Final Wifi 2

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY

1.1. Overview of wireless Technology
Wireless technologies have become increasingly popular in our everyday business
and personal lives. Personal Digital Assistants (PDA) allow individuals to access calendars,
email, and address and phone number lists, and the Internet. Some technologies even offer
Global Positioning System (GSP) capabilities that can pinpoint the location of the device
anywhere in the world. Wireless technologies promise to offer even more features and
functions in the next few years.
An increasing number of government agencies, businesses, and home users are

using, or considering using, wireless technologies in their environments. Agencies should be
aware of the security risks associated with wireless technologies. Agencies need to develop
strategies that will mitigate risks as they integrate wireless technologies into their computing
environments. This document discusses certain wireless technologies, outlines the associated
risks, and offers guidance for mitigating those risks.
Wireless technologies, in the simplest sense, enable one or more devices to

communicate without physical connections without requiring network or peripheral cabling.
Wireless technologies use radio frequency transmissions as the means for transmitting data,
whereas wired technologies use cables.
1.2. Wireless Networks:

Wireless networks serve as the transport mechanism between devices and among
devices and the traditional wired networks (enterprise networks and the Internet). Wireless
networks are many and diverse but are frequently categorized into three groups based on their
coverage range: wireless wide Area Networks (WWAN), wireless Local Area Networks
(WLAN), and wireless personal Area Networks (WPAN).
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WWAN includes wide coverage area technologies such as 2G cellular, Cellular Digital
packet Data(CDPD), and Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM), and Mobitex
WLAN , representing wireless local area networks, includes IEEE 802.11, Hiper LAN, and
several others. WPAN represents wireless personal area network technologies such as
Bluetooth and IR.
Attention, the universe! By kingdoms, right wheel! this prophetic phrase is the first
telegraph message on record. Samuel F.B. Morse sent it over a 16 km line in 1838. Thus was
born a new area, the era of electrical communication.
Over the next century and a half, communication engineering had advanced to the point
that earthbound TV viewers could watch astronauts working in space. Telephone, radio, and
television have become integral parts of modern life.
Long distance circuits span the globe carrying text, data, voice, and images.
Computers talk to computers via intercontinental networks. Certainly great strides have been
made since the days of Morse. Equally certain, coming decades will bring many new
achievements of communication of engineering.
A communication system conveys information from its source to a destination some
distance way. There are so many different applications of communication systems that we
cannot attempt to cover every type.
1.3 Inter network:

An inter network is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate
networking devices, that function as a single large network. Internetworking refers to the
industry, products, and procedures that meet the challenge of creating and administering
internet works. Figure 1-1 illustrates some different kinds of network technologies that can be
interconnected by routers and other networking devices to create an internet work.
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Figure1: Different Network Technologies Can Be Connected to Create an
Internet work
1.4 History of Internetworking:

The first networks were time-sharing networks that used mainframes and attached
terminals. Both IBMs Systems Network Architecture (SNA) and Digitals network
architecture implemented such environments.
Local-area networks (LANs) evolved around the PC revolution. LANs enabled
multiple users in a relatively small geographical area to exchange files and messages, as well
as access shared resources such as file servers and printers.
Wide-area networks (WANs) interconnect LANs with geographically dispersed users
to create connectivity. Some of the technologies used for connecting LANs include T1, T3,
ATM, ISDN, ADSL, Frame Relay, radio links, and others. New methods of connecting
dispersed LANs are appearing everyday.
Today, high-speed LANs and switched internet works are becoming widely used,
largely because they operate at very high speeds and support such high-bandwidth
applications as multimedia and videoconferencing.
Internetworking evolved as a solution to three key problems: isolated LANs, duplication of
resources, and a lack of network management. Isolated LANs made electronic
communication between different offices or departments impossible.
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1.5 Open System Interconnection Reference Model:
The Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model describes how information
from a software application in one computer moves through a network medium to a software
application in another computer. The OSI reference model is a conceptual model composed
of seven layers, each specifying particular network functions. The International Organization
developed the model for Standardization (ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary
architectural model for interceptor communications. The OSI model divides the tasks
involved with moving information between networked computers into seven smaller, more
manageable task groups. A task or group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI
layers. Each layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer can be
implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered by one layer to be updated
without adversely affecting the other layers. The following list details the seven layers of the
Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model:
Layer 7Application
Layer 6Presentation
Layer 5Session
Layer 4Transport
Layer 3Network
Layer 2Data link
Layer 1Physical
1.6 PROTOCOLS:
The OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication between
computers, but the model itself is not a method of communication. Actual communication is
made possible by using communication protocols. In the context of data networking, a
protocol is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how computers exchange
information over a network medium. A protocol implements the functions of one or more of
the OSI layers.
A wide variety of communication protocols exist. Some of these protocols include
LAN protocols, WAN protocols, network protocols, and routing protocols.
LAN protocols operate at the physical and data link layers of the OSI model and
define communication over the various LAN media.
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WAN protocols operate at the lowest three layers of the OSI model and define
communication over the various wide-area media. Routing protocols are network layer
protocols that are responsible for exchanging information between routers so that the routers
can select the proper path for network traffic.
Finally, network protocols are the various upper-layer protocols that exist in a given
protocol suite. Many protocols rely on others for operation. For example, many routing
protocols use network protocols to exchange information between routers. This concept of
building upon the layers already in existence is the foundation of the OSI model.
1.7 OSI Model and Communication between Systems:

Information being transferred from a software application in one computer system to a
software application in another must pass through the OSI layers. For example, if a software
application in System A has information to transmit to a software application in System B, the
application program in System A will pass its information to the application layer (Layer 7)
of System A. The application layer then passes the information to the presentation layer
(Layer 6), which relays the data to the session layer (Layer 5), and so on down to the physical
layer (Layer 1). At the physical layer, the information is placed on the physical network
medium and is sent across the medium to System B. The physical layer of System B removes
the information from the physical medium, and then its physical layer passes the information
up to the data link layer (Layer 2), which passes it to the network layer (Layer 3), and so on,
until it reaches the application layer (Layer 7) of System B. Finally, the application layer of
System B passes the information to the recipient application program to complete the
communication process. Figure 1-2 illustrates this example.
Figure 2: OSI Model Layers Communicate with Other Layers
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1.8 OSI layer services:
One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of the services provided
by the second layer. The services provided by adjacent layers help a given OSI layer
communicate with its peer layer in other computer systems. Three basic elements are
involved in layer services: the service user, the service provider, and the service access point
(SAP).
In this context, the service user is the OSI layer that requests services from an
adjacent OSI layer. The service provider is the OSI layer that provides services to service
users. OSI layers can provide services to multiple service users. The SAP is a conceptual
location at which one OSI layer can request the services of another OSI layer.
Figure 3: The service provider
1.8.1 OSI Model Physical Layer:

The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between
communicating network systems. Physical layer specifications define characteristics such as
voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances, and physical connectors. Physical layer implementations can be categorized as
either LAN or WAN specifications. Figure 1-1.4 illustrates some common LAN and WAN
physical layer implementations.
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Figure 4: Physical Layer Implementations Can Be LAN or WAN
Specifications
1.8.2 OSI Model Data Link Layer:

The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical network link.
Different data link layer specifications define different network and protocol characteristics,
including physical addressing, network topology, error notification, sequencing of frames,
and flow control. Physical addressing (as opposed to network addressing) defines how
devices are addressed at the data link layer.
Network topology consists of the data link layer specifications that often define how
devices are to be physically connected, such as in a bus or a ring topology.
Error notification alerts upper-layer protocols that a transmission error has occurred,
and the sequencing of data frames reorders frames that are transmitted out of sequence.
Finally, flow control moderates the transmission of data so that the receiving device is not
overwhelmed with more traffic than it can handle at one time.
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) has subdivided the data
link layer into two sub layers: Logical Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control
(MAC). Figure 1-1.5 illustrates the IEEE sub layers of the data link layer.
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Figure 5: The Data Link Layer Contains Two Sub layers
The Logical Link Control (LLC) sub layer of the data link layer manages
communications between devices over a single link of a network. LLC is defined in the IEEE
802.2 specification and supports both connectionless and connection-oriented services used
by higher-layer protocols. IEEE 802.2 defines a number of fields in data link layer frames
that enable multiple higher-layer protocols to share a single physical data link. The Media
Access Control (MAC) sub layer of the data link layer manages protocol access to the
physical network medium. The IEEE MAC specification defines MAC addresses, which
enable multiple devices to uniquely identify one another at the data link layer.
1.8.3 OSI Model Network Layer:

The network layer defines the network address, which differs from the MAC address.
Some network layer implementations, such as the Internet Protocol (IP), define network
addresses in a way that route selection can be determined systematically by comparing the
source network address with the destination network address and applying the subnet mask.
Because this layer defines the logical network layout, routers can use this layer to determine
how to forward packets. Because of this, much of the design and configuration work for
internet works happens at Layer 3, the network layer.
1.8.4 OSI Model Transport Layer:

The transport layer accepts data from the session layer and segments the data for
transport across the network. Generally, the transport layer is responsible for making sure that
the data is delivered error-free and in the proper sequence. Flow control generally occurs at
the transport layer.
Flow control manages data transmission between devices so that the transmitting
device does not send more data than the receiving device can process.
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Multiplexing enables data from several applications to be transmitted onto a single
physical link. Virtual circuits are established, maintained, and terminated by the transport
layer. Error checking involves creating various mechanisms for detecting transmission errors,
while error recovery involves acting, such as requesting that data be retransmitted, to resolve
any errors that occur. The transport protocols used on the Internet are TCP and UDP.
1.8.5 OSI Model Session Layer

The session layer establishes, manages, and terminates communication sessions.
Communication sessions consist of service requests and service responses that occur between
applications located in different network devices. These requests and responses are
coordinated by protocols implemented at the session layer. Some examples of session-layer
implementations include Zone Information Protocol (ZIP), the AppleTalk protocol that
coordinates the name binding process; and Session Control Protocol (SCP), the DEC net
Phase IV session layer protocol.
1.8.6 OSI Model Presentation Layer

The presentation layer provides a variety of coding and conversion functions that are
applied to application layer data. These functions ensure that information sent from the
application layer of one system would be readable by the application layer of another system.
Some examples of presentation layer coding and conversion schemes include common data
representation formats, conversion of character representation formats, common data
compression schemes, and common data encryption schemes.
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1.8.7 OSI Model Application Layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both
the OSI application layer and the user interact directly with the software application.
This layer interacts with software applications that implement a communicating
component. Such application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application
layer functions typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource
availability, and synchronizing communication.
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When identifying communication partners, the application layer determines the
identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data to transmit.
When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether sufficient
network resources for the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication,
all communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the
application layer.
1.9 Information formats

