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SelfCompactingConcrete
HeatEvolution
CompatibilityIssues
Rheology
PumpingofConcrete
MultiaxialLoading
ConstitutiveRelationships
PerformanceSpecs
SpecialConcretes
QualityControlIssues carriedoutbyOzawaetal2.attheUniversityofTokyo.Thefirstusableversionofselfcompactingconcretewas
NDEofConcrete PerformanceConcrete.
http://www.theconcreteportal.com/scc.html
SelfCompactingConcrete
CurrentDevelopmentsinSelfCompactingConcrete
Introduction
Selfcompactingconcrete(SCC)isaflowingconcretemixturethatisabletoconsolidateunderitsownweight.The
highly fluid nature of SCC makes it suitable for placing in difficult conditions and in sections with congested
reinforcement. Use of SCC can also help minimize hearingrelated damages on the worksite that are induced by
vibration of concrete. Another advantage of SCC is that the time required to place large sections is considerably
reduced.
WhentheconstructionindustryinJapanexperiencedadeclineintheavailabilityofskilledlabourinthe1980s,a
needwasfeltforaconcretethatcouldovercometheproblemsofdefectiveworkmanship.Thisledtothedevelopment
ofselfcompactingconcrete,primarilythroughtheworkbyOkamura1.Acommitteewasformedtostudythe
propertiesofselfcompactingconcrete,includingafundamentalinvestigationonworkabilityofconcrete,whichwas
completedin1988andwasnamedHighPerformanceConcrete,andlaterproposedasSelfCompactingHigh
InJapan,thevolumeofSCCinconstructionhasrisensteadilyovertheyears3.Dataindicatethattheshareof
applicationofSCCinprecastconcreteindustryismorethanthreetimeshigherthanthatinthereadymixedconcrete
industry.ThisisattributabletothehighercostofSCC.TheestimatedaveragepriceofSCCsuppliedbytheRMC
industryinJapanwas1.5timesthatoftheconventionalconcreteintheyear2002.ResearchstudiesinJapanarealso
promotingnewtypesofapplicationswithSCC,suchasinlatticetypestructures,castingwithoutpump,andtunnel
linings.
SincethedevelopmentofSCCinJapan,manyorganizationsacrosstheworldhavecarriedoutresearchonproperties
ofSCC.TheBriteEuramSCCproject4wassetuptopromotetheuseofSCCinsomeoftheEuropeancountries.A
stateoftheartreportonSCCwascompiledbySkarendahlandPetersson5summarizingtheconclusionsfromthe
researchstudiessponsoredbytheBriteEuramprojectonSCC.ArecentinitiativeinEuropeistheformationofthe
projectTestingSCC6involvinganumberofinstitutesinresearchstudiesonvarioustestmethodsforSCC.In
addition,anorganizationwiththeparticipationfromthespecialityconcreteproductindustryEFNARC7has
developedspecificationsandguidelinesfortheuseofSCCthatcoversanumberoftopics,rangingfrommaterials
selectionandmixturedesigntothesignificanceoftestingmethods.
CurrentstudiesinSCC,whicharebeingconductedinmanycountries,canbedividedintothefollowingcategories:
(i)useofrheometerstoobtaindataaboutflowbehaviourofcementpasteandconcrete,(ii)mixtureproportioning
methodsforSCC,(iii)characterizationofSCCusinglaboratorytestmethods,(iv)durabilityandhardened
propertiesofSCCandtheircomparisonwithnormalconcrete,and(v)constructionissuesrelatedtoSCC.Thesewill
berelevanttotheimmediateneeds.Inaddition,thefollowingquestionsalsoneedparticularattention,fromalong
termperspective:(i)developmentofmixturedesignguidelinetablessimilartothosefornormalconcrete,(ii)ashift
tomorenormalpowdercontentsinSCC,fromtheexistinghighpowdermixtures,(iii)betterunderstandingofthe
problemsofautogenousandplasticshrinkageinSCC,and(iv)developmentofsitequalitycontrolparameterssuch
asinallinone,acceptancetests.
MaterialsforSCC
MixtureproportionsforSCCdifferfromthoseofordinaryconcrete,inthattheformerhasmorepowdercontentand
lesscoarseaggregate.Moreover,SCCincorporateshighrangewaterreducers(HRWR,superplasticisers)inlarger
amountsandfrequentlyaviscositymodifyingagent(VMA)insmalldoses.Thequestionsthatdominatetheselection
ofmaterialsforSCCare:(i)limitsontheamountofmarginallyunsuitableaggregates,thatis,thosedeviatingfrom
idealshapesandsizes,(ii)choiceofHRWR,(iii)choiceofVMA,and(iv)interactionandcompatibilitybetween
cement,HRWR,andVMA.Thesearediscussedbelow.
Aggregates
Aggregatesconstitutethebulkofaconcretemixture,andgivedimensionalstabilitytoconcrete.Amongthevarious
propertiesofaggregate,theimportantonesforSCCaretheshapeandgradation.Manyresearchershavebeenableto
produceselfcompactingconcretewithlocallyavailableaggregate.Itisobservedfromthesestudiesthatself
compactabilityisachievableatlowercement(orfines)contentwhenroundedaggregatesareused,ascomparedto
angularaggregates.Althoughtherehavebeenseveralstudiesontheeffectofcoarseaggregatecontentontheflow
behaviourofSCC8,9,10,enoughattentionhasnotbeenpaidtoquantifytheeffectoftheshapeoftheaggregate.
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InthecaseofSCC,roundedaggregateswouldprovideabetterflowabilityandlessblockingpotentialforagiven
watertopowderratio,comparedtoangularandsemiroundedaggregates.Moreover,thepresenceofflakyand
elongatedparticlesmaygiverisetoblockingproblemsinconfinedareas,andalsoincreasetheminimumyieldstress
(rheologytermsarediscussedinthenextsection).Incorporationofaggregateshapeinthemixturedesignwould
enabletheselectionofappropriatepastecontentrequiredtoovercomethesedifficulties.Itispossiblethatthehighly
flowablenatureofSCCcouldallowahigherproportionofflakyaggregatescomparedtonormalconcrete.However,
thisaspectneedstobechecked.

