part 1

Process Analysis
Chapter 1 Chapter 4
Fundamentals Column Operating Pressure
Chapter 2 Chapter 5
Two-Product Columns Column Capacity and Efficiency
Chapter 3
Multiproduct Columns
 CHAPTER 1
Fundamentals

I
n this chapter, the basic knowledge necessary to understand
an operating distillation unit is discussed. More details on the
subjects treated in this chapter are found in various texts oriented
to distillation design [14]. The approach, followed in most chapters
of the book, is based on the assumption that the distillation unit is in
operation.

Separation Factor
Distillation is a separation process based on the different boiling
points of the various components. The relative volatility is the
parameter that characterizes the separation factor, and it derives from
the equilibrium between vapor and liquid phases:

Ki = yi/xi (1-1)

Ki is called the equilibrium constant for the component i and represents

the ratio of the mole fraction yi of component i in vapor phase, with
the mole fraction in liquid phase xi at equilibrium condition.
For the component j the correspondent relationship is

K j = y j/x j (1-2)

The volatility of the component i relative to component j is defined by

ij = ( yi/xi )/( y j/x j ) = Ki/K j (1-3)

The separation between two components becomes easier as the

relative volatility moves away from 1.
Equilibrium constant Ki, and then relative volatility aij, can be
related to vapor pressure, activity, and fugacity coefficients of the
components.

3
 4 Chapter One

In an ideal mixture, the components obey Raoults and Daltons

laws:

pi = Pyi = Pi0 xi (1-4)

where P = total pressure

pi = partial pressure of component i in gas phase
pi0 = vapor pressure of component i in pure liquid phase
From Eqs. (1-1) to (1-4), it follows that

Ki = yi/xi = Pi0/P (1-5)

K j = yj/x j = Pj0/P (1-6)

and

ij = Ki/K j = Pi0/Pj0 (1-7)

According to Antoines correlation for vapor pressure estimation:

Pi0 = exp[ Ai Bi/(T + Ci )] (1-8)

The relative volatility aij for the ideal mixture is formally independent
from pressure and composition and shows moderate sensitivity
to temperature as Pi0 and Pj0 move in the same direction with the
temperature.
Consider that the boiling temperature TiBP depends on total
pressure P, as from Eq. (1-8) for Pi0 = P:

TiBP = Bi/( Ai lnP) Ci (1-9)

Then the change of operating pressure affects the boiling point of

the component in the mixture and consequently, from Eq. (1-7), the
relative volatility aij.
Figure 1-1 shows the vapor-pressure trend of components C3,
iC4, and nC4 with the temperature. The volatilities of C3 and iC4
relative to nC4 are reported in Fig. 1-2.
The pressure range corresponding to the temperature range
shown in Fig. 1-2 is quite large compared with the pressure variation
occurring in an operating unit; however, in principle, the operation
at lower temperature deriving from a lower pressure is favorable
because of the higher relative volatility.
 5
Fundamentals

Figure 1-1 Vapor pressure trends with temperature for C3, iC4, and nC4 components.

Figure 1-2 Relative volatility C3/iC4 and iC4/nC4 with temperature.

Nonideal Systems
Many mixtures show nonideal behavior in the liquid phase. In such
cases, Eq. (1-4) is modified to include the liquid activity coefficient g
i:

pi = Pyi = i P
i0 xi (1-10)
 6 Chapter One

where gi depends on the composition of the liquid phase, and the

standard state of reference is chosen as gi = 1 for pure component i.
Positive deviations from ideality correspond to gi > 1, and they
occur when the molecules of the components are dissimilar and
have no interactions with other species in the liquid phase. Such
deviations are more common. Negative deviations correspond to
gi < 1 and occur when attractive forces, like hydrogen bonds, between
molecules of different species are present.
For nonideal liquid mixtures, Eqs. (1-1) and (1-7) become

Ki = yi/xi = i Pi0/P (1-11)

and

ij = Ki/Kj = i Pi0/j Pj0 (1-12)

At high pressure, the vapor behavior deviates from Daltons law,

and the vapor fugacity coefficients i become necessary to bet-
ter define the equilibrium. In this condition, Eqs. (1-10) to (1-12)
become

pi = i Pyi = i Pi0 xi (1-13)

Ki = yi/xi = i Pi0/i P (1-14)

and

ij = Ki/K j = j i Pi0/i j Pj0 (1-15)