The data and control information that is transmitted through internet works takes a
variety of forms. The terms used to refer to these information formats are not used
consistently in the internetworking industry but sometimes are used interchangeably.
Common information formats include frames, packets, data grams, segments, and messages,
cells, and data units.
A frame is an information unit whose source and destination are data link layer
entities. A frame is composed of the data link layer header (and possibly a trailer) and upper-
layer data. The header and trailer contain control information intended for the data link layer
entity in the destination system. Data from upper-layer entities is encapsulated in the data link
layer header and trailer. Figure 6 illustrates the basic components of a data link layer frame.
Frames
Data link layer Upper layer data Data link layer

Header trailer
Figure 6: Data from Upper-Layer Entities Makes Up the Data
1.9.1 Link Layer Frame

A packet is an information unit whose source and destination are network layer
entities. A packet is composed of the network layer header (and possibly a trailer) and upper-
layer data. The header and trailer contain control information intended for the network layer
entity in the destination system. Data from upper-layer entities is encapsulated in the network
layer header and trailer. Figure 7 illustrates the basic components of a network layer packet.
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packet
Network layer Upper layer data network layer

Header trailer
Figure 7: Three Basic Components Make up a Network Layer Packet

The term data gram usually refers to an information unit whose source and destination
are network layer entities that use connectionless network service. The term segment usually
refers to an information unit whose source and destination are transport layer entities.
A message is an information unit whose source and destination entities exist above the
network layer (often at the application layer).
A cell is an information unit of a fixed size whose source and destination are data link layer
entities. Cells are used in switched environments, such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM) and Switched Multimegabit Data Service (SMDS) networks. A cell is composed of
the header and payload. The header contains control information intended for the destination
data link layer entity and is typically 5 bytes long. The payload contains upper-layer data that
is encapsulated in the cell header and is typically 48 bytes long. The length of the header and
the payload fields always are the same for each cell.
Figure 8: Two Components Make Up a Typical Cell

Data unit is a generic term that refers to a variety of information units. Some common
data units are service data units (Suds), protocol data units, and bridge protocol data units
(BPDUs). Suds are information units from upper-layer protocols that define a service request
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to a lower-layer protocol. PDU is OSI terminology for a packet. The spanning-tree algorithm
uses bPDUs as hello messages.
1.10 Connection-Oriented and Connectionless Network Services:
In general, transport protocols can be characterized as being either connection-
oriented or connectionless. Connection-oriented services must first establish a connection
with the desired service before passing any data. A connectionless service can send the data
without any need to establish a connection first. In general, connection-oriented services
provide some level of delivery guarantee, whereas connectionless services do not.
Connection-oriented service involves three phases: connection establishment, data
transfer, and connection termination.
During connection establishment, the end nodes may reserve resources for the
connection. The end nodes also may negotiate and establish certain criteria for the transfer,
such as a window size used in TCP connections. This resource reservation is one of the things
exploited in some denial of service (DOS) attacks. An attacking system will send many
requests for establishing a connection but then will never complete the connection. The
attacked computer is then left with resources allocated for many never-completed
connections. Then, when an end node tries to complete an actual connection, there are not
enough resources for the valid connection.
The data transfer phase occurs when the actual data is transmitted over the
connection.
During data transfer, most connection-oriented services will monitor for lost packets
and handle resending them. The protocol is generally also responsible for putting the packets
in the right sequence before passing the data up the protocol stack.
When the transfer of data is complete, the end nodes terminate the connection and
release resources reserved for the connection.
Connection-oriented network services have more overhead than connectionless ones.
Connection-oriented services must negotiate a connection, transfer data, and tear down the
connection, whereas a connectionless transfer can simply send the data without the added
overhead of creating and tearing down a connection. Each has its place in internet works.
1.11 Internet Work Addressing

Internet work addresses identify devices separately or as members of a group.
Addressing schemes vary depending on the protocol family and the OSI layer. Three types of
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internet work addresses are commonly used: data link layer addresses, Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses, and network layer addresses.
1.11.1Data Link Layer Addresses
A data link layer address uniquely identifies each physical network connection of a
network device. Data-link addresses sometimes are referred to as physical or hardware
addresses. Data-link addresses usually exist within a flat address space and have a pre-
established and typically fixed relationship to a specific device.
End systems generally have only one physical network connection and thus have only
one data-link address. Figure 9 illustrates how each interface on a device is uniquely
identified by a data-link address.
Figure 9: Each Interface on a Device Is Uniquely Identified by a

data link address
1.11.2 MAC Addresses:

Media Access Control (MAC) addresses consist of a subset of data link layer
addresses. MAC addresses identify network entities in LANs that implement the IEEE MAC
addresses of the data link layer. As with most data-link addresses, MAC addresses are unique
for each LAN interface. Figure 10 illustrates the relationship between MAC addresses, data-
link addresses, and the IEEE sub layers of the data link layer.
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Figure 10: MAC Addresses, Data-Link Addresses, and the IEEE Sub
layers of the Data Link Layer Are All Related
MAC addresses are 48 bits in length and are expressed as 12 hexadecimal digits. The
first 6 hexadecimal digits, which are administered by the IEEE, identify the manufacturer or
vendor and thus comprise the Organizationally Unique Identifier (OUI).
The last 6 hexadecimal digits comprise the interface serial number, or another value
administered by the specific vendor. MAC addresses sometimes are called burned-in
addresses (BIAs) because they are burned into read-only memory (ROM) and are copied into
random-access memory (RAM) when the interface card initializes. Figure 11 illustrates the
MAC address format.
Figure 11: The MAC Address Contains a Unique Format of Hexadecimal

Digits
1.12 Hierarchical Versus Flat Address Space
Internet work address space typically takes one of two forms: hierarchical address
space or flat address space. A hierarchical address space is organized into numerous
subgroups, each successively narrowing an address until it points to a single device (in a
manner similar to street addresses).
A flat address space is organized into a single group (in a manner similar to U.S.
Social Security numbers).
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Hierarchical addressing offers certain advantages over flat-addressing schemes.
Address sorting and recall is simplified using comparison operations. For example, "Ireland"
in a street address eliminates any other country as a possible location. Figure 11 illustrates the
difference between hierarchical and flat address spaces.
Figure 12: Hierarchical and Flat Address Spaces Differ in Comparison

Operations
1.12.1 Address Assignments

Addresses are assigned to devices as one of two types: static and dynamic. A network
administrator according to a preconceived Internet work-addressing plan assigns static
addresses. A static address does not change until the network administrator manually changes
it. Devices obtain dynamic addresses when they attach to a network, by means of some
protocol-specific process. A device using a dynamic address often has a different address
each time that it connects to the network. Some networks use a server to assign addresses.
Server-assigned addresses are recycled for reuse as devices disconnect. A device is
therefore likely to have a different address each time that it connects to the network.
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1.12.2 Addresses versus Names
Internet work devices usually have both a name and an address associated with them.
Internet work names typically are location-independent and remain associated with a device
wherever that device moves (for example, from one building to another). Internet work
addresses usually are location-dependent and change when a device is moved (although MAC
addresses are an exception to this rule).
As with network addresses being mapped to MAC addresses, names are usually
mapped to network addresses through some protocol.
The Internet uses Domain Name System (DNS) to map the name of a device to its
IP address. For example, it's easier for you to remember www.cisco.com instead of some IP
address. Therefore, you type www.cisco.com into your browser when you want to access
Cisco's web site. Your computer performs a DNS lookup of the IP address for Cisco's web
server and then communicates with it using the network address.
1.13 Error-Checking Basics

Error-checking schemes determine whether transmitted data has become corrupt or
otherwise damaged while traveling from the source to the destination. Error checking is
implemented at several of the OSI layers.
One common error-checking scheme is the cyclic redundancy check (CRC), which detects
and discards corrupted data. Error-correction functions (such as data retransmission) are left
to higher-layer protocols.
A CRC value is generated by a calculation that is performed at the source device.
The destination device compares this value to its own calculation to determine whether errors
occurred during transmission. First, the source device performs a predetermined set of
calculations over the contents of the packet to be sent. Then, the source places the calculated
value in the packet and sends the packet to the destination. The destination performs the same
predetermined set of calculations over the contents of the packet and then compares its
computed value with that contained in the packet. If the values are equal, the packet is
considered valid. If the values are unequal, the packet contains errors and is discarded.
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1.14 Multiplexing Basics
Multiplexing is a process in which multiple data channels are combined into a single
data or physical channel at the source.
Multiplexing can be implemented at any of the OSI layers. Conversely,
demultiplexing is the process of separating multiplexed data channels at the destination. One
example of multiplexing is when data from multiple applications is multiplexed into a single
lower-layer data packet. Figure12 illustrates this example.
Figure 13: Multiple Applications Can Be Multiplexed into a Single Lower-

Layer Data Packet
Another example of multiplexing is when data from multiple devices is combined
into a single physical channel (using a device called a multiplexer). Figure 13 illustrates this
example.
Figure 14: Multiple Devices Can Be Multiplexed into a Single Physical

Channel
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A multiplexer is a physical layer device that combines multiple data streams
into one or more output channels at the source. Multiplexers de multiplex the channels into
multiple data streams at the remote end and thus maximize the use of the bandwidth of the
physical medium by enabling it to be shared by multiple traffic sources. Some methods used
for multiplexing data are time-division multiplexing (TDM), asynchronous time-division
multiplexing (ATDM), frequency-division multiplexing (FDM), and statistical multiplexing.
In TDM, information from each data channel is allocated bandwidth based on
preassigned time slots, regardless of whether there is data to transmit. In ATDM, information
from data channels is allocated bandwidth as needed by using dynamically assigned time
slots. In FDM, information from each data channel is allocated bandwidth based on the signal
frequency of the traffic. In statistical multiplexing, bandwidth is dynamically allocated to any
data channels that have information to transmit.
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Chapter-2
WI-FI TECHNOLOGY
2.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with introduction about Wi-Fi technology and it gives the relative
comparison with other technologies (Blue tooth, Wimax etc,)
This chapter addresses mainly functional and MAC aspects, a detailed description of
the PHY layer.
Architecture where the system us subdivided into cells, where each cell (called basic
service set or BSS) in the 802.11 nomenclature) is controlled by a base station called access
point.
Even though that wireless LAN may be formed by a single cell , with a single access
point (it can also work without an access point ) most installation s will be formed by several
cells, where the access point are connected through some kind of backbone called
Distribution system(DS) generally Ethernet.
The following picture shows a typical 802.11 LAN, with the components described
above
Figure 15: typical 802.11 LAN