OFlanneryandOMahony11havedevisedamethodforshapecharacterisationofcoarseaggregate,whichcould
assistindesigningSCCmixtureshavingmarginallyunsuitableaggregates.Thepurposeofthestudywastodetermine
dimensionalparametersforfingerprintinganygivencoarseaggregatesample.Theoverallideawastoovercome
localdeficienciesinaggregateshapeandtoarriveatrequiredpackingcharacteristicsirrespectiveoftheaggregate.
Incorporationofaggregateshapeinmixturedesign,basedonthemethoddevelopedbyOFlanneryandOMahony,
isexplainedinTable1.

Anotherdeficiencyinaggregatesispoorgradation.Useoffillers(eitherreactiveorinert)hasbeensuggestedasa
meansofovercomingthisproblem12,13.Atpresent,atrialanderrorapproachisusedtofixthetypeandamountof
filler.Alternatively,particlepackingmodelscouldbeusedtoreducethenumberofexperimentaltrials14,15.Such
modelsarediscussedlater.

Inviewofonincreasedawarenessoftheenvironmentalimpactofminingriversandanddepletingsuppliesofthe
same,useofmanufacturedsandandotheralternativefineaggregatehasbecomeessentialinsomepartsoftheworld.
Infact,riversandissimplynotavailableinmanyareas.Althoughtherearestudiesthathaveshownthatquarryrun
couldbeusedasafillerinsteadoflimestoneforSCC16,therehasnotbeensufficientdocumentationoftheuseof
manufacturedsand,eitherasfineaggregateorasafiller,inSCC.Furtherresearchonthistopicwillbeuseful.

Table1.Useofshapecharacterisationofaggregate

Conventionalmethod Suggestedmethod
Cubicity,sphericity,androundnessindices
(basedonFlanneryandMahony)
Cubicity(CubicityindexIc=100XYZ/X3,
Roundedversus
crushed whereX,Y,andZaredimensionsofthe
(subjective aggregate)toindicatethelikelydegreeof
assessment) potentialcompactionvaluesofindexbetween60
Aggregate and10arecubic,between30and60indicate
shape Flakiness
index flakiness(100forperfectcube),whilevalues
Elongation below30suggestelongation
index Sphericityindextodescribethepolyhedral
shapeoftheparticle,and
Roundnessindextodescribethedegreeof
angularityvaluesbetween84and100are
angular,andbetween52and68arerounded
Adjustmentin
watercontentby
typeof
aggregate
Adjustments roundedor Useindexvalueforadjustmentofmixture
inmixture crushed also,quantifythedegreeofflakinessor
proportioning No elongationbyaweightedvaluefortheindex
recommendation
forflaky
aggregate

Admixtures

SCCinvariablyincorporateschemicaladmixturesinparticular,ahighrangewaterreducingadmixture(HRWRA)
andsometimes,viscositymodifyingagent(VMA).TheHRWRAhelpsinachievingexcellentflowatlowwater
contentsandVMAreducesbleedingandimprovesthestabilityoftheconcretemixture.AneffectiveVMAcanalso
bringdownthepowderrequirementandstillgivetherequiredstability.Moreover,SCCalmostalwaysincludesa
mineraladmixture,toenhancethedeformabilityandstabilityofconcrete.Issueslinkedwiththeuseofchemical
admixturesarediscussedinthissection.

Highrangewaterreducers

AnumberofstudieshavebeenconductedontheuseofdifferenttypesofHRWRAswithorwithoutviscosity
modifyingagentsinselfcompactingconcrete17,18,19.ThesestudiesseemtoindicatethosethatHRWRAsthatwork
ontheprincipleofsterichindrancerequirealowerdosagecomparedtothosebasedonelectrostaticrepulsion.
Statedinotherwords,acryliccopolymers(AC)andpolycarboxylateethers(PCE)areeffectiveatlowerdosages
comparedtosulfonatedcondensatesofmelamine(SMF)ornaphthalene(SNF)formaldehyde20.Atpresent,SNF

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basedadmixtureispricedlower(inIndia)thanthatbasedonACandPCEIntheopinionoftheauthors,SNFbased
admixtureseemstobepreferablethatbasedonPCE.

Viscositymodifyingagents

TheconventionalmethodofimprovingthestabilityofflowingSCCistoincreasethefinescontentbyusingalarge
amountoffiller,reactiveorinert.Oflate,however,attemptsarebeingmadetoreducethefinescontent(andpaste
content) to the levels of normal concrete (in doing so, reducing the potential for creep and shrinkage) and use
viscosity modifying agents (VMAs) to improve the stability. Current research shows that SCC produced with low
powdercontentandVMAhadsimilarfreshconcretepropertiesasSCCwithhighpowdercontentsproducedwithout
VMA21.

VMAshavebeeninuseforalongtime22.Theyweremainlyusedforunderwaterconcretinginthepast,butarenow
alsousedinselfcompactingconcrete.MostVMAshavepolysaccharidesasactiveingredienthowever,somestarches
couldalsobeappropriateforcontrolofviscosityinSCC23,24.

ThesequenceofadditionofVMAandsuperplasticizerintotheconcretemixtureisimportant.IfVMAisadded
beforethesuperplasticizer,itswellsinwateranditbecomesdifficulttoproduceflowingconcrete.Toavoidthis
problem,VMAshouldbeaddedafterthesuperplasticizerhascomeintocontactwiththecementparticles.Another
methodofadditionistodispersethesuperplasticizerinmixingwater,andthenaddVMAtothismixture.

