. *Watson, Burton (1971). CHINESE LYRICISM: Shih Poetry from the Second to the Twelfth Century. (New York
Columbia University Press). ISBN 0-231-03464-4, p, 108.
Further reading
« Bingham, Woodbridge. 1941. The Founding of the T'ang The Sui dynasty: The Unification of China. A.D.
581-617. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. ISBN 0-394-49187-4 ; 0-394-32332-7.
= Wright, Arthur F. (1979). "The Sui dynasty (581-617)" (https://books.google.com/books?id=ReCvuwAACA.
AJ&lpg-PP 1 &pg-PA48#v-onepaged&q&ffalse). In Twitchett, Dennis, The Cambridge History of China,
Volume 3: Sui and Tang China, 589-906, Part 1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 48-149.
ISBN 978-0-521-21446-9.
hips wikipecs.orgwiki'Sui_dynasty sesri82017 Sui oyrasty - Wikipata
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hips wikipecs.orgwiki'Sui_dynasty