In the above fig.15 each system is divided into cells, each cell is called Basic service
set; a base station called access point controls each BSS.
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Figure 16: Distribution system
The standard also defines the concept of portal, a portal is a device that interconnects
between an 802.11 and another 802 LAN
802.11 Layer Description:
The 802.11 protocol covers the MAC and physical layer the standard currently defines
a single MAC, which interacts with three PHYs
802.2 Data link

layer
802.11 MAC
FH DS IR PHY layer
Beyond the standard functionality usually perfumed by MAC layers, the 802.11 Mac
performs other functions that are typicality related to upper layer protocols such as
Fragmentation, packet Retransmission and acknowledges.
The MAC layer defines two different access methods, the distributed coordination
function and the point coordination function. The basic access method: CSMA/CA
CSMA/CA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Avoidance) is the channel access
mechanism used by most wireless LANs in the ISM bands.
A channel access mechanism is the part of the protocol which specifies how the node
uses the medium: when to listen, when to transmit... The basic principles of CSMA/CA are
listening before talk and contention. This is an asynchronous message passing mechanism
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(connectionless), delivering a best effort service, but no bandwidth and latency guarantee
(you are still following?).
Its main advantages are that it is suited for network protocols such as TCP/IP, adapts
quite well with the variable condition of traffic and is quite robust against interferences.
CSMA/CA is fundamentally different from the channel access mechanism used by cellular
phone systems .CSMA/CA is derived from CSMA/CD (Collision Detection), which is the
base of Ethernet. The main difference is the collision avoidance : on a wire, the transceiver
has the ability to listen while transmitting and so to detect collisions (with a wire all
transmissions have approximately the same strength). But, even if a radio node could listen
on the channel while transmitting, the strength of its own transmissions would mask all other
signals on the air. So, the protocol can't directly detect collisions like with Ethernet and only
tries to avoid them.
2.2 MAC techniques

We have described the main principle of CSMA/CA but most MAC protocols use
additional techniques to improve the performance of CSMA/CA.
2.2.1 MAC retransmissions

As we have seen in the previous chapter, the main problem of the CSMA/CA
protocol is that the transmitter can't detect collisions on the medium. There is also a higher
error rate on the air than on a wire so a higher chance of packets is corrupted. TCP doesn't
like very much packet losses at the MAC layer). Because of that, most MAC protocols also
implement positive acknowledgement and MAC level retransmissions to avoid losing
packets on the air. The principle is quite simple: each time a node receives a packet, it sends
back immediately a short message (an acknowledgement) to the transmitter to indicate that it
has successfully received the packet without errors.
If after sending a packet the transmitter doesn't receive an acknowledgement, it knows

that the packet was lost, so it will retransmit the packet (after contending again for the
medium, like in Ethernet). Most MAC protocols use a stop and go mechanism; they transmit
the next packet of the queue only if the current packet has been properly acknowledged (no
sliding window mechanism like in TCP). The rationale is that it makes the protocol simpler,
minimize latency and avoid the sequencing packets (something that TCP doesn't like as
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well).The acknowledgement are "embedded" in the MAC protocol, so they are guaranteed
not to collide (the contention starts after the acknowledgement- see figure).
These acknowledgements are very different from the TCP acknowledgement,

which work at a different level. wireless WAN protocols (like satellite links) don't
implement that either, because the round trip delay in their case is so long that by the time
they would receive the acknowledgement they could have sent another packet. If your
Wireless LAN doesn't implement MAC level retransmissions, all is not lost : students of
Berkeley have created a protocol called snoop which filters the TCP acknowledgement and
retransmits the lost packets before TCP even notices that they are lost (this is still a link level
retransmission, but done just over the MAC).
Figure17: M AC retransmissions in CSMA/CA
2.2.2 Fragmentation:
The radio medium has a higher error rate than a wire. We have explained in the
previous chapter that it was why most products were including MAC level retransmissions to
avoid losing packets. MAC level retransmissions solve this problem, but are not really per
formant. If the packet to transmit is long and contains only one error, the node needs to
retransmit it entirely. If the error rate is significantly high, we could come to some situation
were the probability of error in large packet is dangerously close to 1 (we can't fit a packet
between the bursts of errors due to fading or interferers), so we can't get packet through. This
is why some products use fragmentation. Fragmentation is sending the big packets in small
pieces over the medium. Of course, this adds some overhead, because it duplicates packet
headers in every fragment. Each fragment is individually checked and retransmitted if
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necessary. The first advantage is that in case of error, the node needs only to retransmit one
small fragment, so it is faster.
The second advantage is that if the medium is very noisy, a small packet has a higher
probability to get through without errors, so the node increases its chance of success in bad
conditions.
RTS/CTS
In the chapter about range we have seen that the main effect of transmission on radio
waves is the attenuation of the signal. Because of this attenuation, we have very commonly a
problem of hidden nodes. The hidden node problem comes from the fact that all nodes may
not hear each other because the attenuation is too strong between them. Because
transmissions are based on the carrier sense mechanism, those nodes ignore each other and
may transmit at the same time. Usually, this is a good thing because it allows frequency reuse
(they are effectively in different cells). But, for a node placed in between, these simultaneous
transmissions have a comparable strength and so collide (in its receiver). This node could be
impossible to reach because of these collisions.
The fundamental problem with carrier sense only is that the transmitter tries to estimate
if the channel is free at the receiver with only local information. The situation might be quite
different between those two locations. A simple and elegant solution to this problem
(proposed by Phil Kern in his MACA protocol for AX.25) is to use RTS/CTS (Request to
Send/Clear to send). RTS/CTS is a handshaking: before sending a packet, the transmitter
sends a RTS and wait for a CTS from the receiver (see figure below). The reception of a CTS
indicates that the receiver is able to receive the RTS, so the packet (the channel is clear in its
area). At the same time, every node in the range of the receiver hears the CTS (even if it
doesn't hear the RTS), so understands that a transmission is going on. The nodes hearing the
CTS are the nodes that could potentially create collisions in the receiver (assuming a
symmetric channel).Because these nodes may not hear the data transmission, the RTS and
CTS messages contain the size of the expected transmission (to know how long the
transmission will last). This is the collision avoidance feature of the RTS/CTS mechanism
(also called virtual carrier sense): all nodes avoid accessing the channel after hearing the CTS
even if their carrier sense indicates that the medium is free. RTS/CTS have another
advantage: it lowers the overhead of a collision on the medium (collisions are much shorter in
23
time). If two nodes attempt to transmit in the same slot of the contention window, their RTS
collide and they don't receive any CTS, so they loose only a RTS, whereas in the normal
scenario they would have lost a whole packet.
Figure18: RTS/CTS and hidden nodes in CSMA/CA
Because the RTS/CTS handshaking adds a significant overhead, usually it is not used
for small packets or lightly loaded networks.
2.3 WIFI
Computers, laptops, cell phones and palm pilots are examples of mechanisms that can
grant the user internet access. Although computers and laptops are capable of having normal
internet connection (i.e. Ethernet connection), they are also able to have internet access
through wireless technology. Cell phones and palm pilots can only be connected to the
internet by wireless connection. Wireless networking is possible through the technology of
wireless-fidelity. Wireless-fidelity or Wi-Fi as most people call it allows a ubiquitous internet
connection to be broadcasted through radio waves. Its purpose serves directly to the users
looking for internet access devoid of any cords or wires.
Radio waves are the keys which make Wi-Fi networking possible. These radio
signals are transmitted from antennas and routers and are picked up by Wi-Fi receivers such
as computers and cell phones that are equipped with Wi-Fi cards. Whenever a computer
receives any of the signals within the range of a Wi-Fi network which is usually 300 500
feet for antennas and 100 150 feet for routers, the Wi-Fi card will read the signals and thus
create an internet connection between the user and the network without the use of a cord.
Usually the connection speed is increases as the computer gets closer to the main source of
the signal and decreases when the computer gets further away. With that in mind, think of the
24
Wi-Fi card as being an invisible cord that connects your computer to the antenna for a direct
connection to the internet.
Many new laptops already come with a Wi-Fi card built in and in many cases you
dont have to do anything to start Wi-Fi that is one of the best things about it and how simple
it is.
A Wi-Fi card is not installed in your computer, you may purchase a USB antenna
attachment and have it externally connect to your USB port, or have an antenna-equipped
expansion card installed directly to the computer. Laptops without a built in Wi-Fi card is
usually installed the external way while PCs have it installed internally. Once a connection is
established between the user and the network, the user will be prompted with a login screen
and password if it is a fee-based type network. Though therere also free-based network
connections as well in some areas. Wi-Fi networking around the world is creating hot spots in
cities where anyone with a laptop can wirelessly plug into the internet. A hotspot is a
connection point for a Wi-Fi network. It is a small box that is hardwired into the internet.
There are many Wife hotspots now available in public places like restaurants, hotels, libraries
and airports. You can also create your own hotspot in your home. Research has shown that
within the next 10 years, hot spots will be all over urban and suburban vicinities.
In order for the person to gain access to the internet, they must have Wi-Fi equipped
products shown on the diagram. The diagram also features how Wi-Fi cards can receive these
radio signals into their Wi-Fi receivers and have wireless connection to the internet. The
diagram represents the person with the most important information of what features you need
to understand of how Wi-Fi spreads the net in a specific location. It also gives the person
insight of how wireless technology work through radio waves and how it functions.
2.4 Specific Parts:

2.4.1 Radio Signals
When it comes to Wi-Fi technology, radio signals are the most essential and crucial
components. They determine if you have internet access and what speed the connection is
running on. The basic concept of radio signals used in Wi-Fi networking is usually compared
to that of walkie-talkies. These walkie-talkies can transmit and receive radio signals, which
makes possible to communicate with one another. When you literally talk into the walkie-
talkie, it is fixed to a radio frequency and broadcasted with the antenna.
25
The main sources of radio waves come from the antenna or router which transmits
these waves to another antenna, in this case, Wi-Fi cards, which give a direct signal to the
user the ability to have internet access.
The antenna is placed on top of a building and emits radio waves within the vicinity.
Notice that people with internet devices are receiving these signals to gain access to the
internet. The IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) has produced a set of
standards and specifications for wireless networks under the title IEEE 802.11 that defines
the format and structure of radio signals sent out by Wi-Fi networking routers and antennas.
Currently there are three forms of the 802.11 standard proposed by the IEEE: 802.11b, which
came before 802.11a, and then 802.11g as its last form. Wi-Fi radios that work with 802.11b
and 802.11g broadcasts at a frequency rate of 2.4 GHz while those that comply with the
802.11a form broadcasts at 5GHz. The higher frequency allows faster data rates. Each
standard has advantages, but 802.11g has the speed, compatibility, and range to replace
802.11b as the most common configuration of Wi-Fi. Here is a chart that represents the main
differences of each standard.
Standard 802.11b 802.11a 802.11g