EffectiveadditionofVMAinconcreteisanapplicationrelatedissue,becauseoftherelativelylowproportionsof
VMAneededtostabilizethesuperplasticisedconcrete.UnlesstheVMAisuniformlydispersedacrosstheentire
volumeofconcrete,itcannotperformtheintendedfunction.Atpresent,VMAispackagedinwatersolublebagsthat
canbeaddeddirectlyattheconcretemixer.TheotheralternativeistoprepareasuspensionofVMAinwater
(saturatedwithsuperplasticizer)beforeaddingintotheconcretemixture.Additionofmicrosilica,sepioliteor
attapulgiteimprovesthestabilityofsuspensionsofthesepolysaccharides.

Admixturecompatibility

Alargeamountofsuperplasticisers,typicallySNFbased,isaddedtoSCCtomakeitflowableatareasonablewater
contents.ThereexiststheproblemofincompatibilitybetweencementandHRWRA,whichisgenerallyfeltacutely
formixtureshavinglowwatercontent.JolicoeurandSimard25havestudiedtheinteractionbetweenSNFand
cement.Inconcreteshavinglowwatercontentandhighsuperplasticizerdosage,gypsum(presentincement)may
precipitateout,causingaprematurestiffeningofthepasteandconsequentlossofslump26.However,SCCmixtures
typicallymayhaveawatercontentof170200litres/m3andthecompatibilityproblemsassociatedwithlowwater
contentsmaynotarise.

Sometimessuperplasticizersareblendedwithretardersorlignosulfonates(whichmayhavesugarinthem),forslump
retentioninhotweatherconditions.WhenaVMAisusedalongwithsuchblendedsuperplasticizers,concretemay
notsetfornearlytwentyhours.ThisproblemmaybeavoidedbyusingpureSNFbasedsuperplasticisers.The
retardingeffectoftheVMAitselfwillbeadequateforextendingtheslumpretentiontime.

Mixtureproportioningmethods

Selfcompactingconcretemixturesshouldbedesignedforacombinationoffillingability,resistancetosegregation,
andabilitytopassthroughandaroundreinforcementwithoutblockage.TheprinciplesofproducingSCCareshown
inFig1.Correctselectionofaggregatesizeandgradation,alongwithadjustmentsinpasterheologyisessentialfor
SCC.

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Fig1PrinciplesofSCCmixturedesign

Inthepast,SCCmixtureshavehadhighcementitiousmaterialscontents,providingahighdegreeofstabilitytothe
mixture.Asaresult,watercontentsofSCCmixtureswereabout190220litres/m3.Withthedevelopmentof
viscositymodifyingagentsspeciallysuitedforSCCapplications,however,ithasbeenpossibletoreducethecontentof
cementitiousmaterials,bringingdownthewatercontentstovaluesclosertoconventionalconcrete(160190kg/m3).
Anumberofproceduresfordesigningselfcompactingconcretemixtureshavebeenproposed.Thesecanbebroadly
classifiedintofourcategories:(i)Empiricalmethods,(ii)Rheologybasedmethods,(iii)Particlepackingmodels,and
(iv)Statisticalmethods.

Empiricalmethods

AcustomarymethodfordesignofSCCistofollowtherecommendationsofOkamuraandOzawa27.Inthemethod,
50percentofthesolidvolumeistakenupbycoarseaggregate,while40percentofthemortarvolumeisfine
aggregate.Pastecomposition(thatis.thewatertopowderratio)isthendeterminedusingflowtestsonmortar.This
methodwasderivedfromnumerousexperimentsusingaggregatesspecifictotheresearchersarea.Asurveyof
literatureindicatesthatanumberofresearchersusethismethodasastartingpointfortheirinvestigations.
Adjustmentsincoarseandfineaggregatecontentsarethenmadetoachievedesiredflowproperties.

ModificationstotheaboveapproachhavebeenproposedbyEdamatsuetal28.IntheEdamatsusmethod,the
limitingcoarseaggregatevolumeratioiskeptat0.5.Thefineaggregatecontent,inthiscase,isthenfixedusingV
funneltestwithstandardisedcoarseaggregate(glassbeads).Watertopowderratioandsuperplasticiserdosageare
determinedfrommortarflowandfunneltests.

TheguidelinesrecommendedbyEFNARC7arealsobasedonOkamurasmethod.Thedifferenceisthatinsteadof
fixingthecoarseaggregatelimitat0.5,ahigheramountispermittedinthecaseofroundedaggregate(upto0.6).The
proportionofsandinthemortarisvariedbetween40and50percent,andwatertopowderratioandsuperplasticiser
dosagearedeterminedthroughmortarslumpflowandVfunneltests.Acomparisonofthethreemethodsdiscussed
inthissectionispresentedinTable2.

ItcanbeinferredfromTable2thattheEdamatsusmethodprovidesamorescientificbasisforfixingthemortar
contentofSCC,oncethecoarseaggregatecontentisdecided.ThemethodusedbyEFNARC,ontheotherhand,
allowsforincludingmorecoarseaggregatewhenroundedparticles(asopposedtocrushedparticles)areused.

Giventhevariabilityoftheconcreterawmaterials,andtheassociatedunpredictabilityoftheresultantconcrete
properties,empiricalmethodshavebeen,andpossiblywillbe,thechoiceformixturedesignofSCCuntilamore
rationalmethodcomesabout,eitherbasedonrheologyprinciplesorparticlepackingmodels(discussedlater).Inany
case,withenoughdataavailableonmixturedesignandpropertiesofSCC,itmaybepossibletoconstructmixture
proportioningtablesforSCC,onthelinesofwhatisnowavailablefornormalconcrete.