VaporLiquid Equilibrium Diagrams

Typical vaporliquid equilibrium diagrams are shown in the
four parts of Fig. 1-3 for binary mixtures. The scope is mainly
to show effects of the temperature (or indirectly of the pressure)
and of the interactions in liquid phase. Figure 1-3a to d shows
the temperature (pressure) effect on the T-yx diagram and the y-x
diagram.
Equilibrium diagrams for highly nonideal mixtures with the
presence of minimum boiling point azeotrope (positive deviation)
and maximum boiling point azeotrope (negative deviation) are
shown in Fig. 1-3c and d, respectively.
 7
Fundamentals

Figure 1-3 T-xy and x-y diagrams for ideal and nonideal mixtures.
 8 Chapter One

Ideal Equilibrium Stages

In distillation, the separation is based on the different composition
between vapor and liquid at equilibrium conditions; thus, the concept
and the definition of an ideal equilibrium stage are fundamental for
the understanding of distillation processes.
An ideal stage is a device where one or more material or energy
streams enter and one liquid and one vapor stream leave in
thermodynamic equilibrium.
Examples of ideal equilibrium stages are shown in Fig. 1-4. Stages
shown in Fig. 1-4f and g with only one stream leaving the stage are
not ideal equilibrium stages.

Figure 1-4 Equilibrium stages (a) to (e) and nonequilibrium stages (f) and (g).
 9
Fundamentals

Figure 1-5 Effect of relative volatility on equilibrium-stage separation.

The effect of the relative volatility aij in an equilibrium stage is

shown in Fig. 1-5, where one material stream with two components
is entering the ideal stage together with one energy stream such
that 50 percent of the entering stream leaves as a vapor stream. The
different values of aij are due to different components in the feed
stream.
 10 Chapter One

In order to analyze the effect of pressure (via its effect on

temperature) on relative volatility and then on the composition
of vapor and liquid streams leaving the ideal stage, Fig. 1-6
illustrates cases with the same components in the feed at different
pressure.

Figure 1-6 Effect of pressure on relative volatility and on equilibrium-stage

separation. Feed mixture with same components.
 11
Fundamentals

Figure 1-7 Interphase molar fluxes in an equilibrium stage.

An example of the ideal stage with two material streams entering

the stage (one in liquid and one in vapor phase) is shown in Fig. 1-7
for a two-component mixture: n-Butane (nC4) and n-Pentane (nC5).
The stage pressure is 6 kg/cm2_g. In Fig. 1-7, the molar fluxes of
nC4 (light component) from liquid to vapor phase JLC4 and of nC5
(heavy component) from vapor to liquid phase JVC5 necessary to reach
the equilibrium condition are indicated. The molar fluxes quantify
the enrichment of nC4 in vapor phase and nC5 in the liquid phase
occurring in the ideal stage.
It has to be noted that the total equilibrium condition requires a
different molar flow of the two components and a change of vapor
and liquid stream flows leaving the stage with respect to the entering
flows. In such condition, a heat transfer needs to occur between the
two phases.

Sequence of Stages
Ideal stages can be combined and arranged as shown in Fig. 1-8. This
arrangement reproduces the rectifying section of a simple distillation
column. The rectifying section is located above the feed stage, and its
name derives from the fact that composition of vapor flow becomes
richer of the light component going upward; as consequence, the
liquid flow becomes richer of the heavy component going down. The
total molar balance around the top envelope in Fig. 1-8 indicates that
in the rectifying section, the interstage vapor flow is always greater
than the corresponding liquid flow Vj L j 1 = D and that all
interstage differences between vapor and liquid are constant and equal
to the distillate product D. Maintaining the distillate D constant, any
change of liquid flow Lj-1 requires an equal change of vapor flow Vj.
 12 Chapter One

Figure 1-8 Equilibrium-stage sequence representing the rectifier column on the right.

The effect of the increase of the vapor flow on the equilibrium stage is
shown in Fig. 1-9a and b, using separation between nC4 and nC5 as an
example. The operating parameter that characterizes such change is the
interstage L/V ratio that increases in the rectifying section. Figure 1-9
also shows that an increment of the L/V ratio, from 0.665 to 0.715, gives
L
an increment of nC4 molar flux JC4 from liquid to vapor phase from
11.53 to 17.61 kmol/h, with the enrichment of nC4 in the vapor phase
from 8.6 to 11.2 percent.