Speed 11 Mbps 54 Mbps 54Mbps
Range 100-150 feet 27-75 feet indoors 100-150 feet
indoors indoors
Frequency 2.4GHz, a band 5GHz, an un 2.4GHz, still a
already crowded crowded band crowd of cordless
with cordless phones and
phones microwaves
Acceptance Hot spots are More common in 802.11g is
already established corporate and compatible with the
using 802.11b. office specs for 802.11b,
Equipment is environments. meaning it can be
readily available used on a network
based on b or g
versions.
Table 1: Comparisons between Different Technologies:
26
The standards 802.11a and 802.11g use much more explicit encoding techniques
that contribute to the much higher data rates. This is known as orthogonal frequency-division
multiplexing (OFDM). As for 802.11b, it is called Complimentary Code Keying (CCK).The
three radio standards in wireless networking have the ability to change frequencies.
The 802.11b cards can indirectly transmit radio signals onto any of the three bands or
they can split the available bandwidth into many channels and does the term frequency hop
between them. Whats helpful about frequency hopping is that it overcomes interference from
other people who are using the same radio signal and changes frequency various times per
second. This allows
Numerous Wi-Fi cards under the same radio signal to talk concurrently with no
interference with each other.
2.4.2 Wi-Fi Cards

In order for computers to receive these radio signals, a network adapter must be
installed on the computer. The network adapter in this case is called the Wi-Fi Card and it can
take several physical forms. For laptops, this card will be a PCMCIA card in which you insert
to the PCMCIA slot on the laptop. The other way is to buy an external adapter and plug it into
a USB port. For personal computers, you can install plug-in PCI cards or a small external
adapter for the USB port just like the one used for laptops. A network adaptor should be
capable to use in any operating system such as WINDOWS, MAC OS, LINUX and UNIX as
long as the driver for the adapter is accessible to download or install Therefore, there are
three different kinds of Wi-Fi cards that are available to purchase. The recommended Wi-Fi
card to buy is the 802.11g because it has the advantage of higher speeds than the 802.11b (see
the chart in the radio signals section). Below are pictures of how Wi-Fi cards appear and how
it fits in the MCMCIA slot on the laptop.
27
Figure 19: Wi-Fi Cards
Figure20: USB versions of WI-FI cards
These three items are examples of the USB versions of the Wi-Fi cards. They are often
small and easy to carry around. This is the external Wi-Fi card indicating that it is an exterior
item.
2.5 Hotspots
When laptops are equipped with Wi-Fi cards, it can very well connect to the wireless
hotspot. As mentioned earlier, hot spots are connection points for Wi-Fi networks. They are
simply locations where wireless internet is available for those who have internet ready
instruments (i.e. computers, laptops, cell phones and palm pilots).
28
Once the internet connection has been established, a log-on screen will appear for
most computers and laptops. This occurs when you have attempted to use a wireless network
connection that is a fee-based type, meaning you must use your credit card and pay to be a
member of that certain internet connection. There are also free-based type wireless
connections available as well. As reliable as it sounds having internet connection without the
use of cords, wireless internet is very exposed to hackers and very insecure in most cases.
Hackers can track down what you are looking at and can implant viruses such as worms and
Trojans and can even access your data! That is why people use firewall on their connection to
prevent any harm caused by hackers.
In order to securely access a companys internal network, you will need Virtual
Private Networking (VPN) software on both the laptop and the companys internal servers.
2.6 Wi-Fi Security
Some Hotspots require WEP key to connect that is the connection is considered to
be private or secure. As for open connections, anyone with a Wi-Fi card can gain access to
that hotspot. WEP stands for Wired Equivalence Privacy. It is considered to be a complex
encryption system that is made up of two differences. The first is the 64-bit encryption and
the other is the 128-bit encryption. The 64-bit encryption was the original standard until it
was easily bypassed. With the 64-bit encryption out of the way, the new and improved 128-
bit encryption was made. It is much secure and is what most people use to enable WEP.
So in order for a user to gain access to the internet under WEP, the user must input
the WEP key code. Think of it as a simple password.
2.7 Access Points
Access points are often combined with other network functions. It is very likely
that you will discover a separate access point that just plugs into a wired Local Area Network
(LAN). If you already have more than one computer hooked together on the same network
and want to have a good hotspot, you can buy a wireless access point and plug it in to the
network. As mentioned earlier, radio signals can be received and transmitted by an antenna
and a router. The router is an example of an access point of how multiple computers can be
connected together in the same network both including the use of wires and wireless
technology. So once you turn on your access point on, you will have a hotspot in your home
and will have radio signal within a 100 feet radius. As for antennas, they have a higher signal
transmission at a 300-500 feet radius. That is why hotels, campuses, libraries, etc, anything
that is larger than your home is required to use antennas rather than routers.
29
Below are two different kinds of routers used to connect multiple computers
on the same connection?
Figure21: different kinds of routers
The physical designs of access points various from one brand to the other. Here you can see
one of Net Gears router and on the right, Linksyss wireless router have different physical
forms. Some look like devices that were intended to be placed in a standing position jut like
the router on the right.
Others have those normal flat looking routers like the one on the left. Some have
internal antennas and others have short vertical antennas permanently affixed to the router
just like the ones shown here. Regardless of its size and shape, all access points consist of a
radio that transmits and receive signals and data between network stations and an Ethernet
port that connects to a wired network (normal connection).
2.8 Function of the Working Parts

The radio signal, data structure, and the network structure are the three essential
elements that form the wireless internet standard 802.11 Wi-Fi networking. Radio signals of
802.11b, 802.11a, and 802.11g can be received or transmitted from antennas and routers,
which are known as access points, through laptops, computers, cell phones and palm pilots.
The standard 802.11g radio signal is considered to be fastest and most reliable when it comes
to quality compared to the other two standards. In order for computers, laptops and palm
pilots to receive this wireless connection, they must be properly equipped. Meaning a Wi-Fi
card must be installed either externally or internally to the computer, laptop or palm pilots.
30
Wi-Fi cards come in three different types just like how there are three different Wi-Fi
standards, the 802.11 series. Once a successful connection has been made from the access
point to the Wi-Fi card, the user may now access the internet without any cords used. The
name of the term regarding the location where one can access the internet wirelessly is called
a hotspot. There are fee-typed and free-typed based wireless connections in Wi-Fi. If a user
is given a log on screen, when first connecting to wireless internet, it is most likely going to
be a fee-typed base connection. Although there are areas where there are free-typed base as
well. Wireless connection may sound reliable at times; it is very prone to hackers. They have
could enter your personal computer data and implant viruses and worms into your computer.
That is why people are being urged use firewall as a protection from these notorious hackers.
Speaking of security, a Wi-Fi connection can either be open or secure. If a secure connection
exists, a user must input a WEP code in order to access the internet. People now use the 128-
bit WEP encryption due to the lack of security found in the 64-bit encryption. Think of this
WEP code as a password to enter a private server on the internet. Radio waves and access
points work together which makes Wi-Fi connection possible. Access points that consist of
antennas and routers are the main source, which transmit and receive radio waves.
31
CHAPTER-3
Specifications and Analysis
3.1 The following discussion will gives some important frame formats:
There are three main types of frames
Data Frames : Which are used for data transmission?
Control Frames : Which are used to control access to the
Medium (e.g. RTS, CTS and ACK)
Management Frame : Which are frames that are transmitted?
The same way as data frames to
] Exchange management
Information, but are not forwarded to upper
Layers
Each of these types is as well subdivided into different subtypes, according to their
specific function.
All 802.11 frames are composed by the following components
Preamble:
This is PHY dependent and it includes
Sync: An 80 bit sequence of alternating zeros and ones, which is used by the PHY circuitry
to select the appropriate antenna and to reach steady state offset correction and
synchronization with the received packet timing.
PLCP HEADER:
32
Data Rate Field (DR):
The DR Field indicates to the PHY the data rate that shall be used for the transmission
or reception of the remaining fields. The PHY layer shall provide the transmitted value. This
field has 3 bits; the PHY layer currently supports two data rates defined by the patterns
For 1 Mbit/s: 000
For 2 Mbit/s: 001
DCLA Field:
The DCLA field is required to allow the receiver to stabilize the dc level after the
SYNC, SFD and DR Fields. The leftmost bit shall be transmitted first, the length of the
DCLA field is 32 bit and the pattern depends on speed of transmission.
For 1 Mbit/s: 0000_0000_1000_0000_0000_0000_1000_0000.
For 2 Mbit/s: 0010_0010_0010_0010_0010_0010_0010_0010.
LENGTH FIELD:
The length field is an unsigned 16 it integer that indicates the number of octets to
be transmitted in the PSDU. The PHY layer shall provide the transmitted value.
CRC FIELD:
In this we use 16 bit CRC with the polynomial
General MAC Frame format:
The MAC Frame Format comprises a set of fields that occur in a fixed order in all
frames. The fields are Address 2, address 3; Sequence Control, Address 4 and Frame Body
are only present in certain frame types.
33
Frame Control Field:
The Frame Control Field consists of the following subfields:
Protocol version:
This field consists of 2bits in length and is invariant in size and placement across all
revisions of this standard. the revision level will be incremented only when a fundamental
incompatibility exists between a new revision and the prior edition of the standard. For this
version it is 00.
Type and Subtype Fields:

The type field is 2 bits in length and the subtype field is 4 bits in length. The Type and
Subtype fields together identify the function of the frame.
34
Type0 Type description subtype value Subtype description
b3b2 b7 b6 b5 b4
00 management 0000 Association request
00 management 0001 Association response
00 management 0010 Re association request
00 Management 0011 Re association response
00 Management 0100 Probe request
00 Management 0101 Probe response
00 Management 0110-0111 reserved
00 management 1000 Beacon
00 management 1001 Announcement traffic
indication message(ATIM)
00 Management 1010 Disassociation
00 Management 1011 Authentication
00 Management 1100 De authentication
00 Management 1101-1111 Reserved
01 Control 0000-1001 Reserved
01 Control 1010 Power save(PS)-poll
01 Control 1011 REQUEST TO SEND
01 Control 1100 Clear to send
01 Control 1101 Acknowledgement
01 Control 1110 Contention-free CF end
01 Control 1111 CF-End+ CF Ack
10 Data 0000 Data
10 Data 0001 Data + CF- ACK
10 Data 0010 Data + CF-Poll
10 Data 0011 Data+ CF-ACK+CF-Poll
10 Data 0100 Null function (no data)
10 Data 0101 CF-ACK (no data)
10 Data 0100 CF-POLL