Table2.EmpiricalmixtureproportioningmethodsforSCC

Maximum
Paste
Proposed CA Maximumproportionof
composition Remarks
by volume sandinmortar,percent
(w/pratio)
ratio
Okamura Mortarflow Originallydeveloped
and 40
0.5 andV usingmoderateheator
(empirical)
Ozawa27 funneltests beliterichcement
Edamatsu DeterminedbyVfunnel Mortarflow Enablesdeterminationof
0.5 testusingstandardised andV stresstransferabilityof
etal.28 coarseaggregate funneltests mortar
Mortarflow
4050percent Allowsmorefreedomin
EFNARC7 0.50.6 (empirical)
andV
coarseaggregatecontent
funneltests

Rheologybasedmethods

Conventionalmethodsofmeasuringconcreteworkabilitysuchastheslumptestprovideabroadanindicationofthe
amountofworkrequiredtocompacttheconcretemixture.Withtheadventofmorefluidconcretes(pumpable
concrete,selflevellingconcrete),itwasnecessarytomeasuretheflowpropertiesofconcrete.Therheologicalmethods
ofcharacterizationofworkabilityaredescribedontheRheologypage.

Particlepackingmodels

Particlepackinghasbeensuggestedbysomeresearchersasascientificapproachtomixtureproportioningof
concrete2932.Areviewofthecommonparticlepackingmethodsisprovidedelsewhere15.Theconceptofparticle
packingisborrowedfromtheceramicindustry.Here,theprincipleistominimisethevoidcontentofadrygranular
mixtureofallingredients(includingcement,flyashandmicrosilica).Thisisdonebythechoiceofappropriatesizes

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andgradationofaggregate.Whilesomemodelsadoptadiscreteparticlesizeapproach,othersassumethegranular
mixturetopossessacontinuousgradation.Thesetwomodelsarediscussednext.

Discretemodels

Theserefertopackingofsystemscontainingtwoormorediscretesizeclassesofparticles.Inthistypeofmodel,the
coarsestparticlesformthebaseskeletonanditsvoidsarefilledbysmallerparticlesandtheseinturnbyfiner
particlesandsoon,intheorderofdecreasingparticlesize.Thefundamentalassumptionofthediscretemodelisthat
eachclassofparticleswillpacktoitsmaximumdensityinthevolumeavailable.Thediscretemodelsmaybeclassified
asbinary,ternaryandmultimodalmixturemodels.

SedrananddeLarrard14demonstratedtheuseofadiscreteparticlemodel(compressiblepackingmodel)todesign
selfcompactingconcretemixtures(withoutVMA).Thismodeloptimizedthegranularskeletonofconcrete,andused
theresultsfromrheologymeasurementsonfreshSCC,fillingability(usingLboxtest),andresistancetosegregation.
Interrelationshipsbetweentheseparametersandthepackingdensityoftheskeletonwerethenestablished.For
example,mathematicalfunctionslinkingtheviscosityandyieldstresswithpackingdensitywerederivedthe
confiningeffectofrebarswassimulatedbytheboundarywalleffectinpacking.TheproportionsoffreshSCCwere
thenfoundbyusingsoftwarewhichoptimisedthemixtureswithrespecttoitspropertiesandcost.

Continuousmodels

Continuousapproachassumesthatallsizesarepresentintheparticledistributionsystem,thatis,itcanbedescribed
asadiscreteapproachhavingadjacentsizeclassesratiosthatapproach1:1andnogapsexistbetweensizeclasses.
Andreassenworkedontheidealsizedistributionformaximumparticlepackingwithacontinuousapproachand
proposedtheAndreassenequation33.
TheAndreassenequationconnectsthepercentagepassingforaparticularsizetothemaximumparticlesizeinthe
systemthroughanexponentq.ThesmoothlineinFig6showstheresultingdistribution,ortheidealpacking
curve.Empirically,theexponentqintheAndreassenequationcanbevariedfrom0.21to0.37dependingupon
workabilityrequirements.Iftheexponentincreases,itmeansanincreaseofcoarsematerials,andifitdecreases,the
amountoffinematerialsisincreased.Asthewaterdemandandwaterholdingcapacityofthemixtureiscontrolled
bythevolumeoffines,thisexponentgivesareasonablebasisforadjustingthedrymaterials,sothattherequired
flowabilityisreachedwithminimumwaterdemand.Theexponentvalueq=0.25to0.3maybeusedinconventional
concretesdependingupontheslumprange.Forhighlyflowablemixeslikeselfcompactingconcretes,q<0.23maybe
used15.
ThismodelhasbeendevelopedintoeasytousesoftwarecalledLISA,whichcanbedownloadedfromwebsite
[www.silicafume.net].Thismodel,asmostothers,isbasedontheassumptionthattheparticlesarespherical.The
validityofthismodelforangularcrushedaggregatesneedstobeascertainedinthelaboratory.Fig2showstheactual
overallparticlesizedistributionwithrespecttotheidealgradation(smoothcurve)ascalculatedbythesoftwarefor
aqvalueof0.22.TheSCCobtainedusingthisapproachhadaslumpflowof69cm15.

Fig2Idealgradingcurveforq=0.22andactualoverallparticlesizedistributionforSCC15

ParticlepackingincombinationwithpasterheologycanbeeffectivelyusedforthedesignofSCC,asshowninTable
3.Theuseofparticlepackingsuggestedinthistableisfromacontinuousmodelapproach.

Table3.AcombinedeffectforproportioningSCCusingtheprinciplesofparticlepackingandrheology

Property Directionofchange(withrespect Rheological Controlby

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tonormalconcrete) control particle
packing

Yieldstress, Use Uselowvalue

o Usuallydecrease
superplasticisers ofq
(<0.23)

Plasticviscosity, Uselowvalue
Usuallyincrease
ofq
(<0.23)
Use
Dynamiccontrolof
pseudoplastic
segregation
VMA

Statisticalmethods

Khayatetal.34proposedamixturedesignprocedurebasedonstatisticalmodelsusingafactorialdesignof
experiments.Theadvantageofsuchanapproachisthatonecanevaluatetheeffectsofcriticalfactorsusingminimum
numberofexperiments.Anotheradvantageisthatonlyanapproximateideaofthevariablesthataffecttheresponse
isrequired,andnottheexactrelationships.