Figure 1-9 L/V ratio effect on equilibrium-stage separation in the rectifying section.
 13
Fundamentals

Figure 1-9 (Continued) L/V ratio effect on equilibrium-stage separation in the

rectifying section.

The combination and the arrangement of stages shown in Fig. 1-10

reproduce the stripping section of a simple distillation column. The
stripping section is located below the feed stage, and its name derives
from the fact that composition of liquid flow becomes poorer of the
light component going downward. Consequently, vapor flow going
up becomes richer of the light component.

Figure 1-10 Equilibrium-stage sequence representing the stripping column on the right.
 14 Chapter One

The total molar balance around the bottom envelope of Fig. 1-10
indicates that in the stripping section, the interstage liquid flow is
always greater than the corresponding vapor flow, independent of the
feed status Lj Vj + 1 = B and that the interstage flow difference
between liquid and vapor is constant and equal to the bottom product B.
Maintaining B constant, any change of liquid flow Li requires an equal
change of vapor flow Vj + 1 . The effect of the increment of the vapor flow
to the equilibrium stage in this section is shown in Fig. 1-11a and b, using
the same separation between nC4 and nC5 as example. The operating
parameter that characterizes such change is the interstage L/V ratio
that decreases in the stripping section. Figure 1-11 also shows that a
reduction of the L/V ratio from 1.44 to 1.32 causes the increment of C5
V
molar flux JC5 from vapor to liquid phase from 7.56 to 14.01 kmol/h,
with an enrichment of C5 in the liquid phase from 21.3 to 27.2 percent.

Figure 1-11 L/V ratio effect on equilibrium-stage separation in the stripping

section.
 15
Fundamentals

The results reported earlier can be generalized considering

a group of limited number of ideal stages, as shown in Fig. 1-12,
for which the assumption of constant L and V molar flows and of
equilibrium coefficient Kj is reasonable:

Vn + 1 = Vn = Vn 1 = V

Ln + 1 = Ln = Ln 1 = L

Kn + 1 = Kn = Kn 1 = K

Figure 1-12 Generic equilibrium-stage cascade.

 16 Chapter One

The material balance for the generic component around the

equilibrium stage n is

V yn 1 = V yn + L( xn xn + 1 ) (1-16)

and the stage equilibrium equation is

yn = K xn (1-17)

The application of Eqs. (1-16) and (1-17) to top stage N, considering
that yout = K xN and rearranging, gives

( yN 1 yout )/( yout K xin ) = (1/K )(L/V ) (1-18)

Again applying Eqs. (1-16) and (1-17) to stage N 1 gives

( yN 2 yN 1 )/( yN 1 yout ) = (1/K )(L/V ) (1-19)

Combining Eqs. (1-18) and (1-19):

( )
2
( yN 2 yN 1 )/( yout K xin ) = L /K (1-20)
V

and going down to stage 1 with the same procedure:

( )
V
N
( yin y1 )/( yout K xin ) = L /K

(1-21)

Summing Eqs. (1-19) to (1-21), a relationship in terms of end stream

compositions is obtained:

N
( yin yout )/( yout K xin ) = [(L/V )/K ]i (1-22)
1

or, more clear for the scope:

N N
( yout yin )/( K xin yin ) = [(L/V )/K ]i/1 + [(L/V )/K ]i (1-23)
1 1 
Equation (1-23) shows that the enrichment of a component in a
group of equilibrium stages depends on the L/V ratio as far as the
operating variables are concerned.
The interstage liquid and vapor flows are not univocally
defined when the ratio L/V is specified, but they are defined when
 17
Fundamentals

the material balance is defined. Indicating with Vrect and Lrect the
generic interstage vapor and liquid flow in the rectifying section of
Fig. 1-8, the material balance around the generic envelope shown in
Fig. 1-10 gives

Vrect Lrect = D (1-24a)

that can be written as

Vrect = D/(1 Lrect/Vrect ) (1-24b)

Similarly, for the stripping section of Fig. 1-9, the material balance
gives

Lstr Vstr = B = F D (1-25a)

that can be written as

Vstr = B/(Lstr/Vstr ) = ( F D)/(Lstr/Vstr ) (1-25b)