10 Data 0111 CF-ACK+CF-POLL
10 Data 1000 reserved
11 reserved 1111 reserved
Table 2: Valid type and subtype fields:
35
TO DS:
The TO DS field is 1 bit length and is set to 1 in data type frames destined for the
DS. This includes all data type frames sent by STAs associated with an Access Point. The
TODS field is set to 0 in all other frames. This bit is used whether the frame is addressed or
not, if it is set to 1 when the frame is addressed to the Access Point
FROM DS:
This bit is 1 bit length and is set to 1 in data type frames exiting the distribution
system.
It is set to 0 on all other frames.
More fragments:
This bit is set to 1, if more fragments belonging to the same frame following this
current fragment.
Retry:
This bit is 1 bit length and is set to 1 in any data or management type frame that is a
retransmission of earlier frame. it is set to 0 in all other frames .A receiving station uses this
indication to aid in the process of eliminating duplicate frames. And it also used for changing
state either from power save to active (or) vice versa
More data:
This bit is also used for power management and the access point to indicate that there
are more frames buffered to this station uses it.
WEP:
The WEP field is 1 bit length .It is set to 1 if the frame body field contains
information that has been processed by the WEP algorithm. The WEP field is only set to 1
within frames of type data and frames of type management, subtype authentication.
The WEP field is set to 0 in all other frames.
Duration ID:
The Duration ID is 16 bits length. The contents of this field are as follows
In Control type frames of subtype power Save poll, the Duration ID field carries the
association identity of the station that transmitted the fame in the 14 least significant bits,
with the 2 most significant bits both are set to 1, the value of AID is in the range 1-2007.
36
Address field:
A frame contains up to 4 addresses depending on TODS and FROMDS fields.
Address1:
Always receiver address (i.e. the station on the BSS who is the immediate receiver of the
packet) If TODS is set this is the address of the AP. .If not this is the address of the End
station.
Address2:
It is always transmitter address. ( A Station which is physically transmitting the packet).
If FROMDS is set this is the address of the AP, if not it is the address of station.
Address3
In most cases the remaining, missing addresses on a frame FROMDS set to 1, then
address3 field is a original address
If TODS is set to 1 then address 3 is the destination address.
Address4:
If wireless distribution system is used, frame is being transmitted from one AP to other
AP. Here TODS is set to 1 and FROM DS is set to 1.So both the original
source/destination addresses are missing.
Sequence control:
The sequence control field is 16 bits in length and consists of two subfields, the
sequence number and the fragment number.\
Fragment number Sequence number

B0 4bits B3 B4 12bits B15
The sequence number field consists of 12 bits indicating the sequence number of
MSDU or MMPDU. Each MSDU transmitted by a STA is assigned a sequence number.
Sequence numbers are assigned from a single modulo 4096 counter, starting at 0 and
incremented by 1 for each MSDU or MMPDU. The sequence number is constant in all
retransmissions of an MSDU.
37
Fragment number field is 4 bit field indicating the number of each fragment of an
MSDU or MMPDU. The fragment number is set to zero in the first or only fragment of an
MSDU or MMPDU. The fragment number remains constant in all retransmissions of the
fragment.
FCS FIELD:
The CRC field is a 32 bit containing a 32 bit CRC, The FCS is calculated over
all the fields of the MAC header and the frame body field. These are referred as calculation
fields.
The FCS is calculated using the following standard generator polynomial
Of degree 32
With this CRC the sender and receiver must agree upon a generator polynomial, G(x).
Both the high and low order bits of the generator must be 1. To compute the checksum for
some frame with m bits, corresponding to the polynomial M(x) the frame must be longer than
the generator polynomial. The idea is to append a checksum to the end of the frame in such a
way that the polynomial represented by the cheksummed frame is divisible by G(x).
When the receiver gets the check summed frame, it tries dividing it by G(x). if there is a
remainder there has been a transmission error.
The algorithm for computing the checksum is as follows:
1. Let r be the degree of G(x) ,append r zero bits to the low order end of the frame , so it
now contains m+r bits and corresponds to the polynomial xr M(x).
2. Divide the bit string corresponding to G(x) into the bit string corresponding to x r M(x).
Using modulo 2 division .subtract the remainder (which is always r or fewer bits) from the bit
string
3. Corresponding to xr M(x) using modulo 2 subtractions. The result is the Check summed
frame to be transmitted.
To calculate this CRC Peterson and Brown a simple shift register method to compute
and and verify the checksums in hardware.
38
3.2 Format of individual Frame types:
3.2.1 Request to Send Frame Format:
RA: The RA of the RTS frame format is the address of STA on the wireless medium that is
intended immediate receptionist of the next data (or) management frame.
TA: Address of STA.
Duration time: Time required sending Data/management + one CTS + One ACK+ 3
SIFS.
3.2.2 Clear To Send Format (CTS):
RA: RA is address of the CTS from is copied from transmitter address (TA) field of the
immediately previous RTS frame to which CTS is a response.
Duration value:
Duration field of immediately previous RTS time required to transmit CTS frame and its
SIFS interval.
3.2.3 Acknowledgement Frame:
The RA of the ACK frame is copied form the address 2 field of the immediately
previous directed data management frames.
39
If the more fragment bit was set to 0 in the frame control field of the immediately
previous directed data or management frame, the duration value is set to 0 if the more
fragment bit was set to 1 in the frame control field of the immediately previous directed data
or management frame, the duration value is the value obtained from the duration field of the
immediately previous data or management frame, minus the time in microseconds required to
transmit the ACK frame and its SIFS interval.
3.3 Overview of MAC layer:
MAC layer acts as an intermediate stage between Data link layer and Physical Layer.
Its primary responsibility is to provide a reliable mechanism for exchanging transacting
packets on the communication channel through physical layer(RF layer).
MAC layer performs the following transmit functions
Generation of various MAC frames.
Generation of 16 bit HEC for Header and 32 bit CRC for payload data.
CRC and HEC generation for payload and header respectively.
FIFO buffer interface for transmitter.
Serializer the data using byte to bit converter.
MAC transmitter controller state machine implementation.
40
Figure22: ARCHITECTURE OF WI-FI MAC TRANSMITTER
41
3.4 Block Diagram Explanation:
The transmitter block is divided into five parts i.e. FIFO module and data length
counter module. These modules are discussed as shown below
3.4.1 FIFO Module:
Sys clk
Sys rst
Data ln FIFO data
Addr FIFO full
Control empty
Byt clk
FIFO RDena
FIFO Ena
Figure23: FIFO module

FIFO module is shown in above figure. It contains the data to be transmitted. It
acts as the synchronizing tool i.e. the data are entered at high rate but it is retrieved at slower
rate. Here, the first incoming data goes out first.
It acts on two clocks i.e. sysclk and Byteclk on their rising edge and when the FIFO is
enable the input data is retrieved. The Full and Empty signals shows the state of the FIFO.
42
3.4.2 Data length counter module:
Byt clk
Sysrst Dtalencnt
Dtacntover
Dtaena
Max no
Figure24: Data length counter module

Data length counter module acts as counter .it simply accepts a Max Number and counts
the data being transmitted .when the number of data is equal to the Max Number then the data
count over signal is turned high .it acts at every rising edge of the clock.
3.5 Data processing Block:
It is divided into three modules i.e. Serializer, HEC and CRC and they are
discussed in details as shown below
3.5.1 Serialize Module:
Clk
S bit
Sysrst
Srena Serilizer Eoc
Srld
data
FIGURE25: serialize module

Figure shows serialize module. it is basically the parallel input and serial out put
device. Various data selected at the multiplexer are serially obtained .it occurs at every rising
edge of the clock and when the serial enable is high. The output bit is designated as S bit
.when all the out put bits are over, then the end of conversation that is EOC goes high.
43
3.5.2 HEC Module:
Clk
Bytclk
Sysrst HECOut
HEC
TxEna
SBit HECover
HECCalEna
Figure26: HEC module
Figure shows HEC Module .this module produces the Head Error Check bits. It is the
16-bit error check bit. the HEC is calculated when the HRC CalEna is high and when the
Tx Ena is high then the HEC data is transmitted along with PLCP Header Bits.
3.5.3 CRC module:
Clk
Sysclk
CRC out
Sysrst
CRC
CRCOver
Txena
Sbit
CRCCalEna
Figure27: CRC module
44
Figure shows CRC module the CRC is 32bit field contain the 32 bit cyclic
Redundancy check. When the TxEna signal is high, then the CRC data is given out and when
the CRC ClEna is high, then the CRC is calculated. CRCOver is high when the transmission
of the data is over. This module helps in error free transmission of the data with proper
reliability.
3.6 DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

3.6.1 THE HIGH-LEVEL DESCRIPTION
The designer would first understand the architectural description. The he would consider
design constraints such as timing, area, testability, and power. The designer would partition
the design into high level blocks.
Architectural
description
Partitioning into
high- level blocks
Design Constraints
Designers mind
Gate-level
Standard cell
representation
library (technology
dependent)
Meets
no design constraints
yes
Optimized Gate
level Representation
Figure28: Data flow diagram
45
3.6.2 How tools behave
Tools Used
Operating system : Windows XP
MODEL SIM 6.1d : For VHDL Simulation
XILINX ISE 9.2i : Project Implementation
Spartan-3 : FPGA for hardware realization
3.6.3 Design flow of xilinx ise 9.2 i:
Figure29: design flow of Xilinx ise 9.2i
46
CHAPTER-4
SIMULATION RESULTS
4.1 Data length counter
Byt clk
Sysrst Dtacntover
Dtalencnt
Dtaena
Max no
47
4.2 Parallel to serial converter
This module is used for converting Parallel Data in to serially to get Speed
Synchronization, and here this was used as byte to bit converter, in this module I have taken
four inputs named as bitclk to make synchronization, whenever Txen is high the data will be
converted serially from parallel form.
48
4.3 Cyclic Redundancy Checker Module
49
4.4 TOPMODULE
50
4.5 Data Frame
4.6 Synthesis Results for Top Module :
Release 8.2i - xst G.23

Copyright (c) 1995-2003 Xilinx, Inc. All rights reserved.
--> Parameter TMPDIR set to __projnav
CPU : 0.00 / 1.67 s | Elapsed : 0.00 / 2.00 s
--> Parameter xsthdpdir set to ./xst