InKhayatsstudy,fiveparameterscementitiousmaterialscontent(cm),watertocementitiousmaterialsratio
(w/cm),HRWRAconcentrations,VMAconcentration,andvolumeofcoarseaggregateatfivedifferentlevels,were
chosen.Theresponsevariablesweretheslumpflow,relativeflowresistance(analogoustotorquemeasurement),and
relativetorque(viscosity).Inaddition,theVfunneltime,fillingability,andsettlementwerealsomeasured.Atotalof
32SCCmixtureswerepreparedtoobtaintherequiredrelationships.

Thismethodwasusefulinestablishinginterrelationshipsamongmixtureparametersforperformanceoptimization.
Tradeoffsamongvariousparametersforthesameresponsewerestudied,suchas:loweringofw/cmandincreasing
HRWRAdosage,keepingw/cmconstant,andchangingthecmcontentandadjustingHRWRAdosage.Thismodel
couldpredicttheselfcompactabilityofdifferentmixturedesigns.

Whatistheappropriatechoiceforthedesignprocedure?

Table4presentsasummaryofthecommonmethodsformixturedesign(basedonthereviewofexistingliterature
presentedearlieralongwiththeirapplicabilitytoconventionalconcreteandSCC.Althoughallthemethodsare
applicabletobothconcretes,itwouldbeidealifmixturedesigntableswereavailableforSCCbasedonguidelines
drawnfromempiricalprocedures.Astrongsupportforthisreasoningisthatthereisalreadyalargedatabaseof
experimentalresultsavailablefromallovertheworld.DevelopingdesigntablesforSCCisnowaviableproposition.

Intheabsenceofmixturedesigntables,thequestionariseswhethertherecouldbeonegeneralizedmethodthatwill
beapplicableforthedesignofSCC.Suchamethodwouldhavetoincorporateessentialparameters,viz.differences
inaggregatemorphologyandgradation,andcementpasterheology.Itispossiblethattheparticlepackingmodelsin
combinationwiththerheologicalmodelscouldprovideasolutiontothisproblem(seeTable3).However,further
studiesarenecessarydemonstratingtheuseofthesemodelsindesigningsuccessfulSCCmixtures.

Table4.Summaryofmixturedesignprocedures

Typeof Empirical Particle Statistical

Rheologybasedmethods
concrete methods packing design
Applicable Applicable Applicable
Difficulttocharacteriseby
Conventional designtables validation notwidely
rheologyalone
available required used
Applicable
Maybe Applicablerheological
SCC validation Applicable
applicable characterizationpossible
required

Testmethodsforselfcompactability

Fillingability,passingabilityandstabilityofmixturescanbeconsideredasthedistinguishingpropertiesoffresh
SCC35.Theserequirementsarenotcommontoconventionalconcreteand,therefore,arehandledthroughspecial
tests.ThesetestsshouldbedonecarefullytoensurethattheabilityofSCCtobeplacedremainsacceptable.Theflow
propertiesofSCChavebeencharacterized7,36,37.BasedontheirexperiencewithSCC,researchershavesuggested
limitsontestvalues.Table5liststhecommontestingmethodsandrecommendedvalues,asdrawnfromsome
researcharticles7,38.Briefdescriptionsofsomeofthelesscommonmethods,particularlythethreesegregation
potentialtests,aredescribedbelow.

Selfcompactabilitytests

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Flowabilityismeasuredmostlyusingslumpflowtest,whichissimpleandreliable.Anestimateoftheviscosityand
theabilitytopartsthroughthenarrowopeningcanbeobtainedusingtheVfunneltest.However,itisreported5that
anumberoffactors,inadditiontotheviscosity,(namely,thedeformationcapacity(slumpflow),sizedistributionand
amountofcoarseaggregate,andtheshapeofcoarseaggregate)affecttheVfunnelflowtime5.Theseeffectshavenot
beenquantified,particularlytheeffectofaggregateshape.Asstatedearlier,thestudyofaggregateshapeandits
influenceonvariousSCCpropertiescouldbehelpfulinimprovingthescopeforSCCwithmarginallyunsuitable
aggregates.

Table5:SummaryofcommontestingmethodsandlimitingtestvaluesforSCC

Property
Testmethod Material Recommendedvalues
measured
650800mm
Slumpflow Concrete
Averageflowdiameter
T50 25sec
Concrete
Flowability/ Timetoflow500mm
Fillingability Concrete/ 612sec
Vfunnel
mortar Timeforemptyingoffunnel
05sec
Orimet Mortar
Timeforemptyingofapparatus
030mm
Ubox Concrete
Differenceinheightsintwolimbs
0.81.0
Lbox Concrete Ratioofheightsatbeginningandend
Passingability
offlow
010mm
Jring Concrete Differenceinheightsatthebeginning
andendofflow
Settlement
Concrete >0.95Segregationratio
columntest
Segregation
Sievestability 515%samplepassingthrough5
potential Concrete
test mmsieve
Penetrationtest Concrete Penetrationdepth<8mm

Blocking(passingability)tests

TheresistancetoblockingofconcretecanbeassessedbyusingtheLboxtest.Thistestindicatestheonedimensional
flowabilityinarestrainedcondition(asopposedtoslumpflow,whichshowstwodimensionalunrestrainedflow).
Thistestisusefulintwowaysbothblockingandlackofstabilitycanbedetectedvisually.Furthermodificationsin
thistestcouldbehelpfulinanalyzingthefullflowbehaviourofconcrete.Forexample,thesizeoftheopeningandits
relativedistancefromtheconcretecouldbevariedtoobtainabetterunderstandingofthepotentialforblockingata
lowervelocityofflow.

