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Aristotle:ThePolis,fromPolitics
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Additions ThePolisasthehighestgood
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Help EveryStateisacommunityofsomekind,andeverycommunityisestablishedwithaviewtosomegoodformankindalways
actinordertoobtainthatwhichtheythinkgood.But,ifallcommunitiesaimatsomegood,thestateorpoliticalcommunity,
whichisthehighestofall,andwhichembracesalltherest,aimsatgoodinagreaterdegreethananyother,andatthe
StudyingHistory highestgood.
HumanOrigins
Somepeoplethinkthatthequalificationsofastatesman,king,householder,andmasterarethesame,andthattheydiffer,
Mesopotamia
notinkind,butonlyinthenumberoftheirsubjects.Forexample,theruleroverafewiscalledamasterovermore,the
Egypt
managerofahouseholdoverastilllargernumber,astatesmanorking,asiftherewerenodifferencebetweenagreat
Persia householdandasmallstate.Thedistinctionwhichismadebetweenthekingandthestatesmanisasfollows:Whenthe
Israel governmentispersonal,therulerisakingwhen,accordingtotherulesofthepoliticalscience,thecitizensruleandare
Greece ruledinturn,thenheiscalledastatesman.
HellenisticWorld
Butallthisisamistakeforgovernmentsdifferinkind,aswillbeevidenttoanyonewhoconsidersthematteraccordingto
Rome
themethodwhichhashithertoguidedus.Asinotherdepartmentsofscience,soinpolitics,thecompoundshouldalwaysbe
LateAntiquity resolvedintothesimpleelementsorleastpartsofthewhole.Wemustthereforelookattheelementsofwhichthestateis
ChristianOrigins composed,inorderthatwemayseeinwhatthedifferentkindsofruledifferfromoneanother,andwhetheranyscientific
resultcanbeattainedabouteachoneofthem.
IHSPCredits
Hewhothusconsidersthingsintheirfirstgrowthandorigin,whetherastateoranythingelse,willobtaintheclearestviewof
them.Inthefirstplacetheremustbeaunionofthosewhocannotexistwithouteachothernamely,ofmaleandfemale,
thattheracemaycontinue(andthisisaunionwhichisformed,notofdeliberatepurpose,butbecause,incommonwith
otheranimalsandwithplants,mankindhaveanaturaldesiretoleavebehindthemanimageofthemselves),andofnatural
rulerandsubject,thatbothmaybepreserved.Forthatwhichcanforeseebytheexerciseofmindisbynatureintendedtobe
lordandmaster,andthatwhichcanwithitsbodygiveeffecttosuchforesightisasubject,andbynatureaslavehence
masterandslavehavethesameinterest.Nownaturehasdistinguishedbetweenthefemaleandtheslave.Forsheisnot
niggardly,likethesmithwhofashionstheDelphianknifeformanyusesshemakeseachthingforasingleuse,andevery
instrumentisbestmadewhenintendedforoneandnotformanyuses.Butamongbarbariansnodistinctionismadebetween

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womenandslaves,becausethereisnonaturalruleramongthem:theyareacommunityofslaves,maleandfemale.
Whereforethepoetssay,

"ItismeetthatHellenesshouldruleoverbarbarians"

asiftheythoughtthatthebarbarianandtheslavewerebynatureone.

Outofthesetworelationshipsbetweenmanandwoman,masterandslave,thefirstthingtoariseisthefamily,and
Hesiodisrightwhenhesays,

"Firsthouseandwifeandanoxfortheplough,"

fortheoxisthepoorman'sslave.Thefamilyistheassociationestablishedbynatureforthesupplyofmen'severydaywants,
andthemembersofitarecalledbyCharondas'companionsofthecupboard,'andbyEpimenidestheCretan,'companionsof
themanger.'Butwhenseveralfamiliesareunited,andtheassociationaimsatsomethingmorethanthesupplyofdaily
needs,thefirstsocietytobeformedisthevillage.Andthemostnaturalformofthevillageappearstobethatofacolony
fromthefamily,composedofthechildrenandgrandchildren,whoaresaidtobesuckled'withthesamemilk.'Andthisisthe
reasonwhyHellenicstateswereoriginallygovernedbykingsbecausetheHelleneswereunderroyalrulebeforetheycame
together,asthebarbariansstillare.Everyfamilyisruledbytheeldest,andthereforeinthecoloniesofthefamilythekingly
formofgovernmentprevailedbecausetheywereofthesameblood.AsHomersays:

"Eachonegiveslawtohischildrenandtohiswives."

Fortheyliveddispersedly,aswasthemannerinancienttimes.WhereforemensaythattheGodshaveaking,becausethey
themselveseitherareorwereinancienttimesundertheruleofaking.Fortheyimagine,notonlytheformsoftheGods,but
theirwaysoflifetobeliketheirown.

Whenseveralvillagesareunitedinasinglecompletecommunity,largeenoughtobenearlyorquiteselfsufficing,thestate
comesintoexistence,originatinginthebareneedsoflife,andcontinuinginexistenceforthesakeofagoodlife.And
therefore,iftheearlierformsofsocietyarenatural,soisthestate,foritistheendofthem,andthenatureofathingisits
end.Forwhateachthingiswhenfullydeveloped,wecallitsnature,whetherwearespeakingofaman,ahorse,orafamily.
Besides,thefinalcauseandendofathingisthebest,andtobeselfsufficingistheendandthebest.

Henceitisevidentthatthestateisacreationofnature,andthatmanisbynatureapoliticalanimal.Andhewhobynature
andnotbymereaccidentiswithoutastate,iseitherabadmanorabovehumanityheislikethe

"Tribeless,lawless,hearthlessone,"

whomHomerdenouncesthenaturaloutcastisforthwithaloverofwarhemaybecomparedtoanisolatedpieceat
draughts.

Now,thatmanismoreofapoliticalanimalthanbeesoranyothergregariousanimalsisevident.Nature,asweoftensay,
makesnothinginvain,andmanistheonlyanimalwhomshehasendowedwiththegiftofspeech.Andwhereasmerevoice
isbutanindicationofpleasureorpain,andisthereforefoundinotheranimals(fortheirnatureattainstotheperceptionof
pleasureandpainandtheintimationofthemtooneanother,andnofurther),thepowerofspeechisintendedtosetforth
theexpedientandinexpedient,andthereforelikewisethejustandtheunjust.Anditisacharacteristicofmanthathealone
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hasanysenseofgoodandevil,ofjustandunjust,andthelike,andtheassociationoflivingbeingswhohavethissense
makesafamilyandastate.

Further,thestateisbynatureclearlypriortothefamilyandtotheindividual,sincethewholeisofnecessitypriortothepart
forexample,ifthewholebodybedestroyed,therewillbenofootorhand,exceptinanequivocalsense,aswemightspeak
ofastonehandforwhendestroyedthehandwillbenobetterthanthat.Butthingsaredefinedbytheirworkingandpower
andweoughtnottosaythattheyarethesamewhentheynolongerhavetheirproperquality,butonlythattheyhavethe
samename.Theproofthatthestateisacreationofnatureandpriortotheindividualisthattheindividual,whenisolated,is
notselfsufficingandthereforeheislikeapartinrelationtothewhole.Buthewhoisunabletoliveinsociety,orwhohas
noneedbecauseheissufficientforhimself,mustbeeitherabeastoragod:heisnopartofastate.Asocialinstinctis
implantedinallmenbynature,andyethewhofirstfoundedthestatewasthegreatestofbenefactors.Forman,when
perfected,isthebestofanimals,but,whenseparatedfromlawandjustice,heistheworstofallsincearmedinjusticeisthe
moredangerous,andheisequippedatbirthwitharms,meanttobeusedbyintelligenceandvirtue,whichhemayusefor
theworstends.Wherefore,ifhehavenotvirtue,heisthemostunholyandthemostsavageofanimals,andthemostfullof
lustandgluttony.Butjusticeisthebondofmeninstates,fortheadministrationofjustice,whichisthedeterminationof
whatisjust,istheprincipleoforderinpoliticalsociety....

[Democracyasthebestformofgovernment]

Wehavenowtoinquirewhatisthebestconstitutionformoststates,andthebestlifeformostmen,neitherassuminga
standardofvirtuewhichisaboveordinarypersons,noraneducationwhichisexceptionallyfavoredbynatureand
circumstances,noryetanidealstatewhichisanaspirationonly,buthavingregardtothelifeinwhichthemajorityareable
toshare,andtotheformofgovernmentwhichstatesingeneralcanattain.Astothosearistocracies,astheyarecalled,of
whichwewerejustnowspeaking,theyeitherliebeyondthepossibilitiesofthegreaternumberofstates,ortheyapproximate
tothesocalledconstitutionalgovernment,andthereforeneednoseparatediscussion.Andinfacttheconclusionatwhich
wearriverespectingalltheseformsrestsuponthesamegrounds.ForifwhatwassaidintheEthicsistrue,thatthehappylife
isthelifeaccordingtovirtuelivedwithoutimpediment,andthatvirtueisamean,thenthelifewhichisinamean,andina
meanattainablebyeveryone,mustbethebest.Andthesamethesameprinciplesofvirtueandvicearecharacteristicof
citiesandofconstitutionsfortheconstitutionisinafigurethelifeofthecity.

Nowinallstatestherearethreeelements:oneclassisveryrich,anotherverypoor,andathirdinamean.Itisadmitted
thatmoderationandthemeanarebest,andthereforeitwillclearlybebesttopossessthegiftsoffortuneinmoderationfor
inthatconditionoflifemenaremostreadytofollowrationalprinciple.Buthewhogreatlyexcelsinbeauty,strength,birth,
orwealth,orontheotherhandwhoisverypoor,orveryweak,orverymuchdisgraced,findsitdifficulttofollowrational
principle.Ofthesetwotheonesortgrowintoviolentandgreatcriminals,theothersintoroguesandpettyrascals.Andtwo
sortsofoffensescorrespondtothem,theonecommittedfromviolence,theotherfromroguery.Again,themiddleclassis
leastlikelytoshrinkfromrule,ortobeoverambitiousforitbothofwhichareinjuriestothestate.Again,thosewhohave
toomuchofthegoodsoffortune,strength,wealth,friends,andthelike,areneitherwillingnorabletosubmittoauthority.
Theevilbeginsathomeforwhentheyareboys,byreasonoftheluxuryinwhichtheyarebroughtup,theyneverlearn,
evenatschool,thehabitofobedience.Ontheotherhand,theverypoor,whoareintheoppositeextreme,aretoo
degraded.Sothattheoneclasscannotobey,andcanonlyruledespoticallytheotherknowsnothowtocommandand
mustberuledlikeslaves.Thusarisesacity,notoffreemen,butofmastersandslaves,theonedespising,theotherenvying
andnothingcanbemorefataltofriendshipandgoodfellowshipinstatesthanthis:forgoodfellowshipspringsfrom
friendshipwhenmenareatenmitywithoneanother,theywouldrathernotevensharethesamepath.Butacityoughtto
becomposed,asfaraspossible,ofequalsandsimilarsandthesearegenerallythemiddleclasses.Whereforethecitywhich
iscomposedofmiddleclasscitizensisnecessarilybestconstitutedinrespectoftheelementsofwhichwesaythefabricof
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thestatenaturallyconsists.Andthisistheclassofcitizenswhichismostsecureinastate,fortheydonot,likethepoor,
covettheirneighbors'goodsnordootherscovettheirs,asthepoorcovetthegoodsoftherichandastheyneitherplot
againstothers,norarethemselvesplottedagainst,theypassthroughlifesafely.WiselythendidPhocylidespray'Many
thingsarebestinthemeanIdesiretobeofamiddleconditioninmycity.'