CPU : 0.00 / 1.67 s | Elapsed : 0.00 / 2.00 s
--> Reading design: wifi.prj

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1) Synthesis Options Summary
51
2) HDL Compilation
3) HDL Analysis
4) HDL Synthesis
4.1) HDL Synthesis Report
5) Advanced HDL Synthesis
6) Low Level Synthesis
7) Final Report
7.1) Device utilization summary
7.2) TIMING REPORT
==================================================================
=======
* Synthesis Options Summary *
==================================================================
=======
---- Source Parameters
Input File Name : wifi.prj
Input Format : mixed
Synthesis Constraint File : C:\Xilinx\ISEexamples\template.xcf
Ignore Synthesis Constraint File : NO
Verilog Include Directory :
---- Target Parameters

Output File Name : wifi
Output Format : NGC
Target Device : xc3s50-4-pq208
==================================================================
=======
WARNING:Xst:1885 - LSO file is empty, default list of libraries is used
52
==================================================================
=======
* HDL Synthesis *
==================================================================
=======
Synthesizing Unit <SyncGen>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/SyncGen.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <SyncOver>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <SyncByte>.
Found 4-bit comparator less for signal <$n0007> created at line 46.
Found 4-bit adder for signal <$n0013> created at line 48.
Found 4-bit register for signal <cnt>.
Summary:
inferred 13 D-type flip-flop(s).
inferred 1 Adder/Subtracter(s).
inferred 1 Comparator(s).
Unit <SyncGen> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <PLCPHeaderReg>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/PLCPHeader.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <PLCPHeaderOver>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <PLCPHeaderReg>.
Found 8-bit 8-to-1 multiplexer for signal <$n0002> created at line 57.
Found 3-bit up counter for signal <Cnt>.
Found 64-bit register for signal <Register1>.
Summary:
inferred 1 Counter(s).
inferred 8 Multiplexer(s).
Unit <PLCPHeaderReg> synthesized.
53
Synthesizing Unit <FrameCntrl>.
Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/FrameCntrl.v.
Using one-hot encoding for signal <Cnt>.
Found 6-bit register for signal <FrameType>.
Found 1-bit register for signal <FrameCntrlOver>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <FrameCntrlReg>.
Found 3-bit register for signal <Cnt>.
Summary:
Unit <FrameCntrl> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <DID>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/DurID.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <DurIDOver>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <DurIDReg>.
Summary:
Unit <DID> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <SeqCntrl>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/SeqCntrl.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <SeqCntrlOver>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <SeqCntrlReg>.
Summary:
Unit <SeqCntrl> synthesized.
54
Synthesizing Unit <AddrReg4>.
Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/AddrReg4.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <AddrOver4>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <AddrReg4>.
Summary:
Unit <AddrReg4> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <AddrReg1>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/AddrReg1.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <AddrOver1>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <AddrReg1>.
Summary:
Unit <AddrReg1> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <DWtoByte>.
Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/DWtoByte.v.
WARNING:Xst:647 - Input <DW<31:8>> is never used.
WARNING:Xst:653 - Signal <Temp<31:8>> is used but never assigned. Tied to value
000000000000000000000000.
WARNING:Xst:1780 - Signal <Temp<7:0>> is never used or assigned.
INFO:Xst:1799 - State 0100 is never reached in FSM <i>.
Found finite state machine <FSM_0> for signal <i>.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
| States |3 |
55
| Transitions |3 |
| Inputs |0 |
| Outputs |3 |
| Clock | Byte Clk (rising edge) |
| Clock enable | Enable (positive) |
| Reset | Rst (negative) |
| Reset type | asynchronous |
| Reset State | 0001 |
| Encoding | automatic |
| Implementation | LUT |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Found 1-bit register for signal <Eoc>.
Found 8-bit register for signal <Byte>.
Summary:
inferred 1 Finite State Machine(s).
Unit <DWtoByte> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <StateMachine>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/StateMachine.v
Found finite state machine <FSM_1> for signal <ps>.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
| States | 13 |
| Transitions | 32 |
| Inputs | 16 |
| Outputs | 13 |
| Clock | ByteClk (falling_edge) |
| Reset State | idle |
| Power Up State | idle |
56
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Summary:
Unit <StateMachine> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <DataMux>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/DataMux.v.
WARNING:Xst:737 - Found 8-bit latch for signal <OutputByte>.
Found 8 1-bit 2-to-1 multiplexers.
Summary:
Unit <DataMux> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <Serializer>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/Serializer.v.
Found finite state machine <FSM_2> for signal <i>.
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
| States |8 |
| Transitions |8 |
| Inputs |0 |
| Outputs |8 |
| Clock | BitClk (rising_edge) |
| Clock enable | SerialEna (positive) |
| Reset State | 00000001 |
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
Found 1-bit register for signal <ByteClk>.
Found 1-bit register for signal <SOut>.
Summary:
57
Unit <Serializer> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <DataLenCountet>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/DataLenCountet.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <DCntOver>.
Found 12-bit comparator equal for signal <$n0006> created at line 36.
Found 12-bit register for signal <Count>.
Summary:
Unit <DataLenCountet> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <crc16bit>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/crc16bit.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <Crc16Out>.
Found 1-bit register for signal <HecOver>.
Found 32-bit comparator greatequal for signal <$n0012> created at line 68.
Found 16-bit register for signal <Reg>.
Found 1-bit xor2 for signal <w1>.
Summary:
58
Unit <crc16bit> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <crc32bit>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/crc32bit.v.
Found 1-bit register for signal <CrcOver>.
Found 1-bit register for signal <Crc32Out>.
Found 32-bit comparator greatequal for signal <$n0012> created at line 96.
Found 32-bit register for signal <Reg>.
Summary:
59
Unit <crc32bit> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <SMux>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/SMux.v.
Found 1-bit tristate buffer for signal <TxD>.
Summary:
inferred 1 Tristate(s).
Unit <SMux> synthesized.
Synthesizing Unit <wifi>.

Related source file is C:/Xilinx/bin/Wifi/wifi.v.
Unit <wifi> synthesized.
==================================================================
=======
HDL Synthesis Report
Macro Statistics
# FSMs :3
# Registers : 95
8-bit register : 10
3-bit register :3
48-bit register :4
7-bit register :4
1-bit register : 65
12-bit register :1
32-bit register :2
4-bit register :1
64-bit register :1
16-bit register :3
6-bit register :1
60
# Latches :1
8-bit latch :1
# Counters :1
3-bit up counter :1
# Multiplexers :4
1-bit 16-to-1 multiplexer :1
2-to-1 multiplexer :1
# Tristates :1
1-bit tristate buffer :1
# Adders/Subtractors :4
4-bit adder :1
12-bit adder :1
32-bit adder :2
# Comparators :6
4-bit comparator less :1
12-bit comparator equal :1
32-bit comparator less :2
32-bit comparator greatequal :2
# Xors : 17
1-bit xor2 : 17
==================================================================
=======
* Low Level Synthesis *
61
==================================================================
=======
Optimizing unit <wifi> ...
Optimizing unit <crc32bit> ...
Optimizing unit <crc16bit> ...
Optimizing unit <DataLenCountet> ...
Optimizing unit <Serializer> ...
Optimizing unit <StateMachine> ...
Optimizing unit <DWtoByte> ...
Optimizing unit <AddrReg1> ...
Optimizing unit <AddrReg4> ...
Optimizing unit <SeqCntrl> ...
Optimizing unit <DID> ...
Optimizing unit <FrameCntrl> ...
Optimizing unit <DataMux> ...
Optimizing unit <SyncGen> ...
Optimizing unit <PLCPHeaderReg> ...

Loading device for application Xst from file '3s50.nph' in environment C:/Xilinx.
62
Mapping all equations...
Building and optimizing final netlist ...
Annotating constraints using XCF file 'C:\Xilinx\ISEexamples\template.xcf'
XCF parsing done.
Found area constraint ratio of 100 (+ 5) on block wifi, actual ratio is 27.
==================================================================
=======
* Final Report *
==================================================================
=======
Final Results
RTL Top Level Output File Name : wifi.ngr
Top Level Output File Name : wifi
Output Format : NGC
Optimization Goal : Area
Keep Hierarchy : NO
Design Statistics
# IOs : 358
Macro Statistics :
# Registers : 96
# 1-bit register : 65
# 12-bit register :1
# 3-bit register :4
# 4-bit register :1
# 6-bit register :1
# 7-bit register :4
# 8-bit register : 10
63
# Multiplexers :4
# 1-bit 16-to-1 multiplexer: 1
# 1-bit 32-to-1 multiplexer: 1
# 2-to-1 multiplexer :1
# 8-bit 8-to-1 multiplexer : 1
# Tristates :1
# 1-bit tristate buffer :1
# Adders/Subtractors :3
# 12-bit adder :1
# 32-bit adder :2
# Comparators :6
# 12-bit comparator equal : 1
# 32-bit comparator greatequal: 2
# 32-bit comparator less :2
# 4-bit comparator less :1
Cell Usage :
# BELS : 569
# GND :1
# LUT1 : 91
# LUT2 : 91
# LUT3 : 72
# LUT4 : 86
# MUXCY : 131
# MUXF5 : 13
# MUXF6 :6
# MUXF7 :3
# MUXF8 :1
# VCC :1
# XORCY : 73
# FlipFlops/Latches : 217
# FDC : 18
# FDC_1 : 12
# FDCE : 29
64
# FDCE_1 : 64
# FDE : 40
# FDE_1 :4
# FDP_1 :1
# FDPE :1
# FDPE_1 : 48
# Clock Buffers :2
# BUFGP :2
# IO Buffers : 22
# IBUF : 21
# OBUFT :1
==================================================================
=======
Device utilization summary:

---------------------------
Selected Device : 3s50pq208-4
Number of Slices: 208 out of 768 27%

Number of Slice Flip Flops: 217 out of 1536 14%
Number of 4 input LUTs: 340 out of 1536 22%
Number of bonded IOBs: 22 out of 124 17%
Number of GCLKs: 2 out of 8 25%
==================================================================
=======
TIMING REPORT
NOTE: THESE TIMING NUMBERS ARE ONLY A SYNTHESIS ESTIMATE.