PassingabilityofconcretecanalsobemeasuredusingtheUboxapparatus,whichhasobstaclesintheconcreteflow
pathsimilartothoseintheLboxtest.

Settlementandstabilitytests

ThehighflowabilityofSCCmakestheaggregatespronetosettlement.Aggregatesettlementdependsontheviscosity
ofthecementpaste.Testsforsettlement39enablequantificationoftheeffectofmixtureproportioningandheightof
placementonthestabilityofconcrete.

InearlystagesofSCCdevelopment,tendencyforsettlementwasassessedusingvisualanalysisofplanesurfacescut
outofhardenedconcrete.Therelativedistributionofaggregatesintheconcreteprovidedinformationaboutits
potentialforsegregationandsettlement.Apartfromthis,therehavebeensomeattemptstodeveloptestmethodsto
assessthestabilityofSCCinthefreshstateitself.

Cussighetal.38havedescribedthreeteststocharacterisethesegregationpotentialofSCC.Thesetestssettlement
columntest,sievestabilitytest,andpenetrationtest,werefoundtohaveacceptablerepeatabilityandsensitivity.

Insievestabilitytest,afreshSCCsampleisleftundisturbed(staticcondition)for15minutesinabucket.Thetop
layerofthesampleisthenpouredontoa5mmsieve,andthemassofthemortarpassingthroughthesieveis
determined.Segregationpotentialisexpressedastheratiobetweenthemassofmortarcollectedthroughthesieve
andtheoriginalmasscollectedfromthetopportion.

Thesettlementcolumninthesecondtestisamouldofheight400500mm,intowhichfreshSCCispoured.Thetest
involvesthecollectionofconcretesamplesfromthetopandbottompartsofthiscolumnafteracontrolledagitation
(thissimulatesanadditionaldisturbance)andsettlementperiod.Thesegregationpotentialisexpressedastheratioof
themassofcoarseaggregatesinthetopandbottomparts.

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Thepenetrationtestmeasuresthesegregationpotentialasthedepthofpenetrationofastandardmass(54g)intothe
concrete.Ifsegregationishigh,thenthetoppartoftheconcretewouldbemainlymortar,andtheresultantdepthof
penetrationwouldbehigh.ForgoodSCC,penetrationshouldnotbemorethan8mm.

Combinationofmethods

Inspiteofthelargenumberoftestmethods,nosinglemethodorcombinationofmethodshasachievedwidespread
acceptance.Similarly,nosinglemethodhasbeenfoundwhichcharacterisesalltherelevantworkabilityaspectsof
SCC,viz.,flowability,passingability,andsegregationresistance.Variouscombinationshavebeenusedtoevaluate
SCCbehaviour.FortheinitialmixturedesignofSCC,allthreeworkabilityparameterssuchasfillingability
(flowability),passingabilityandstability(segregationresistance)shouldbeassessed.Forsitequalitycontrol,twotest
methodsaregenerallysufficienttomonitorproductionquality.TypicalcombinationsareslumpflowandVfunnel,or
slumpflowandJring.Inaddition,acriticalportionoftheproposedconcretestructurecanbetestedinamockup
trial.

Correlationbetweenrheometerbasedmeasurements(oftheshearyieldstressandplasticviscosity)andthevalues
obtainedfromtheempiricaltestscanbeusefulinpredictingflowproperties.NielssonandWallevik40indicatethat
theplasticviscosityhasagoodcorrelation(almostlinear)withtheT50(intheslumpflowtest)andtheflowtimein
theOrimetandVfunneltests.Goodcorrelationwasalsoobtainedbetweentheslumpflowandyieldvalueofthe
mixtures.Usingsuchanalyses,thescientific(rheological)measurementscanberelatedtotheempirical
measurements.Incombinationwithsuchunderstanding,furtherresearchthatthrowslightontheconnection
betweenthepasteandconcreterheologywouldhelpinrefiningthemixtureproportioningmethods,particularlyin
settingappropriatelimitsfortheempiricallydeterminedvalues.

ItisessentialtohaveanacceptancetestforSCCforfieldapplications.Anacceptanceprotocolcouldbea
combinationoftheabovediscussedtestmethods.Forexample5,inJapan,theslumpflowtest,Vfunneltest,andthe
boxshape(orUbox)testareusedforthispurpose.InSweden,slumpflowandLboxtestareusedasacombination.
Atpresent,guidelinesforfieldacceptancetestarelargelybasedonexperience.Itwould,however,beofbenefittouse
asingleallinoneacceptancetestforcharacterizingSCCforfieldapplications.Ouchietal.41haveproposeda
simpleallacceptancetestforuseinthefield,whichhasbeenusedattheconstructionsiteoftheOsakaGasLNG
tank42.Inthistest,thetestingapparatusisinstalledbetweentheconcretetruckandthepumpatthejobsite.The
entireconcretefromthemixertruckispassedthroughthisapparatus,whichconsistsofaboxwithopenings(with
reinforcingbarsasobstacles)onthesides.Iftheconcreteflowsthroughtheapparatus,itisconsideredasself
compactableforthestructure.Ifitgetsblockedintheapparatus,itisconsideredunsuitable.

Table6presentsanewschemeforclassificationanduseoftheSCCtestmethods.Here,themethodsareclassified
intoteststhat(i)determinebasicrheologicalproperties,(ii)canbeusedforfixingtheproportionofconstituents,and
(iii)canbeusedasqualitycontroltestsatthejobsite.