The addition of one feed equilibrium stage between the cascades
of stages defined earlier as the rectifying section and the sequence
defined as stripping section generates the scheme of a typical simple
distillation column shown in Fig. 1-13.
Once the feed stream is completely defined in terms of flow
rate, composition, pressure, and temperature, it is apparent from
the analysis of the column scheme that a relationship between Vstr
and Vrect , or Lrect and Lstr , exists depending on the feed stream
characteristics. The material and energy balance around the feed
equilibrium stage allow determining that relationship and then the
two variables are not independent of each other:

Vrect Vstr + (1 q)F

with

heatrequiredtovaporizeonemoleoffeed
q=
feedmolarlatentheatofvaporization

If the feed stream is saturated liquid, q = 1 and Vrect Vstr ; if the feed
stream is saturated vapor, q = 0 and Vrect Vstr + F . On the basis of
Eqs. (1-24b) and (1-25b), Lstr /Vstr and Lrect /Vrect are not independent
of each other. However, the parameter q that determines the
relationship between Vstr and Vrect is an operating variable in many
units, as discussed in Chap. 2.
The analysis of the equilibrium-stage sequence has shown that
only two parameters define the separation in the sequence: L/V ratio
 18 Chapter One

Figure 1-13 Arrangement of stage cascades representing a complete

distillation column.

and D (or B). The fact that L/V ratios above and below the feed stage
are related leads to the conclusion that only two parametersL/V
ratio in one section and D (or B)are necessary to set the column
performance. The way the two parameters are usually defined is
indirect through other sets of variables: (Vstr and D), (Vstr and Lrect),
and (Vstr and B). In Chap. 2, these concepts are applied extensively to
the analysis of two-product distillation columns.

Real Stage Efficiency

Actual distillation devices are an attempt to realize a sequence of ideal
stages. Typically, trays realize real stages where vapor and liquid
phases enter in contact and mass and heat transfer occur across their
interface. Figure 1-14 shows the scheme of a simple distillation tray.
 19
Fundamentals

Figure 1-14 Distillation tray functional scheme.

The parameters commonly adopted to evaluate the approach of

the real stage (tray) to the equilibrium stage are
Overall column efficiency
Murphree tray vapor efficiency

Overall column efficiency is the simplest definition of column

average-stage efficiency. It is the ratio of the number of ideal stages
required for a specified separation, D and L/V ratio defined, to the
actual number of stages required for the same separation:

EO = N ideal/N real (1-26)

In distillation operations, where Nreal is known, the use of overall

efficiency is of limited use: Overall efficiency is calculated from the
tuning of a simulation model adopting theoretical stages.
Overall efficiency has no direct relationship with fundamental
heat and mass transfer parameters and, as consequence, is not
adequate to estimate efficiency changes with operating parameters.
Murphree tray vapor efficiency is a stage efficiency defined as

EMV = ( yi , n yi , n 1 )/( yi*, n yi , n 1 ) (1-27)

 20 Chapter One

where yi*, n = Ki , n xi , n is the vapor molar fraction of component i leaving

tray n in equilibrium with the molar fraction of the same component
in the liquid leaving the tray. Murphree vapor efficiency is then the
ratio of the vapor molar fraction change across the tray to the change
that would occur across an ideal stage for a specific component. If
m components are present in the vapor phase, m1 independent
Murphree vapor efficiencies could be defined.
In conditions of constant molar flows, Murphree vapor efficiency
of component i represents the ratio of the actual net interphase flux
of component i

J i , n = V ( yi , n yi , n 1 )

to the net interphase flux of same component for the ideal stage

Ji*, n = V ( yi*, n yi , n 1 )

Thus,

EMV = Ji , n/Ji*, n (1-28)

Actual interphase component flux Ji , n can be expressed in terms of

basic mass transfer parameters:

Ji , n = KG ahL yi , n (1-29)

where
KG = overall mass transfer coefficient
a = vaporliquid interfacial area per unit of liquid holdup
on tray active area
hL = total liquid holdup on tray active area
yi , n = average driving force on the tray, depending mainly
on liquid and vapor flow and on flow model on the
tray
Equations (1-28) and (1-29) have been introduced with the scope
of emphasizing the dependence of tray efficiency on mass transfer
parameters. A more rational approach to relate mass transfer parameters
to tray efficiency defining vapor and liquid flow models is illustrated
in Chap. 5. The parameters appearing in Eq. (1-29), being dependent
on the tray fluid dynamics, are subject to variation with the operating
variables. More details on stage efficiency and fluid dynamic regimes
related to operating conditions are presented in Chap. 5.
Figure 1-15 shows the comparison between an ideal stage and a
tray with 80 percent Murphree vapor efficiency in terms of stream
composition and internal component flux. In this example, molar
 21
Fundamentals