FOR ACCURATE TIMING INFORMATION PLEASE REFER TO THE TRACE
REPORT
GENERATED AFTER PLACE-and-ROUTE.
65
Clock Information:
------------------
-----------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
Clock Signal | Clock buffer(FF name) | Load |
-----------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
stop_ByteClk:Q | NONE | 85 |
BitClk | BUFGP | 126 |
SystemClk | BUFGP |6 |
-----------------------------------+------------------------+-------+
Timing Summary:
---------------
Speed Grade: -4
Minimum period: 13.416ns (Maximum Frequency: 74.538MHz)

Minimum input arrival time before clock: 5.891ns
Maximum output required time after clock: 10.515ns
Maximum combinational path delay: No path found
CPU : 40.30 / 42.51 s | Elapsed : 40.00 / 42.00 s

Total memory usage is 84948 kilobytes
66
4.7 RTL Schematic view
67
4.8 Internal view:
Placement and routing
Constraints file: wifi.pcf
68
Loading device database for application Par from file "wifi_map.ncd".
"wifi" is an NCD, version 2.38, device xc3s50, package pq208, speed -4
Loading device for application Par from file '3s50.nph' in environment
C:/Xilinx.
Device speed data version: PREVIEW 1.26 2003-06-19.
Device utilization summary:
Number of External IOBs 24 out of 124 19%

Number of LOCed External IOBs 0 out of 24 0%
Number of SLICELs 209 out of 768 27%

Number of SLICEMs 6 out of 384 1%
Number of BUFGMUXs 2 out of 8 25%
Overall effort level (-ol): Standard (set by user)

Placer effort level (-pl): Standard (set by user)
Placer cost table entry (-t): 1
Router effort level (-rl): Standard (set by user)
Phase 1.1
Phase 1.1 (Checksum:989c8b) REAL time: 3 secs
Phase 3.3
Phase 3.3 (Checksum:1c9c37d) REAL time: 3 secs
Phase 4.5
Phase 4.5 (Checksum:26259fc) REAL time: 3 secs
69
Phase 5.8
...................
Phase 5.8 (Checksum:9ba27a) REAL time: 3 secs
Phase 6.5
Phase 6.5 (Checksum:39386fa) REAL time: 3 secs
Phase 7.18
Phase 7.18 (Checksum:42c1d79) REAL time: 4 secs
Writing design to file wifi.ncd.
Total REAL time to Placer completion: 4 secs

Total CPU time to Placer completion: 2 secs
Phase 1: 1353 unrouted; REAL time: 4 secs
Total REAL time to Router completion: 5 secs

Total CPU time to Router completion: 3 secs
All signals are completely routed.
Total REAL time to PAR completion: 6 secs

Total CPU time to PAR completion: 4 secs
Peak Memory Usage: 52 MB
70
Placement: Completed - No errors found.
Routing: Completed - No errors found.
Writing design to file wifi.ncd.
PAR done.
Mapping report
Release 8.2i Map G.23
Xilinx Mapping Report File for Design 'wifi'
Design Information
------------------
Command Line : C:/Xilinx/bin/nt/map.exe -intstyle ise -p xc3s50-pq208-4 -cm
area -pr b -k 4 -c 100 -tx off -o wifi_map.ncd wifi.ngd wifi.pcf
Target Device : x3s50
Target Package : pq208
Target Speed : -4
Mapper Version : spartan3 -- $Revision: 1.16 $
Mapped Date : Tue May 28 03:29:25 2008
Design Summary
--------------
Number of errors: 0
Number of warnings: 0
Logic Utilization:
Number of Slice Flip Flops: 211 out of 1,536 13%
Number of 4 input LUTs: 264 out of 1,536 17%
Logic Distribution:
Number of occupied Slices: 215 out of 768 27%
Number of Slices containing only related logic: 215 out of 215 100%
Number of Slices containing unrelated logic: 0 out of 215 0%
*See NOTES below for an explanation of the effects of unrelated logic
Total Number 4 input LUTs: 338 out of 1,536 22%
Number used as logic: 264
Number used as a route-thru: 74
Number of bonded IOBs: 24 out of 124 19%
IOB Flip Flops: 6
71
Number of GCLKs: 2 out of 8 25%
Total equivalent gate count for design: 4,010
CHAPTER -5
The Future of Wi-Fi
5.1 Future enhancement:
Wi-Fi hotspots can be found almost anywhere, in any of the low-end motels that offer
"free" Wi-Fi.
One of the most highly anticipated technologies; mesh networking turns nearly any
wireless device into a router, creating an ad hoc network. Members of a network no longer
rely on a central routing hub to distribute data - instead, the information hops from one user's
gadget to another until it gets where it's going. Each connected cell phone, PDA, or laptop
pitches in a little routing power, forming a spontaneous, temporary wireless cooperative. The
advantages include cheaper service and wider coverage areas. Plus, proponents claim mesh
can send data at speeds above 6 Mbps - about 15 times faster than DSL.
Devices which can cross network standards seamlessly will become available soon,
and as part of the 4G standard. This will likely make integration of Wi-Fi with mobile
phones even more attractive as they can increase usability. The devices are fairly simple and
similar, but expect greater integration of Wi-Fi with many other devices as chipset prices fall
and battery technology improves.
The combination of 802.16a and 802.11 create a complete wireless solution for
delivering high speed Internet access to businesses, homes, Military applications and WiFi
hot spots.
As wi-fi is limited to wlan,The extension of wan and man can be possible by
combination of 802.11 &802.16,by this global communication is possible.wecan eliminate
black money, by providing plastic money. we can expect complete wireless network in
coming years.
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity (802.11 family of standards) for LAN. WiFi is designed for
local area networks, which are private, local (short range), but where competing cable
systems run at very high speeds. WiFi achieves greater than 10MBit/Sec throughput for a
72
user in many circumstances. Currently WiFi carries more user data than any other wireless
technology. Evolution is to go further, faster and at lower power consumption(2).
Upstart wireless LAN (WLAN) technologies under the 802.11 (Wi-Fi) umbrella have
leapfrogged towards cellular and other efforts edging towards broad band wireless (such as
802.16/WiMAX) and have led to the first wide spread, commercially successful broadband
wireless access technology. Infact, Wi-Fi is runaway success around the globe(5).
5.2 Advantages:
Mobility
Ease of Installation
Flexibility
Cost
Reliability
Security
Use unlicensed part of the radio spectrum
Roaming
Speed
5.3 limitations:
Interference
Degradation in performance
High power consumption
Limited range
73
CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION:
Satisfying the growing demand for BWA in underserved markets has been a
continuing challenge for service providers, due to the absence of a truly global standard. A
standard that would enable companies to build systems that will effectively reach
underserved business and residential markets in a manner that supports infrastructure build
outs comparable to cable,DSL, and fiber. For years, the wildly successful 802.11x or WiFi
wireless LAN technology has been used in BWA applications along with a host of proprietary
based solutions. When the WLAN technology was examined closely, it was evident that the
overall design and feature set available was not well suited for outdoor BWA applications. It
could be done, it is being done,but with limited capacity in terms of bandwidth and
subscribers, range and a host of other issues made it clear this approach while a great fit for
indoor WLAN was a poor fit for outdoor BWA.
The complex and fully developed standard would be required to address both the
physical layer environment (outdoor versus indoor RF transmissions) and the Quality of
Service (QoS) needs demanded by the BWA and last mile access market. Many WiMAX
company members are active in both the IEEE 802.16 standards development and the IEEE
802.11 efforts for Wireless LAN, and envision the combination of 802.16a and 802.11
creating a complete wireless solution for delivering high speed Internet access to businesses,
homes, and WiFi hot spots.
In reviewing the standard, the technical details and features that differentiate , the
distributed WiMAX and wi-fi network architecture can be significantly lighter and easier to
install than traditional cellular based network designs and can substantially reduce capital and
operational expenses. By leveraging standard IP network equipment, operators will be able to
deploy at greater speed and with reduced spend.
74
6.1 ACRONYMS:
ACK-- acknowledgment
AP -- access point
ATIM-- announcement traffic indication message
ATM-- automatic teller machine
ATDM-- Asynchronous time division multiplexing\
BSS-- basic service set
BS -- Base station
BPDU-- bridge protocol data unit
BIA-- burned in addressing
BWA--broad band wireless access
CRC-- cyclic redundancy code
CSMA/CA-- Carrier sense multiple access with collision avoidance
CSMA/CD-- Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
CD-- collision detection
CTS-- clear to send
CF -- contention free
DA -- destination address
DS-- distribution system
DLL-- data link layer
DSL-- Digital subscriber line
DSSS -- Direct sequence spread spectrum
FDM-- Frequency division multiplex
FIFO-- first in first out
75
HEC-- Hexa decimal
IEEE -- Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IP-- Internet Protocol
IOB-- Input output block
LLC-- logical link control
LAN-- Local area network
LUT-- look up table
MAN -- Metropolitan area network
MAC-- medium access control
MSDU -- MAC service data unit
NLOS-- Non line of sight
OSI-- Open System Interconnection
OFDM -- Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing
OFDMA -- Orthogonal frequency division-multiple access
P2P -- Point-to-point
P2MP -- Point-to-multi-point
PHY -- Physical layer
PLCP -- physical layer convergence protocol
PLCP_PDU-- physical layer convergence protocol and protocol data unit
PSDU-- PLCP SDU
PS -- power save (mode)
QOS -- Quality of service
RF -- Radio frequency
RA -- receiver address
RTS-- request to send
RX-- receive or receiver
RAM-- random acess memory
ROM-- read only memory
SA -- source address
SFD-- start frame delimiter
SNA-- System network architecture
SSAP -- source service access point
SAP-- service access point
TXE-- transmit enable
76
TA-- transmitter address
VOIP -- Voice over Internet Protocol
WI-FI-- Wireless fidelity. when referring to any type of 802.11 network.
WIMAX -- Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
WEP -- wired equivalent privacy
WWAN -- Wireless wide area networks
WMAN -- Wireless metropolitan area network
WISPS-- Wireless Internet service provider
3GPP -- Third Generation Partnership Project
77
CHAPTER 7
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1) Computer networks Andrews Tenanunbaum
2) Data communications Forouzan
3) VHDL Nawabi
4) Digital Signal Processing SKMitra
5) www.Wifi.com
6) www.cisco.com
7) www.xilinix.com
8) www.ieee.org
9) www.wimaxforum.org
78
Design Specification
Behavioral Description
RTL description (VHDL)
APPENDIX 1
VLSI Design Flow: Functional Verifying &testing
Logic Synthesis
Gate level
Logic Verification& testing
Flour Planning Automatic Planning &