Table6:ClassificationofSCCtestmethods

Testsforadjustingmixture
Basictests Testsforqualitycontrol
proportions
Flowability

VfunnelPassing
ability
Rheology
Ubox
Shear SlumpflowandT50

yield
Lbox
stress SlumpflowandJringAllinone

acceptancetest41
Segregationcontrol
Plastic

viscosity
Settlementcolumn

Sievestability

Walraven43indicatedthatthetypeofapplicationshoulddeterminethepropertiesofSCCnecessaryforthejob.
Basedonexperience,itwasfoundthatvariousconsistencyclassescouldbedefinedusingacombinationofVfunnel
timeandslumpflowdistances.Theapplicationwalls,floors,rampswouldthenindicatetherequirementsfrom
thesetwotests(seeFig3).Inthecaseoframps,forexample,aVfunneltimeof925secandaslumpflowof470
570mmaresuggested.Withexperiencegainedfromfurtherstudies,itmaybepossibletoevensetlimitsonthewater
content,powdercontent(orwatertopowderratio),mortarandcoarseaggregatecontentforaparticulartypeof
application.Inotherwords,basedontheapplication,onewouldbeabletochoosetherequiredconsistencyclass,
whichcanbebuiltintothemixturedesignprocedureofSCCforappropriateselectionofingredients.Thiscanonly
bepossibleifmixturedesignguidelinetablesforSCC,onthelinesoftheconventionalconcretedesignprocedures,
arecreatedusingavailabledatabase.

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Fig3AschematicfromWalraven43linkingSCCpropertieswithapplications

Constructionissues

UseofSCChasbeendemonstratedinanumberofstructuresinJapanandEurope.Afrequentlycitedcaseisthe
constructionofanchoragesfortheAkashiKaikyobridgeinJapan44.Examplesofotherapplicationsinclude:
constructionofawallforalargeliquefiednaturalgastankinJapan42,viaductinYokohamaCity45,andanumberof
bridgesinSweden46,47.

ExperienceintheseprojectsbringstolightcertainconstructionissuesrelatingtotheuseofSCC.Oneissueisthatof
understandingthelimitofflowdistanceoftheconcrete,inordertoavoidsegregationofcoarseaggregate.Results
fromJapanindicatethatfordistanceslessthan10m,segregationdoesnotoccur.Arimaetal.48proposedtheuseof
automaticgatevalvesfordischargingtheconcreteatmanydifferentpoints,atintervalsof620m.

AnotherissueisthatoflateralpressureoftheSCContheformwork,duetothehighlyfluidnatureofSCC49.Higher
ratesofcastingwithSCCcouldcompoundtheproblemofexcessformworkpressure.Primafacie,itmayappearthat
morerobustformworkandfalseworkwillberequired.However,availableresultsindicatethatSCCexertsaboutthe
samepressureasconventionalconcrete.ThiscanbeattributedperhapstotheinherentthixotropyofSCC,orinother
wordsto,thesignificantbuildupofviscosityfollowingaperiodofrest.ResearchfromSwedenhasshown61thatthe
useofSCCactuallyresultedinpressureslessthanthedesignvaluesforconventionalconcrete,andonlyslightlymore
thantheconventionallyvibratedconcrete.Forexample,atthesamecastingrateof1.5m/hourfora3mhighwall,
theformpressuredevelopedatthebasewas25kPafornormallyvibratedconcreteand29kPaforSCC,whilethe
calculateddesignvaluewasmorethan40kPa.Differenceinformpressuresofthetwoconcreteswasnotsignificant,
giventhevastdifferencesinmixturedesignandcompaction.Inthesamestudy,formpressurewasfoundtobe
proportionaltothecastingrate.

HardenedconcretepropertiesofSCC

ThemajordifferencebetweenselfcompactingandconventionallyvibratedconcreteisthehigherflowabilityofSCC,
andconsequentlyahigherproportionoffinematerials.Giventhisdifference,theavailableknowledgeofconcrete
propertieswouldsuggestthedifferencesinperformancebetweenthesetwoconcretesshownincolumn2ofTable7.
However,therealitycouldbesometimesdifferent,asshowninthelastcolumnofthattable.Resultsfromrelevant
studiesoutliningtheseperformancecharacteristicsarediscussedlater.

Table7:DifferencesinperformanceofSCCandnormallyvibratedconcrete

PropertyofSCC Expectation Reality

Variationinstrengthacross Nodifference(betweenSCC
CantakeplaceforSCC
depthofstructure andvibratedconcrete)
Creepanddryingshrinkage HigherforSCC Nosignificantdifference
Earlyageshrinkageand
HigherforSCC HigherforSCC
cracking
Strengthandelastic Nodifferenceforsame
Nodifference
modulus gradeofconcrete
Durability BetterforSCC BetterforSCC

Uniformity

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StudiesontheuniformityofSCChaverevealedthattheperformanceofSCCiscomparabletoawellcompacted
conventionalconcrete.Khayatetal.50showedthatthevariationsininsitustrength(determinedfromcores)along
theheightofexperimentalwallsandcolumnsweresimilarfortheSCCandconventionalmixes.Zhuetal.51
improveduponthisworkbyusingfullscalebeamsandcolumnsfortheirstudyontheuniformityofSCC.Theinsitu
concretepropertieswereassessedbytestingcoresforinsitustrength,pulloutofpreembeddedinsertsandrebound
hammerfornearsurfaceproperties.SCCandconventionalconcretesshowedsimilarresults.

CreepandshrinkageofSCC

Creepandshrinkageofconcreteisprimarilygovernedbytheamountofhydratedcementpaste(hcp)orgelinthe
concretemixture.ItmaybeconjecturedthatthehigherpastecontentofSCC(asaresultofusingsupplementary
cementingmaterialssuchasflyash)couldleadtoahighertendencytocreepundersustainedloads,andalsomore
shrinkage.However,acomparativestudy52ofthemechanicalpropertiesstrength,elasticmodulus,creepand
shrinkageofSCCandconventionalconcreteshowedthatthepropertiesdidnotdiffersignificantly52.Accordingto
thisstudy,thecreep,shrinkage,andelasticmodulusofSCCcomparedwellwithnormalconcretewhenthestrength
waskeptconstant.ThetendencytocreepwasseentobehigheratearlyagesforSCC,justasinthecasewiththe
normalconcrete.