Figure 1-15 Separation comparison between ideal stage and tray with 80 percent
efficiency (Murphree).

liquid and vapor flows are not constant so that heat transfer between
the two phases on the stage needs to occur.
From the perspective of separation understanding, the concepts
described earlier regarding the effects of L/V ratio on staged cascade
enrichment and stage efficiency maintain their validity even when the
assumption of constant molar flow is not fully respected. In such cases,
a complexity is added at the level of interphase transfer phenomena
because of simultaneous mass and heat transfer. The calculation of tray
efficiency from basic transfer phenomena becomes much more complex.

Continuous Devices
In the past several decades, following the appearance on the market
of high-performance packings, continuous vaporliquid devices have
 22 Chapter One

Figure 1-16 Sketch of column internal with structured packing.

also been applied in distillation units. In many cases, high-efficiency

packings have replaced traymainly with respect to increasing
column capacity and/or reducing pressure drops.
Figure 1-16 shows the scheme of a column equipped with
structured packing.
The comparison of packing performances with ideal stages is
made easier by adopting the parameter HETP (height equivalent
t
to theoretical plate), particularly in column design. In fact, if neq
equilibrium stages are necessary for a desired separation, the
correspondent height of the packing column is given by

H = neq
t HETP (1-30)

Applying the definition expressed by Eq. (1-30) to a single

equilibrium stage n, if Ji*, n = V (yi*, n yi , n 1 ) is the net interphase
flux of component i for that ideal stage, HETP can be written, with
approximations, as

( p p p
)
HETP = Ji*, n/ KG a p hL yi (1-31)

where
KGp = overall mass transfer coefficient for packing
ap = vaporliquid interfacial area per unit of liquid holdup
hLp = total liquid holdup per unit of packing height
yip = a verage driving force depending mainly on liquid and
vapor flow and flow model along the packing bed
Equation (1-31) has been written to show that for packings, the
performance parameter HETP also strongly depends on packing
 23
Fundamentals

fluid dynamics affecting mass transfer parameters and on liquid and

vapor flow models affecting the average driving force.
In Chap. 5, a brief analysis of packing fluid dynamics related to
operational variables is detailed.

Separation Energy
In distillation, the separation energy is usually supplied in the
form of heat that generates the main internal vapor flow(s). In
operating columns, the energy consumption is a key parameter
whose trade-off with the material balance leads to maximum
economic benefits.
Some concepts regarding the energy cost of separation are
now introduced, but only for the purpose of comparing different
process schemes. Heat supplied can be evaluated in terms of net
work consumption, defined as the difference between the work that
could have been obtained with a reversible heat engine from the heat
supplied to the distillation unit and the work that could be obtained
in a reversible heat engine from the heat leaving the unit. Both heat
engines have a sink at ambient temperature Ta.
With reference to Fig. 1-17, the work that can be obtained from
reboiler heat is

Wreb = Qreb (Treb Ta )/Treb (1-32)

Figure 1-17 Column input and output of energy and material streams.
 24 Chapter One

Figure 1-18 Enthalpy balance envelope.

Similarly, the work from the condensation heat is

Wcond = Qcond (Tcond Ta )/Tcond (1-33)

The net work consumption for the distillation unit of Fig. 1-18 is

Wn = Wreb Wcond = Qreb (Treb Ta )/Treb Qcond (Tcond Ta )/Tcond

(1-34)
The energy balance around the unit (see Fig. 1-18) is

FH F DH D BH B + Qreb Qcond = 0 (1-35)

where H F , H D , and H B are feed, distillate, and bottom products
enthalpies, respectively. Assuming the difference between products
and feed enthalpy compared with heat supplied Qreb and heat
removed Qcond is negligible, Eq. (1-35) gives

Qreb = Qcond (1-36)

and Eq. (1-33) becomes

Wn = Qreb Ta (1/Tcond 1/Treb ) (1-37)

 25
Fundamentals

If condenser heat is removed by air or cooling water as in most

cases ( Tcond = Ta ):