Routing
79
Physical Layout
FIGURE: Design flow of VLSI
1. Design Specification:
The first step in high level design flow is the design specification process. This process
involves specifying the behavior expected of the final design. The specifications specify the
expected function and behavior of the design using textual description and graphic element.
2. Behavioral Description:
Behavioral description is created to analyze the functionality and algorithm and then
framed and its performance and compliance to standard is verified.
3. RTL Description (VHDL):
Once the algorithm is scrutinized, the code is written keeping in mind the functionality
& its ability to be synchronized, the RTL description can be written in Gate level, Data flow
or behavioral levels. A standard VHDL simulator can be used to read the RTL description and
verify the correctness of the design.
4. Functional Verifying & Testing:
80
The VHDL simulator reads VHDL description compiles it in to an internal format, and
then executes the compiled format using test vectors, after compilation if any syntax errors
are there they has to be removed and recompiled. After analyzing the results of the simulation
stimulus for the design has to be added. This may be file of input (or) the file output stimulus
design using waveform editor the respective output waveform are to be observed to test the
functionality of the design.
5. Logic Synthesis:
Once the code is validated to implement the design process VHDL synthesis tool are
used. The goal of the VHDL synthesis step is to create a design that implements the required
functionality and constraints provided. Logic synthesis tool convert the given RTL code in to
Optimized Gate level net list.
6. Gate level:
A gate level net list is the description of the design (circuit) in terms of the Gates and
connections between them. Gate level is an input to automatic place and route tool.
7. Logic Verification &Testing:
The VHDL synthesis tool report syntax & synthesis errors. It gives errors & warnings.
If it founds mismatches between RTL Simulation results & output net list simulation results.
If it is error free the next step is to map the design.
8. Flour Planning, Automatic Placing and Routing:
Place and route tools are used to take the design net list and implement the design to
the target technology device.
9. Physical Layout:
In this each component or primitive from the net list are placed on the target device
according to the design or architecture.
APPENDIX-2
INTRODUCTION TO VHDL
1. VHDL DESCRIPTION:
VHDL stands for VHSIC Hardware Description Language, where VHSIC stands for
Very High Speed Integrated Circuit. Like the name implies, VHDL is a language for
81
describing the behavior of digital hardware. VHDL is just another way of describing what
outputs of a digital circuit are desired when it is given certain inputs. The critical difference
between VHDL and these other languages are that it can be readily interpreted by software,
enabling the computer to accomplish your design work for you.
As the size and complexity of digital systems increase, more computers aided design
tools are introduced into the hardware design process. The early paper-and-pencil design
methods have given way to sophisticated design entry, verification, and automatic hardware
generation tools. The newest addition to this design methodology is the hardware description
languages (HDL). Although the concept of HLDs is not new, their widespread use in digital
system design is no more than a decade old. Based on HDLs, new digital system CAD tools
have been developed and are now being utilized by hardware designers.
2. VHDL History:
In 1980 the US government developed the Very High Speed Integrated Circuit
(VHSIC) project to enhance the electronic design process, technology, and procurement,
spawning development of many advanced integrated circuit (IC) process technologies. This
was followed by the arrival of VHSIC Hardware Description Language (VHDL).
3. Use OF VHDL
There are many reasons why it makes good design sense to use VHDL:
i Portability:
Technology changes so quickly in the digital industry that discrete digital devices
require constant rework in order to remain current. VHDL is designed to be device-
independent, meaning that if you describe your circuit in VHDL, as opposed to designing it
with discrete devices, changing hardware becomes a (relatively) trivial process.
ii Flexibility:
82
Most working engineers can recall a situation where they felt frustrated with their
customer, supervisor, or team members because the design specification that they were
working with was constantly changing. Sometimes these changes can't be helped. Design
work is usually focused on creating small, easily maintainable components and then
integrating these components into a larger device. On larger projects different teams of
engineers will each design separate parts of the project at the same time. This can mean that if
one component in the project changes, all of the components must change, even those being
worked on by other engineering teams. Suppose you were told to design a simple counter that
set an output bit after it had counted to 100. However, the software engineer working on this
project discovered that the entire design could be radically simplified if your counter could
count down from 300 instead of up to 100. If you had implemented your design in discrete
circuits, you'd have to start over from scratch. But, if you'd designed using VHDL, all you'd
have to do is change your code.
VHDL Features:
General features:
VHDL can be used for design documentation, high level design, simulation,
synthesis, and testing of hardware and as a driver for a physical design tool.
Concurrency:
In VHDL the transfer statements, descriptions of components, and instantiations of
gates or logical units can all be executed such that in the end they appear to have been executed
simultaneously
.
Support for design hierarchy:

In VHDL the operation of a system can be specified based on its functionality, or it
can be specified structurally in terms of its smaller subcomponents.
Library support:
User and system defined primitives and descriptions reside in the library system.
VHDL provides a mechanism for accessing various libraries. Moreover different designers can
access these libraries.
Sequential statement:
83
VHDL provides mechanism for executing sequential statements. These statements
provide an easy method. For modeling hardware components based on their functionality.
Type declaration and usage:
VHDL is not limited to just bit or Boolean types, but it also supports integer, floating-
point, enumerated types and user-defined types. In addition, VHDL also allows array-type
declarations and composite-type definitions.
Use of subprograms:
VHDL allows the use of functions and procedures which can be used in type
conversions, logic unit definitions, operator redefinitions, new operation definitions, and other
applications.
Timing control:
VHDL allows the designer to schedule values to signals and delay the actual
assignment of values until a later time. It also allows the use of any number of explicitly defined
clock signals. It provides features for edge detection, delay specification, setup and hold time
specification, pulse width checking, and setting various time constraints.
Structural specification:
VHDL allows the designer to describe a generic 1-bit design and use it when
describing multi bit regular structures in one or more dimensions.
Advantages of VHDL:
VHDL offers the following advantages for digital design:
Standard:
VHDL is an EKE standard. Just like any standard (such as graphics X- window
standard, bus communication interface standard, high-level programming languages, and so on),
it reduces confusion and makes interfaces between tools, companies, and products easier. Any
development to the standard would have better chances of lasting longer and have less chance of
becoming obsolete due to incompatibility with others.
84
Government support:
VHDL is a result of the VHSIC program; hence, it is clear that the US government
supports the VHDL standard for electronic procurement. The Department of Defense (DOD)
requires contractors to supply VHDL for all Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)
designs.
Industry support:
With the advent of more powerful and efficient VHDL tools has come the growing
support of the electronic industry. Companies use VHDL tools not only with regard to defense
contracts, but also for their commercial designs.
Portability:
The same VHDL code can be simulated and used in many design tools and at different
stages of the design process. This reduces dependency on a set of design tools whose limited
capability may not be competitive in later markets. The VHDL standard also transforms design
data much easier than a design database of a proprietary design tool.
Modeling capability:
VHDL was developed to model all levels of designs, from electronic boxes to
transistors. VHDL can accommodate behavioral constructs and mathematical routines that
describe complex models, such as queuing networks and analog circuits. It allows use of
multiple architectures and associates with the same design during various stages of the design
process. VHDL can describe low-level transistors up to very large systems.
Reusability:
Certain common designs can be described, verified, and modified slightly in VHDL
for future use.
This eliminates reading and marking changes to schematic pages, which is time
consuming and subject to error. For example, a parameterized multiplier VHDL code can be
reused easily by changing the width parameter so that the same VHDL code can do either 16 by
16 or 12 by 8 multiplications.
Technology and foundry independence:
The functionality and behavior of the design can be described with VHDL and
verified, making it foundry and technology independent. This frees the designer to proceed
without having to wait for the foundry and technology to be selected.
Documentation:
85
. The combining of comments and the code that actually dictates what the design
should do reduces the ambiguity between specification and implementation.
New design methodology:
Using VHDL and synthesis creates a new methodology that increases the design
productivity, shortens the design cycle, and lowers costs. It amounts to a revolution comparable
to that introduced by the automatic semi-custom layout synthesis tools of the last few years.
Synthesis, in the domain of digital design, is a process of translation and optimization. For
example, layout synthesis is a process of taking a design netlist and translating it into a form of
data that facilitates placement and routing, resulting in optimizing timing and/or chip size. Logic
synthesis, on the other hand, is the process of taking a form of input (VHDL), translating it into a
form (Boolean equations and synthesis tool specific), and then optimizing in terms of
propagation delay and/or area. After the VHDL code is translated into an internal form, the
optimization process can be performed based on constraints such as speed, area, power.
86
87

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CHAPTER-1

INTRODUCTION TO WIRELESS TECHNOLOGY

An increasing number of government agencies, businesses, and home users are

Wireless technologies, in the simplest sense, enable one or more devices to

1.2. Wireless Networks:

1.3 Inter network:

1.4 History of Internetworking:

1.7 OSI Model and Communication between Systems:

Figure 2: OSI Model Layers Communicate with Other Layers

Figure 3: The service provider

1.8.1 OSI Model Physical Layer:

1.8.2 OSI Model Data Link Layer:

1.8.3 OSI Model Network Layer:

1.8.4 OSI Model Transport Layer:

1.8.5 OSI Model Session Layer

1.8.6 OSI Model Presentation Layer

1.9 Information formats

Data link layer Upper layer data Data link layer

Figure 6: Data from Upper-Layer Entities Makes Up the Data

1.9.1 Link Layer Frame

Network layer Upper layer data network layer

Figure 7: Three Basic Components Make up a Network Layer Packet

Figure 8: Two Components Make Up a Typical Cell

1.11 Internet Work Addressing

Figure 9: Each Interface on a Device Is Uniquely Identified by a

1.11.2 MAC Addresses:

Figure 11: The MAC Address Contains a Unique Format of Hexadecimal

Figure 12: Hierarchical and Flat Address Spaces Differ in Comparison

1.12.1 Address Assignments

1.13 Error-Checking Basics

Figure 13: Multiple Applications Can Be Multiplexed into a Single Lower-

Figure 14: Multiple Devices Can Be Multiplexed into a Single Physical

Figure 15: typical 802.11 LAN

802.2 Data link

2.2 MAC techniques

2.2.1 MAC retransmissions

If after sending a packet the transmitter doesn't receive an acknowledgement, it knows

These acknowledgements are very different from the TCP acknowledgement,

Figure17: M AC retransmissions in CSMA/CA

Figure18: RTS/CTS and hidden nodes in CSMA/CA

2.4 Specific Parts:

Standard 802.11b 802.11a 802.11g

Table 1: Comparisons between Different Technologies:

2.4.2 Wi-Fi Cards

Figure20: USB versions of WI-FI cards

Figure21: different kinds of routers

2.8 Function of the Working Parts

General MAC Frame format:

The Frame Control Field consists of the following subfields:

Type and Subtype Fields:

10 Data 0100 CF-POLL

Table 2: Valid type and subtype fields:

Fragment number Sequence number

3.4.1 FIFO Module:

Figure23: FIFO module

Figure24: Data length counter module

Srena Serilizer Eoc

FIGURE25: serialize module

Figure26: HEC module

3.5.3 CRC module:

Figure27: CRC module

3.6 DATA FLOW DIAGRAM

Figure28: Data flow diagram

3.6.3 Design flow of xilinx ise 9.2 i: