Charge and current

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric charge. No current can flow if
the circuit is broken - for example, when a switch is open.
An electric current flows when electrons move through a conductor, such as
a metal wire. Metals are good conductors of electricity.
Electricity passes through metallic conductors as a flow of negatively
charged electrons. The electrons are free to move from one atom to another.
We call them a sea of delocalised electrons.

Current was originally defined as the flow of charges from positive to

negative. Scientists later discovered that current is actually the flow of
negatively charged electrons, from negative to positive. They termed the
original definition conventional current so as not to confuse it with the
newer definition of current.

Calculating current
The size of an electric current shows the rate of flow of electric charge. You
can calculate the size of a current using this equation:

or:

where:
I is the current in amperes (amps), A
Q is the charge in coulombs, C
t is the time in seconds, s

1. What is the current if 20 C of charge passes in 5 s?

 Over the last 200 years an ever-increasing proportion of our energy has come from
non-renewable sources such as oil and coal. While demand for energy rises these
resources are running out and scientists are exploring the potential of renewable
sources of energy for the future.

Renewable and non-renewable energy resources

All life on earth is sustained by energy from the sun. Plants and animals can store energy and
some of this energy remains with them when they die. It is the remains of these ancient animals
and plants that make up fossil fuels.

Fossil fuels are non-renewable because they will run out one day. Burning fossil fuels
generates greenhouse gases and relying on them for energy generation isunsustainable. Hence
the need to find more renewable, sustainable ways of generating
energy. Renewable or infinite energy resources are sources of power that quickly replenish
themselves and can be used again and again.

Some resources can be thought of as both renewable and non-renewable.

Wood can be used for fuel and is renewable if trees are replanted.
Biomass, which is material from living things, can be renewable if plants are
replanted.

Solar heating
Solar energy is used to generate electricity and to produce hot water. Solar
energy is energy released by nuclear fusion in the Sun.

Solar cells
 A solar-powered ticket machine
Solar cells are devices that convert light energy directly into electrical
energy. You may have seen small solar cells in calculators. Larger arrays of
solar cells are used to power road signs in remote areas, and even larger
arrays are used to power satellites in orbit around Earth.

Advantages
Solar energy is a renewable energy resource and there are no fuel costs.
No harmful polluting gases are produced.

Disadvantages
Solar cells are expensive and inefficient, so the cost of their electricity is
high.
Solar cells do not work at night.

Solar panels
Solar panels do not generate electricity, but rather they heat up water. They
are often located on the roofs of buildings where they can receive heat
energy from the Sun.
The diagram outlines how they work:
 Cold water is pumped up to the solar
panel, it heats up and is transferred to a storage tank.
A pump pushes cold water from the storage
tank through pipes in the solar panel. The water is
heated by heat energy from the Sun and
returns to the tank. In some systems, a
conventional boiler may be used to
increase the temperature of the water.

Advantages
Solar energy is a renewable
energy resource and there are no fuel costs.
No harmful polluting gases are produced.

Disadvantages
Solar panels may only produce very hot water in very sunny climates, and in
cooler areas may need to be supplemented with a conventional boiler.
Although warm water can be produced even on cloudy days, solar panels do
not work at night.

Water energy
Like the wind, water can be used to drive turbines directly. There are several
ways that water can be used, including waves, tides and falling water in
hydroelectric power schemes.

Wave
The water in the sea rises and falls because of waves on the surface.Wave
machines use the kinetic energy in this movement to drive electricity
generators.
 Tides
Huge amounts of water move in and out of river mouths each day because of
the tides. A tidal barrage is a barrier built over a river estuary to make
use of the kinetic energy in the moving water. The barrage contains
electricity generators, which are driven by the water rushing through tubes
in the barrage.

Hydroelectric power
Like tidal barrages, hydroelectric power (HEP) stations use thekinetic
energy in moving water. Often, the water comes from behind a dam built
across a river valley. The water high up behind the dam
contains gravitational potential energy. This is transferred to kinetic
energy as the water rushes down through tubes inside the dam. The moving
water drives electrical generators, which may be built inside the dam.

Advantages
Water power in its various forms is a renewable energy resource and there
are no fuel costs.
No harmful polluting gases are produced.
Tidal barrages and hydroelectric power stations are very reliable and can be
easily switched on.

Disadvantages
It has been difficult to scale up the designs for wave machines to produce large
amounts of electricity.
Tidal barrages destroy the habitat of estuary species, including wading
birds.
Hydroelectricity dams flood farmland and push people from their homes.
The rotting vegetation underwater releases methane, which is a greenhouse
gas.

Wind energy
Wind is produced as a result of giant convection currents in the Earth's
atmosphere, which are driven by heat energy from the Sun. This means that
 the kinetic energy in wind is a renewable energy resource - as long as
the Sun exists, the wind will too.

Wind turbines
Wind turbines use the wind to drive
turbines directly. They have huge blades
mounted on a tall tower. The blades are
connected to a 'nacelle', or housing, which
contains gears linked to a generator. As
the wind blows, it transfers some of its kinetic
energy to the blades, which turn and drive the
generator. Several wind turbines may be grouped together
in windy locations to form wind farms.

Advantages
Wind is a renewable energy resource and there are no fuel costs.
No harmful polluting gases are produced.

Disadvantages
Wind farms are noisy and may spoil the view for people living near them.
The amount of electricity generated depends on the strength of the wind.
If there is no wind, there is no electricity.

Geothermal energy
Hot water and steam from deep underground can be used to drive turbines:
this is called geothermal energy. Geothermal and nuclear energy are the
only energy resources that do not come from the Sun.

Volcanic areas
Several types of rock contain radioactive substances such as uranium.
Radioactive decay of these substances releases heat energy, which warms
up the rocks. In volcanic areas, the rocks may heat water so that it rises
to the surface naturally as hot water and steam. Here the steam can be used
to drive turbines and electricity generators.
 Geothermal power stations are located in places such
as Iceland,California and Italy.

Hot rocks
In some places, the rocks are hot, but no hot water or steam rises to the
surface. In this situation, deep wells can be drilled down to the hot rocks and
cold water pumped down. The water runs through fractures in the rocks and
is heated up. It returns to the surface as hot water and steam, where its
energy can be used to drive turbines and
electricity generators. The diagram
shows how this works.

How a generating station creates energy

Advantages
Geothermal energy is
a renewable energy
resource and there are no
fuel costs.
No harmful polluting
gases are produced.

Disadvantages
Most parts of the world do not have suitable areas where geothermal energy
can be exploited.

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