Wn = Qreb (1 Ta/Treb ) (1-38)

Equation (1-38) indicates that net work consumption increases with
Treb. The use of Eqs. (1-37) or (1-38) is very useful during the process
design phase when solutions with low energy consumption are
investigated.
To further illustrate, two schemes sometimes encountered in
commercial units that have been derived from the application of
Eq. (1-37) are now described. The scheme of Fig. 1-19 with an addi
tional, intermediate reboiler allows writing Eq. (1-38) as

Wn = Qreb,1 (1 Ta/Treb,1 ) + Qreb,2 (1 Ta/Treb,2 ) (1-39)

According to Eq. (1-39), the net work consumption decreases when
Treb,2 and Qreb,2 increase because the energy efficiency of the second
term is higher than that of the first. Consistent benefits are achievable
with particular separations (i.e., temperature profile), which allows
locating the additional reboiler on trays close to the bottom so that
most of the column trays above benefit from the total vapor flow and

Figure 1-19 Column scheme with additional reboiler.

 26 Chapter One

Figure 1-20 Temperature profile favorable to the additional reboiler.

from using a heating medium temperature much lower than that

of the bottom reboiler. Figure 1-20 shows an example of a favorable
temperature profile that can be found when light components are the
impurity in the bottom product.
The low condensing temperature of the reflux requiring expensive
chilled water as the condensing medium characterizes the second
scheme, shown in Fig. 1-21. In this case, Eq. (1-37), assuming again that

Qreb = Qcond,1 + Qcond,2 (1-40)

can be written as

Wn = Qcond,1 Tch (1/Tch 1/Treb ) + Qcond,2 Tch (1/Tc 2 1/Treb )

(1-41)

where
Tch = temperature of chilling water to the overhead
condenser
Tc2 = temperature of the condensing medium to the side
condenser that can be much higher than Tch
The scheme is more efficient from the energy point of view as Tc2
and Qcond,2 are higher. Also for this scheme, the temperature profile
determines the energy efficiency. Figure 1-22 shows a favorable
temperature profile that occurs when very light components are in
the distillate product, which would require too-high pressure to be
condensed with an ambient temperature medium. Moreover, the
 27
Fundamentals

Figure 1-21 Column scheme with additional condenser.

Figure 1-22 Temperature profile favorable to the additional condenser.

 28 Chapter One

distillate rate is a small fraction of the feed rate so that additional

benefits arrive from the smaller column section above the side
condenser.

Operating Actions and Separation Parameters: Guidelines

to the Distillation Analysis for Control and Optimization
On the basis of the distillation fundamentals discussed earlier, it is
very helpful to visualize the few effects on the separation parameters
following any action taken in operating columns.
Some operating actions can modify the product splitting,
improperly called material balance change, with respect to the column
mass balance (e.g., F = D + B for a two-product column). This effect
will be described in the next chapter for two-product columns.
Strictly considering the separation occurring on the trays, any
operating action can modify only the internal liquid and vapor flows
and, indirectly, the relative volatility between components.
Starting from the internal flows, the first separation parameter
affected is the L/V ratio along the column. Separation improvements
occur when this ratio increases in the rectifying column and decreases
in the stripping section.
The second effect on separation is due to the interaction between
the single internal flow, L or V, and the mechanical parameters of the
column, diameter and tray (or packing) design, which affect the mass
transfer parameters and the flow model on the tray (or packing) and,
as consequence, the tray efficiency (or the HETP).
Regarding the relative volatility, the operating pressure is the
variable that can indirectly modify this parameter. However, it is
better to also consider the primary effect of the pressure change on
the temperature profilefrom which the relative volatility variation
deriveseven if it is not strictly related to the separation. The
temperature profile affects the interactions with auxiliary equipment,
reboiler, and condenser because it modifies the heat-transfer driving
force. Finally, the operating pressure modifies the vapor densitythe
main fluid dynamic parameter related to the column capacity.
This is the approach that will be followed in the performance
analysis of the distillation columns regardless of their complexity.

Literature
1. Smith, B.D., Design of Equilibrium Stage Processes, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1963.
2. King, C.J., Separation Processes, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill, New York, 1980.
3. Kister, H.Z., DistillationDesign, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1992.
4. Stichlmair, J.G. and Fair, J.R., DistillationPrinciples and Practice, Wiley-VHC,
New York, 1998.