Anunderstandingofthedistinctionbetweenfreshcementpasteandhydratedcementpasteisnecessaryto
comprehendthedeviationfromexpectedbehaviourofSCCinrespectofcreepandshrinkage.Table8liststhepaste
andgelcompositionsfordifferentsystemsthatuseflyashassupplementarycementingmaterial.Theamountof
finescontentinfreshpasteisincreasedinSCCcomparedtobothpozzolanicandplainconcrete.However,thecontent
ofthehydratedgelneednotbeverydifferentfromplainconcrete.Someoftheflyashsimplyactsasafillerinthe
systemanddoesnotparticipateinthehydrationprocess.Similarly,whenotherfillerssuchaslimestonepowderare
used,theydonotconverttohydratedgel,butremainassolidparticles.Ifthecementcontentcanbekeptatlevels
similartonormalconcrete,thenthereisnotmuchpossibilityofhighercreepandshrinkage.

Table8:Distinctionbetweenfreshandhydratedpaste

Creepand
drying
Typeof
Freshpaste Hydratedpaste shrinkage
concrete
(arbitrary
units)
Plain
Cement+water Hydratedgel+Water 100
concrete
Marginally
Pozzolanic Cement+~20percent Hydratedgel(cementitiousand
higher
concrete addedflyash+water pozzolanic)+water
(~110)
SCC Marginally
Cement+~40percent Hydratedgel(cementitiousand
(withfly higher
addedflyash+water pozzolanic)+flyash+water
ash) (~110)
SCC
(with Cement+~40%added Hydratedgel(cementitious)+
100
limestone limestonepowder+water limestonepowder+water
powder)

ThelowwatertobinderratiosadoptedinSCC(atitsearlydevelopmentstages)couldalsocontributetotheproblem
ofautogenousshrinkage.ThehigherfinescontentofSCCcanalsoincreasecapillarypressurescausingshrinkage.
SCCisvulnerabletocrackingatearlyages53(28hours).TurcryandLoukili54havereportedthatatthesame
evaporationrate,theplasticshrinkageofSCCwasatleasttwotimeshigherthanthecorrespondingordinary
concrete.However,itwasseenthatautogenousshrinkagewasonlyasmallfractionoftheoverallshrinkageinthe
plasticstage(<15percent).Withlowerpowdercontentsinconcrete,itmaybepossibletolowerthepotentialforsuch
cracks.Inanycase,SCCshouldbetreatedsimilartoconventionalhighperformanceconcretesystems(withhigh
cementitiousmaterialscontent),andcuringshouldbestartedearly(withintwohoursfromcasting).

DurabilityofhardenedSCC

BridgesbuiltusingSCCinSweden55haveshownpromisingresults.Highstrengthsandadequatedurabilitywere
obtainedusingSCC.Inastudyofthepermeationpropertiesofconcrete,ZhuandBartos56foundthatSCCshowed
lowerwatersorptivityandoxygenpermeabilitycomparedtoreferenceconcrete(ofthesamegrade).ASwedishstudy
oncoresamplestakenfromtunnellinings,bridgesandretainingwalls57indicatedthatSCChadahigherresistance
againstchloridepenetrationthanconventionalconcrete(atequivalentw/c57).Investigationoffreezethawand
scalingalsoconfirmedbetterresultsforSCC.Aftermicrostructuralinvestigations,theimprovedperformanceof
SCCwasattributedtotheincreasedispersionofcementandfiller,andadenserITZcomparedtoconventional
concrete.

AstudyoffrostdurabilitybyPersson58indicatedthatatthesameaircontent,theinternalfrostresistanceofSCC
wasbetterthanthecorrespondingconventionalconcrete,whilethesaltscalingwassimilarinthetwoconcretes.

Summary
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Summary
Selfcompactingconcreteisarecentdevelopmentthatshowspotentialforfutureapplications.Itmeetsthedemands
placedbytherequirementsofspeedandqualityinconcreteconstruction.

BasedoncurrentresearchandavailableknowledgeaboutSCCpresentedinthispaper,thefollowingtrendsare
emerging:

i.Useofviscositymodifyingagents(ofthepseudoplasticvariety)compiledwithhighrangewaterreducingagent
fordynamic
controlofflowandsegregationisincreasing
ii.Abetterunderstandingoftherheologicalparametersyieldstressandplasticviscosityhasmadeiteasierto
describetheroleofsuperplasticizer,particlepacking(increasedfinescontentetc.)andpseudoplasticVMAin
SCC.IthasalsogiventheuseratooltoprescribevariantsofSCCbasedonthetypeofapplicationandplacing
conditions
iii.ThereisnowaccumulatedevidencethatpropertiesofSCCinhardenedstatearesimilartothoseof
conventionalconcrete
ThewidevarietyoftestmethodsforSCCcanbeclassifiedforsimplicityintobasictests,proportioningtests
andcontrol/verificationtests

Thefollowingtopicsrequirefurtherinvestigation:

Useofbasicrheologicalmeasurementstoestablishempiricalorarbitrarytestparameters
Determinationofyieldstressandplasticviscosityfordifferentplacingconditions
Establishingtheroleoffines,superplasticizers,andVMAinSCC,withrespecttocompatibilitybetweenthese
systems
Developmentofcriteriaforusingmarginallyunsuitableaggregates(inrespectofshapeandgrading)aswellas
alternativeaggregates(suchasmanufacturedsand)inSCC
FeasibilityofcombiningrheologyandparticlepackingmodelsforproportioningSCCmixtures(longterm
goal)
PreparationofasetofdesigntablesformixtureproportioningofSCConthelinesofACICommittee211.

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