Thusitismanifestthatthebestpoliticalcommunityisformedbycitizensofthemiddleclass,andthatthosestatesare
likelytobewelladministeredinwhichthemiddleclassislarge,andstrongerifpossiblethanboththeotherclasses,oratany
ratethaneithersinglyfortheadditionofthemiddleclassturnsthescale,andpreventseitheroftheextremesfrombeing
dominant.Greatthenisthegoodfortuneofastateinwhichthecitizenshaveamoderateandsufficientpropertyforwhere
somepossessmuch,andtheothersnothing,theremayariseanextremedemocracy,orapureoligarchyoratyrannymay
growoutofeitherextremeeitheroutofthemostrampantdemocracy,oroutofanoligarchybutitisnotsolikelytoarise
outofthemiddleconstitutionsandthoseakintothem.Iwillexplainthereasonofthishereafter,whenIspeakofthe
revolutionsofstates.Themeanconditionofstatesisclearlybest,fornootherisfreefromfactionandwherethemiddle
classislarge,thereareleastlikelytobefactionsanddissensions.Forasimilarreasonlargestatesarelessliabletofaction
thansmallones,becauseinthemthemiddleclassislargewhereasinsmallstatesitiseasytodivideallthecitizensintotwo
classeswhoareeitherrichorpoor,andtoleavenothinginthemiddle.Anddemocraciesaresaferandmorepermanentthan
oligarchies,becausetheyhaveamiddleclasswhichismorenumerousandhasagreatershareinthegovernmentforwhen
thereisnomiddleclass,andthepoorgreatlyexceedinnumber,troublesarise,andthestatesooncomestoanend.Aproof
ofthesuperiorityofthemiddledassisthatthebestlegislatorshavebeenofamiddleconditionforexample,Solon,ashis
ownversestestifyandLycurgus,forhewasnotakingandCharondas,andalmostalllegislators.

Theseconsiderationswillhelpustounderstandwhymostgovernmentsareeitherdemocraticaloroligarchical.The
reasonisthatthemiddleclassisseldomnumerousinthem,andwhicheverparty,whethertherichorthecommonpeople,
transgressesthemeanandpredominates,drawstheconstitutionitsownway,andthusariseseitheroligarchyordemocracy.
Thereisanotherreasonthepoorandtherichquarrelwithoneanother,andwhicheversidegetsthebetter,insteadof
establishingajustorpopulargovernment,regardspoliticalsupremacyastheprizeofvictory,andtheonepartysetsupa
democracyandtheotheranoligarchy.Further,boththepartieswhichhadthesupremacyinHellaslookedonlytothe
interestoftheirownformofgovernment,andestablishedinstates,theone,democracies,andtheother,oligarchiesthey
thoughtoftheirownadvantage,ofthepublicnotatall.Forthesereasonsthemiddleformofgovernmenthasrarely,ifever,
existed,andamongaveryfewonly.OnemanaloneofallwhoeverruledinHellaswasinducedtogivethismiddle
constitutiontostates.Butithasnowbecomeahabitamongthecitizensofstates,noteventocareaboutequalityallmen
areseekingfordominion,or,ifconquered,arewillingtosubmit.

Whatthenisthebestformofgovernment,andwhatmakesitthebest,isevidentandofotherconstitutions,sincewesay
thattherearemanykindsofdemocracyandmanyofoligarchy,itisnotdifficulttoseewhichhasthefirstandwhichthe
secondoranyotherplaceintheorderofexcellence,nowthatwehavedeterminedwhichisthebest.Forthatwhichis
nearesttothebestmustofnecessitybebetter,andthatwhichisfurthestfromitworse,ifwearejudgingabsolutelyandnot
relativelytogivenconditions:Isay'relativelytogivenconditions,'sinceaparticulargovernmentmaybepreferable,but
anotherformmaybebetterforsomepeople.

Source:

Aristotle.Politics.

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